Ethics and Academic Integrity: Lessons from Plato’s Protagoras

Abstract

Ethics has become an integral part of the academic world. Nearly all academic institutions develop ethics policies that typically outline how individuals should behave. Universities encourage all stakeholders to act with ethics and integrity. The central issue discussed in this paper is whether ethics and integrity can be taught. Members of the academic community are expected to conduct their activities in accordance with good ethical practices and the highest standards of integrity. Guidelines are established to instruct members of the academic world on ethical behavior. However, these guidelines fall short of aiming to teach individuals how to become virtuous—people with ethos. The focus is often on enforcing ethics and academic integrity through punitive measures rather than teaching how to cultivate virtue. This raises the question: is it possible to teach virtuousness and ethos? This inquiry takes us back to 432 BCE in Athens, where a debate took place between two men of knowledge—what we would today call academic teachers and researchers. One argued that virtue could be taught (and he was the best person to teach it, for a fee), while the other maintained that students can learn sciences and arts but not ethos. This debate, later documented by Plato, is now known as Plato’s Protagoras. In this paper, I discuss this dialogue and apply its ideas to today's academic world. While this is the main issue addressed, several related topics are also explored, including (a) the organization of the educational system in Ancient Athens, (b) its purpose, (c) the etymology and definitions of ethos, virtue (ἀρετή), pedagogy (and the distinction between pedagogue and educator), sophism (sophists), rhetoric (rhetoricians), and philosophy (philosophers), and (d) the stakeholders in education. I conclude with the implications of these discussions for ethics and academic integrity in modern-day educational institutions.

Full text

Athens Journal of Humanities & Arts 2025, 12: 1-21
hps://doi.org/10.30958/ajha.X-Y-Z
1
Ethics and Academic Integrity:
Lessons from Plato’s Protagoras
By Gregory T. Papanikos*
Ethics has become an integral part of the academic world. Nearly all academic
institutions develop ethics policies that typically outline how individuals should
behave. Universities encourage all stakeholders to act with ethics and integrity. The
central issue discussed in this paper is whether ethics and integrity can be taught.
Members of the academic community are expected to conduct their activities in
accordance with good ethical practices and the highest standards of integrity. Guidelines
are established to instruct members of the academic world on ethical behavior.
However, these guidelines fall short of aiming to teach individuals how to become
virtuous—people with ethos. The focus is often on enforcing ethics and academic
integrity through punitive measures rather than teaching how to cultivate virtue.
This raises the question: is it possible to teach virtuousness and ethos? This inquiry
takes us back to 432 BCE in Athens, where a debate took place between two men of
knowledge—what we would today call academic teachers and researchers. One argued
that virtue could be taught (and he was the best person to teach it, for a fee), while the
other maintained that students can learn sciences and arts but not ethos. This debate,
later documented by Plato, is now known as Plato’s Protagoras. In this paper, I
discuss this dialogue and apply its ideas to today's academic world. While this is the
main issue addressed, several related topics are also explored, including (a) the
organization of the educational system in Ancient Athens, (b) its purpose, (c) the
etymology and definitions of ethos, virtue (ἀρετή), pedagogy (and the distinction
between pedagogue and educator), sophism (sophists), rhetoric (rhetoricians), and
philosophy (philosophers), and (d) the stakeholders in education. I conclude with the
implications of these discussions for ethics and academic integrity in modern-day
educational institutions.
Keywords: Ethics, Virtue, Academics, Education, Plato, Socrates, Protagoras, Ancient
Athens
Introduction
The academic world consists of various people and institutions—students,
parents, professors, researchers, administrators, funders, donors, publishers, and
society at large—who engage in studying, teaching, researching, administering,
managing, publishing, advising, and more. These individuals and groups are
*President, The Athens Institute, Greece and Professor, MLC Ljubljana, Slovenia. The author
has previously taught in various Canadian, Greek and U.K. Universities.

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commonly considered the stakeholders of the academic world. Regardless of how
much they enjoy their work, many participate because they earn money from it,
either currently or with the expectation of future compensation. I have yet to meet
anyone in academia who is not motivated, at least in part, by financial
compensation—whether through salaries, grants, or fees—either paid now or
anticipated later. Equally important are the so-called fringe benefits, as being part
of the academic world provides a certain level of power, which can be abused.
Money and fringe benefits create a strong pecuniary incentive for some
members of the academic world to behave unethically. At this stage in the paper, I
leave terms like ethos, virtue, and integrity undefined, as I will clarify these at the
end of the paper. However, I will illustrate with a few examples. Professors may
ask students for money (or, worse, perform sexual favors) in exchange for a passing
grade. The reverse is also true: students may offer money or other incentives to pass
a course. Researchers might falsify data to produce publishable results or conduct
research tailored to please funders—such as governments, nonprofit organizations,
or corporations. These are typical examples of academic misconduct, demonstrating
a lack of integrity in the academic world. Of lesser concern is when some professors
teach personal opinions and ideologies unrelated to the subject matter in the
classroom, a tendency that often extends to their writing, which may amount to
sheer propaganda or misinformation.
Many people mistakenly expect academics to behave ethically simply because
they are educated, assuming that educated individuals—especially those who
teach the youth and are regarded as the peak of the educated class—are more
ethical than those without formal education. Since we do not have data on
individuals’ morality, we cannot verify this hypothesis. Data on ethical or unethical
behavior are neither sufficient nor necessary to determine the ethos of an academic,
as will be discussed further below. However, if we consider crime to be immoral
(e.g., violating human laws as determined by democratic courts), we know that
education alone is insufficient to make people ethical. It is true, though, that
educated people tend to commit different types of crimes than the uneducated. The
literature on crime distinguishes these as white-collar and blue-collar crimes, a
substantial field that is beyond the scope of this paper.
Ethical behavior encompasses much more than criminal behavior, though it
includes it. Academic integrity—or academic morality or academic ethos—refers
to more than simply violating state laws or a university’s regulations and policies.
The discussion on academic integrity is broader and relates to ideals such as virtue,
honesty, truth, prudence, wisdom, empathy, sympathy, and bravery.
1
Within this
1
. There is extensive literature on the topic of morality. Moral philosophers have
discussed moral and ethical issues since antiquity. One of the most significant issues
addressed since Hesiodic times, especially by Herodotus, is the question of relativism and
subjectivism. The argument is that moral behavior is relative to historical period and society.
These comparisons were made by Herodotus in Histories, written in the 5th century BCE.
Cultural differences are considered as being very important in determining what is wrong

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context, I discuss the ethos and integrity of the academic world in this paper using
Plato’s Protagoras, a dialogue between Socrates and the well-known sophist
Protagoras (Figure 1). The debate centers on whether virtue can be taught.
Protagoras asserts that it can, while Socrates argues that it cannot because no one
is truly capable of teaching it.
Figure 1. Protagoras and Socrates
Protagoras (c.490-c.420)
Socrates (469-399)
Source: https://iep.utm.edu/protagor/
Source: https://iep.utm.edu/socrates/
This dialogue took place in 432 BCE, just before the Peloponnesian War,
during the height of Athens' glory—often referred to as the Golden Age of Ancient
Athens. At this time, Athens was considered the center of the known world, as
Pericles proudly claimed in his "Funeral Oration" in 431 BCE, recorded by
Thucydides in The Peloponnesian War. Protagoras traveled between cities, delivering
lectures for which many paid high fees to learn how to become virtuous
individuals—people with both virtue (ἀρετή) and ethos (ἦθος). I define virtue and
ethos later in this paper.
In Plato’s Dialogue Meno (91d), Socrates sharply criticizes Protagoras, who had
been teaching for 40 years and earning a great deal of money—more than the
famous sculptor Pheidias—while corrupting the youth by making them worse.
Socrates’ dialogue with Meno, a Thessalian political figure from a wealthy family
and a student of the sophist Gorgias, took place about 30 years later (in 403 or 402
BCE), after Protagoras had already died.
This paper examines Plato’s Protagoras dialogue and applies its insights to the
contemporary issue of academic integrity. The discussion is organized into seven
sections, beginning with this introduction. The second section provides an
and what is right and is developed from childhood; see Miller & Collette (2022). What is
missing from these is the concept of love which becomes the central tenet of ethics in
Christianity; see O’Meara (2023).

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overview of the educational system in ancient Athens, where the stated aim at all
levels of education was to teach ethos and cultivate virtue—at least in theory.
Socrates challenges this view, as discussed in the third section. The fourth section
explores two conflicting hypotheses and the arguments supporting each, as
developed in the dialogue. The fifth section defines the term "virtue," which, as it
turns out, comprises five parts, adding complexity. The sixth section establishes
three rules that define academic integrity as guided by ethical behavior. The final
section presents the conclusion.
The Educational System of Ancient Athens
Plato’s Protagoras provides a detailed description of the educational system in
ancient Athens, as summarized in Table 1. According to the dialogue, only wealthy
families could afford to educate their children. The educational process consisted
of five stages, similar to the structure of modern education in Athens and many
other countries worldwide. However, the key difference is that today’s education
is compulsory for both sexes up to the age of 15 (grade 9), with both academic and
vocational education now more formalized and institutionalized.
Table 1. The Education System of Ancient Athens
Type
Preschool
Basic School
Education
Army
On the Job
Training to
learn a trade
(techne)
Academic
Education
Age
0-6
7-17
18-19
Adult life:
Poor
Families
Adult life:
Rich Families
Instructors
parents, a
pedagogue
and a nanny
Grammarian
Musicians
Gymnast
Military
Service only
for Males
Trainers
Rhetoricians
Sophists
Philosophers
Infrastructure
House (oikos)
Private
Schools and
Gyms
Military
barracks
Workshops
Rich Houses
& Academic
Schools
Purpose
Learn read
and write.
Learn what is
good and
what is bad.
Develop
mind (soul?)
and body.
Courses
Grammar,
Gymnastics
& Music
(guitar, lyre)
Learn about
the city of
Athens and
citizens’
obligations
Learn a
trade to earn
a livelihood
Learn how to
be a good
citizen with
ethos and
virtue and/or
learn the
political art
(techne)
Source: Author based on Plato’s Protagoras.
All family members, both young and old, lived together in the same house
(Image 1). The family (Figure 2 and Image 2a) held a central role in ancient Athenian
society, much as it does today. It was the family’s responsibility to provide

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education for both boys and girls. Initially, the parents (father and mother) were
responsible for educating their children—both male and female—with assistance
from a pedagogue
2
and a nanny (τροφός).
The wife managed the household and raised the children (Figure 2, Image 2b).
She had a special room called the women’s quarters (γυναικωνίτης) (Figure 2,
Image 2c), where the women of the household worked and taught the young girls
household management skills, along with basic grammar, music, and dance
(Figure 2, Image 2d).
Image 1. A House of a Rich Family in Ancient Athens
Source: http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/html/8547/2174/istoria_d-dimotikouhtml-empl/ind
ex3_22.html
Around the age of seven, boys began attending school, accompanied by a
pedagogue. At school, they learned to read and write, practiced a musical
instrument, and engaged in gymnastics to strengthen their bodies. Three types of
teachers were responsible for this education: a grammatist (γραμματιστής) for
reading and writing, a music teacher (κιθαριστής), and a gym teacher (παιδοτρίβης).
Figure 3 depicts two scenes from a school: in one, a teacher instructs a student
on a musical instrument (a harp in the left image and a flute in the right image),
while other teachers teach reading (left image) and writing (right image). Figure 4
shows a scene from a gymnasium, where two teachers are training the youth.
One of the greatest achievements of ancient Athens was its beautiful
architecture, remnants of which still stand proudly atop and around the Acropolis
hill even after 2,500 years. While many of these structures have not survived the
passage of time, others were destroyed by various invaders. In relation to
2
. A pedagogue differs from an educator (or teacher) in the modern sense of the word.
Etymologically, 'pedagogue' derives from the Greek words παιδεία (paideia, meaning
'education' or 'child-rearing') and ἀγωγή (meaning 'guidance' or 'leading'). Thus, a pedagogue
not only assists the student in learning but also guides them in ethical behavior.

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education, Figure 5 shows an entire building dedicated to gymnastics, whereas
Figure 4 depicts just a single room within it.
Figure 2. Images from Inside a Rich Athenian House (Οἶκος)
Image 2a. Family
Image 2b. Babies
Source: https://shorturl.at/oeB0b
Source: https://shorturl.at/0EoNK
Image 2c. Women’s Quarter
Image 2d. Dancing
Source: https://shorturl.at/0EoNK
Source: https://shorturl.at/0EoNK
Figure 3. Scenes from a School to Learn Grammar and Music
Image 3a. Scene I
Image 3a. Scene II
Source: https://users.sch.gr/ipap/Ellinikos%20Politismos/Yliko/Theoria%20arxaia/metafraseis%20a%20gym/a02xm.htm
Figure 5 presents a floor plan of an ancient Greek gymnasium. The central area
of the gymnasium is a square space surrounded by columns that form porticoes on
all four sides. Around these colonnades are rooms with various functions. The
rooms on the left side are labeled "philosophers' rooms" and were likely used for

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academic discussions. To the right of the gymnasium are rooms designated for
activities such as youth training, a room with training bags, and baths. On the far-
right side of the gymnasium lies the stadium, while the remaining area is covered
with trees.
Figure 4. A Scene from a Gymnasium (Palaestra)
Source: https://users.sch.gr/ipap/Ellinikos%20Politismos/Yliko/Theoria%20arxaia/metafra seis%20a%20gym/a02xm.htm
Figure 5. The Floor Plan of an Ancient Gymnasium (Palaestra)
Source: http://photodentro.edu.gr/aggregator/lo/photodentro-aggregatedcontent-8526-4089

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Of course, most Athenian families could not afford to send their children to
school due to two main costs. The first was the direct expense of paying teachers.
The second was the opportunity cost of attending school, as most children had to
work to support the family income and therefore lacked the time for formal
schooling. In fact, the etymology of the word “school” (σχολείο) originally meant
“leisure” or “free time.” Only those who did not need to work for a living could
attend school, at least up to the level of academic education. Interestingly, the
modern Greek word for “work” (δουλεύω) shares its root with the word for “slave”
(δούλος).
In ancient Athens, the economy was predominantly agrarian. While Athens
produced a few agricultural products, herding was rare. Another significant
component of the Athenian economy was craftsmanship and trade, with mining
also playing a crucial role. Xenophon’s Oeconomicus (401 BCE) offers an excellent
overview of the Athenian economy at the end of its golden age. Figure 6 illustrates
various professions from ancient Athens.
Among the professions depicted in Figure 6 are those from Socrates’ time.
Interestingly, Socrates' mother was a midwife, a profession many believe inspired
his development of the dialectic, also known as the maieutic method. One of
Socrates’ teachers was a female philosopher named Diotima, mentioned in Plato’s
Symposium. Socrates was well-known for his belief in gender equality, asserting
that if given the same education and training, women could achieve the same
accomplishments as men. His father was a sculptor, and although Socrates did not
have to work, he served in the Athenian army, fighting in three wars between 431
and 422 BCE. He earned a reputation for bravery in battle and was considered a
model citizen. Notably, he refused to escape from prison to avoid his death
sentence, strongly arguing that society cannot function without its citizens obeying
the law.
Athens was home to many artisans who worked in small workshops. Like
today, these artisans were concentrated in specific areas, often with open-front
shops so that potential customers could see them and their products. One famous
district in ancient Athens, which still exists in downtown Athens today, was
Kerameikos, an area known for its potters who produced ceramics.
All young men reaching adulthood were required to serve the city as soldiers
for two years. The first year was spent in a barracks where, under the guidance of
city officials (a deacon and ten jailers), they practiced discipline and learned the
city’s traditions. During the second year of their military service, they served as
border guards. At the end of their service, they took an oath pledging their devotion
to the gods and the city’s welfare.
After completing their military service, they began a new life as free citizens
with many rights and obligations. The wealthiest Athenians could spend their free
time pursuing what we would today call academic education.

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Figure 6. Examples of Ancient Athenian Professions and Trades
Marble Crafter
pottery
workshop
shoe craft shop
Shoe-maker
Sandal Maker
Spinner
Dyer
Loom-wrokers
Carpenter
Miners
Fisherman
Fishmonger
Hunters
Butcher
Metal
Workers
Farmer
Pickers of
Olives
Merchant
Barber
Water
Carriers
Midwife
Medical Doctor
Perfumer
Metallurgy
Dyer
Sources:
1. https://users.sch.gr/ipap/Ellinikos%20Politismos/Yliko/Theoria%20arxaia/metafraseis%
20a%20gym/a03xm.htm
2. https://anaskafh.arsakeio.gr/stadia-zwhs-sthn-arxaia-ellada/
3. http://ebooks.edu.gr/ebooks/v/html/8547/2290/Istoria_A-Gymnasiou_html-
empl/index_05_05.html
4. https://www.ime.gr/chronos/05/gr/society/craft_workshops.html

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The final level of education in ancient Athens corresponded to what we would
consider a university education today. There were two main types of institutions
offering this level of education. The first type consisted of formal schools, the most
famous being Plato's Academy (Figure 7) and Aristotle's Lyceum (Figure 8), which
operated for nearly a thousand years.
Figure 7. Plato’s Academy
Then
… and Now
Figure 8. Aristotle’s Lyceum
Then
… and Now
The second type of advanced education took place in symposiums, gatherings
hosted by wealthy men in their homes. These gatherings were held in large rooms
with seating arrangements similar to those depicted in Figure 9. The dialogue
examined in this paper occurred during a symposium hosted at the home of
Kallias, a wealthy Athenian.
From the above analysis, it is clear that there was a significant distinction
between rich and poor families in ancient Athens. The sons of very wealthy families
were educated to serve as politicians, as some, like Protagoras, believed that virtue
could be taught. In contrast, most Athenian citizens, who were not wealthy,
pursued other paths, such as trade.

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Figure 9. The Seating in a Symposium
Source: Sykoutris (1976, p. 31*).
In ancient Athens, there was also a clear distinction between episteme and
techne, as highlighted in Plato’s Protagoras. Techne referred to craft or art, which
was learned through practice, while episteme referred to theoretical knowledge.
The Purpose of Academic Education in Ancient Athens
In the dialogue, it becomes evident that the purpose of education at all levels
extends beyond learning to read and write; it is also to discern between what is
good and what is bad. Protagoras, in a compelling speech, outlines this purpose of
education. Here, I present the original text along with my English translation,
assisted by Artificial Intelligence (AI) (325c-326e):
They start when their children are young
and, as long as they are in life, they teach
and advise them. From the very moment
that the child understands what is said to
him, both the nanny and the mother and the
teacher, even [325d] and the father, strive for
this: in what way will the child become
better; thus, over every act and reason they
teach him and explain to him that one is just,
the other unjust, the one beautiful, the other
ugly, the one honest, the other dishonest —
and the first to do, the second not to do. And
if the child obeys of his own free will, it goes
well; otherwise, like a crooked and crooked
rod, they beat him with sticks. Later they
send him to the teacher, who bids him to
pay much more attention [325e] so the child
ἐκ παίδων σμικρῶν ἀρξάμενοι, μέχρι
οὗπερ ἂν ζῶσι, καὶ διδάσκουσι καὶ
νουθετοῦσιν. ἐπειδὰν θᾶττον συνιῇ τις
τὰ λεγόμενα, καὶ τροφὸς καὶ μήτηρ καὶ
παιδαγωγὸς καὶ αὐτὸς [325d] ὁ πατὴρ
περὶ τούτου διαμάχονται, ὅπως ‹ὡς›
βέλτιστος ἔσται ὁ παῖς, παρ᾽ ἕκαστον
καὶ ἔργον καὶ λόγον διδάσκοντες καὶ
ἐνδεικνύμενοι ὅτι τὸ μὲν δίκαιον, τὸ δὲ
ἄδικον, καὶ τόδε μὲν καλόν, τόδε δὲ
αἰσχρόν, καὶ τόδε μὲν ὅσιον, τόδε δὲ
ἀνόσιον, καὶ τὰ μὲν ποίει, τὰ δὲ μὴ ποίει.
καὶ ἐὰν μὲν ἑκὼν πείθηται· εἰ δὲ μή,
ὥσπερ ξύλον διαστρεφόμενον καὶ
καμπτόμενον εὐθύνουσιν ἀπειλαῖς καὶ
πληγαῖς. μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα εἰς διδασκάλων
πέμποντες πολὺ μᾶλλον ἐντέλλονται

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learns how to conduct properly, read and
write and the art of the lyre. In turn, the
teachers take care of this. And when the
children now learn grammar and are able to
understand what they see written—as then
words—the teachers make them stand up
from their seats to read poems of good poets
[326a] and force them to learn them by
heart. In these poems one finds a lot of
advice and a lot of stories and songs and
hymns about the virtuous people of the old
days, so that the child will envy them and
imitate them and long to be like them. On
their side, the teachers of the lyre do
something similar, that is, they do
everything they can, so that the young
people become prudent and do no harm;
near them, after they have been taught the
art of the lyre, then they teach poems of
good poets, different from the former—the
lyric poets—[326b] fitting their music to the
voice of the lyre; thus, they compel the
rhythms and harmonies to be kindred to the
souls of the children, so that they become
both more tame and useful in their words
and actions, by being imbued with rhythm
and harmony; for the life of man in all its
manifestations needs rhythm and harmony.
Well, as if all this were not enough, they
send them even to the gymnasts, to make
the body stronger, so that their enlightened
mind may have an assistant [326c] and that
they may not be forced to show cowardice
in wars and other actions, because the body
betrays them. And those who have more
means at their disposal do this more; and
the wealthiest have the most means. So their
sons are the first among the children of their
age to start going to school and stop
studying years later than the others. And
when they are out of the hands of the
teachers, the state in its turn forces them to
learn the laws and live according to them,
[326d] so that each one does not do his own
thing, but just like the teachers (for the
children who still do not succeed in writing)
first draw soft lines with the pencil, and then
ἐπιμελεῖσθαι [325e] εὐκοσμίας τῶν
παίδων ἢ γραμμάτων τε καὶ κιθαρίσεως·
οἱ δὲ διδάσκαλοι τούτων τε
ἐπιμελοῦνται, καὶ ἐπειδὰν αὖ γράμματα
μάθωσιν καὶ μέλλωσιν συνήσειν τὰ
γεγραμμένα ὥσπερ τότε τὴν φωνήν,
παρατιθέασιν αὐτοῖς ἐπὶ τῶν βάθρων
ἀναγιγνώσκειν ποιητῶν ἀγαθῶν
ποιήματα καὶ ἐκμανθάνειν [326a]
ἀναγκάζουσιν, ἐν οἷς πολλαὶ μὲν
νουθετήσεις ἔνεισιν πολλαὶ δὲ διέξοδοι
καὶ ἔπαινοι καὶ ἐγκώμια παλαιῶν
ἀνδρῶν ἀγαθῶν, ἵνα ὁ παῖς ζηλῶν
μιμῆται καὶ ὀρέγηται τοιοῦτος
γενέσθαι. οἵ τ᾽ αὖ κιθαρισταί, ἕτερα
τοιαῦτα, σωφροσύνης τε ἐπιμελοῦνται
καὶ ὅπως ἂν οἱ νέοι μηδὲν κακουργῶσιν·
πρὸς δὲ τούτοις, ἐπειδὰν κιθαρίζειν
μάθωσιν, ἄλλων αὖ ποιητῶν ἀγαθῶν
ποιήματα διδάσκουσι μελοποιῶν, εἰς
τὰ [326b] κιθαρίσματα ἐντείνοντες, καὶ
τοὺς ῥυθμούς τε καὶ τὰς ἁρμονίας
ἀναγκάζουσιν οἰκειοῦσθαι ταῖς ψυχαῖς
τῶν παίδων, ἵνα ἡμερώτεροί τε ὦσιν,
καὶ εὐρυθμότεροι καὶ εὐαρμοστότεροι
γιγνόμενοι χρήσιμοι ὦσιν εἰς τὸ λέγειν
τε καὶ πράττειν· πᾶς γὰρ ὁ βίος τοῦ
ἀνθρώπου εὐρυθμίας τε καὶ
εὐαρμοστίας δεῖται. ἔτι τοίνυν πρὸς
τούτοις εἰς παιδοτρίβου πέμπουσιν, ἵνα
τὰ σώματα βελτίω ἔχοντες ὑπηρετῶσι
τῇ διανοίᾳ χρηστῇ [326c] οὔσῃ, καὶ μὴ
ἀναγκάζωνται ἀποδειλιᾶν διὰ τὴν
πονηρίαν τῶν σωμάτων καὶ ἐν τοῖς
πολέμοις καὶ ἐν ταῖς ἄλλαις πράξεσιν.
καὶ ταῦτα ποιοῦσιν οἱ μάλιστα
δυνάμενοι ‹μάλιστα› —μάλιστα δὲ
δύνανται οἱ πλουσιώτατοι— καὶ οἱ
τούτων ὑεῖς, πρῳαίτατα εἰς διδασκάλων
τῆς ἡλικίας ἀρξάμενοι φοιτᾶν,
ὀψιαίτατα ἀπαλλάττονται. ἐπειδὰν δὲ
ἐκ διδασκάλων ἀπαλλαγῶσιν, ἡ πόλις
αὖ τούς τε νόμους ἀναγκάζει
μανθάνειν καὶ κατὰ τούτους ζῆν κατὰ
παράδειγμα, [326d] ἵνα μὴ αὐτοὶ ἐφ᾽
αὑτῶν εἰκῇ πράττωσιν, ἀλλ᾽ ἀτεχνῶς
ὥσπερ οἱ γραμματισταὶ τοῖς μήπω

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they give them the plate and oblige them to
write as the lines show them, so the state
draws the laws, which its good legislators
found of old; he compels them both to give
and to take orders according to them. But
whoever strays from them is punished, and
this punishment in your city [326e] as well
as in many other places is called
"responsibility", because punishment brings
the transgressor to the straight path. Family
and state, then, show so much care for
virtue — and you, Socrates, are out of your
mind, and wonder if virtue can be taught?
Much more should you be baffled if it could
not be taught—not now.
δεινοῖς γράφειν τῶν παίδων
ὑπογράψαντες γραμμὰς τῇ γραφίδι
οὕτω τὸ γραμματεῖον διδόασιν καὶ
ἀναγκάζουσι γράφειν κατὰ τὴν
ὑφήγησιν τῶν γραμμῶν, ὣς δὲ καὶ ἡ
πόλις νόμους ὑπογράψασα, ἀγαθῶν
καὶ παλαιῶν νομοθετῶν εὑρήματα,
κατὰ τούτους ἀναγκάζει καὶ ἄρχειν καὶ
ἄρχεσθαι, ὃς δ᾽ ἂν ἐκτὸς βαίνῃ τούτων,
κολάζει· καὶ ὄνομα τῇ κολάσει ταύτῃ
καὶ παρ᾽ ὑμῖν [326e] καὶ ἄλλοθι
πολλαχοῦ, ὡς εὐθυνούσης τῆς δίκης,
εὐθῦναι. τοσαύτης οὖν τῆς ἐπιμελείας
οὔσης περὶ ἀρετῆς ἰδίᾳ καὶ δημοσίᾳ,
θαυμάζεις, ὦ Σώκρατες, καὶ ἀπορεῖς εἰ
διδακτόν ἐστιν ἀρετή; ἀλλ᾽ οὐ χρὴ
θαυμάζειν, ἀλλὰ πολὺ μᾶλλον εἰ μὴ
διδακτόν.
However, I wish to make some essential observations on what is discussed.
One of the primary challenges in translating philosophical texts—particularly
Plato’s writings, where AI assistance has its limitations—is that words often carry
multiple meanings.
3
Choosing one meaning over another may not always capture
Plato’s intent accurately. Many scholars of Plato’s works have noted this issue.
Allow me to provide a few illustrative examples.
I translate the significant phrase διδάσκουσι καὶ νουθετοῦσιν as “teach and
advise.” This reflects the scope of education that a wealthy Athenian family would
provide for their children. The word διδάσκουσι is straightforwardly translated as
“teach,” so no issue arises here. However, translating νουθετοῦσιν as “advise” is
not entirely precise. In the dialogue, another term, βουλεύω, appears, meaning
“advise, think, consult,” among other interpretations. When Protagoras responds
to Socrates’ question about what a student would learn from him, he says,
εὔβουλος, meaning, “I’ll make him prudent.”
By contrast, the word νουθετοῦσιν conveys something closer to “setting
someone’s mind,” “exhorting,” “warning,” or “advising,” which aligns more
closely with what a family might do for a child. Etymologically, it combines νους
(nous) and θέτω (set), suggesting that the purpose of education is not so much to
instill virtue (ethos) as to teach the child that certain words and actions are “BAD”
and others are “GOOD.” A child should do the “GOOD” because failing to do so
3
. In Papanikos (2021a), I used five verses from Homer’s Odyssey to demonstrate how
various interpretations of this epic poem can emerge based on the translation of key words.
In many cases, it is a matter of interpretation to discern what Homer intended to convey
and what was actually in his mind.

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incurs “PUNISHMENT.” Often, it is the fear of punishment that drives people to
act as though they possess ethos.
This distinction is not necessarily explicit in the dialogue. Rather, it seems that
the discussion revolves around cultivating ethos through teaching. But what is to
be taught? There is an inherent ambiguity in the discussion. Protagoras argues that
children should be taught to distinguish between good and bad; if they act well,
they are rewarded, and if they act poorly, they are punished. Socrates, on the other
hand, has a different perspective: he speaks of making a child good and implies
that this cannot be achieved through teaching alone.
Protagoras states early on that he teaches sophism. But what exactly does this
discipline entail? In Protagoras's own words (318a):
If you become my student, here is what
you will get: every day that you listen to
my teaching, you will go home improved,
and the next day, the same will happen.
Day by day, you will keep progressing
until you reach your best.
ἔσται τοίνυν σοι, ἐὰν ἐμοὶ συνῇς, ᾗ ἂν
ἡμέρᾳ ἐμοὶ συγγένῃ, ἀπιέναι οἴκαδε
βελτίονι γεγονότι, καὶ ἐν τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ
ταὐτὰ ταῦτα· καὶ ἑκάστης ἡμέρας ἀεὶ ἐπὶ
τὸ βέλτιον ἐπιδιδόναι.
The purpose of school education is to learn something new each day to foster
improvement. However, Socrates found this idea vague. Vagueness, he noted, is
characteristic of sophism, particularly when educating future politicians. This is
why the objective of sophism was to teach students rhetoric, making them effective
public speakers.
Socrates immediately responded by pointing out that, while this may sound
insightful, any academic instructor could make a similar claim, regardless of their
subject area. He then poses a pointed question: if someone attends a lecture on
sophism, how exactly will they improve? For instance, Socrates observed that if a
student follows the teachings of a painter, they will learn to paint, and if they follow
a music instructor, they will learn to play a musical instrument. But what, precisely,
would a student of sophism improve upon?
Protagoras is compelled to reply that he teaches εὐβουλία, aiming to enable
the student to manage both their household affairs (οἰκίαν) and the city’s affairs
(πόλεως) (318e-319a):
The lesson teaches how to best govern
private affairs within households and how
to become stronger in both action and
speech in public affairs.
τὸ δὲ μάθημά ἐστιν εὐβουλία περὶ τῶν
οἰκείων, ὅπως ἂν ἄριστα τὴν αὑτοῦ
οἰκίαν διοικοῖ, καὶ περὶ τῶν τῆς πόλεως,
ὅπως τὰ τῆς πόλεως δυνατώτατος ἂν εἴη
καὶ πράττειν καὶ λέγειν.
This statement is too general and could even encompass the profession of a
manager. In fact, the phrase οἰκίαν διοικοῖ can be translated as "business

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management," since the words οἰκίαν and οἰκείων refer to household and private
affairs in the context of business.
4
This is why the word "economics" is derived from the synthesis of οἶκος and
νέμω. While νέμω has various meanings, in this context, it signifies "to rule" or "to
manage." In ancient Greece, the word οἶκος denoted business, as eloquently
described by the 8th-century BCE poet Hesiod.
5
The works of Homer and Hesiod were standard "textbooks" in the academic
education of both the ancient Greek and non-Greek worlds. However, Socrates is
not satisfied with this general response and directly asks Protagoras (319a):
"If I understand your words correctly," I
said to him, "it seems to me that you are
speaking about the political profession and
promising to make people virtuous
citizens."
Ἆρα, ἔφην ἐγώ, ἕπομαί σου τῷ λόγῳ;
δοκεῖς γάρ μοι λέγειν τὴν πολιτικὴν
τέχνην καὶ ὑπισχνεῖσθαι ποιεῖν ἄνδρας
ἀγαθοὺς πολίτας.
And Protagoras admits this (319a):
"That is precisely the profession I practice,
my dear Socrates," he replied.
Αὐτὸ μὲν οὖν τοῦτό ἐστιν, ἔφη, ὦ
Σώκρατες, τὸ ἐπάγγελμα ὃ
ἐπαγγέλλομαι.
This is a masterful example of Socrates' dialectical method. He achieves his
goal by compelling Protagoras to admit that what he does is, in fact, to make men
good citizens (ποιεῖν ἄνδρας ἀγαθοὺς πολίτας). Socrates then responds
sarcastically (319a):
really very beautiful profession you
possess if you possess
Ἦ καλόν … τέχνημα ἄρα κέκτησαι,
εἴπερ κέκτησαι
At this point, Socrates introduces his hypothesis that people are taught to
become good citizens through instruction in the political art. The discussion then
4
. In modern business environment, the pressure of performance forces many business
leaders to compromise ethical principles. This important issue is not examined here even
though is of tremendous importance and relates to what was already mentioned “white
collar” crime. On this issue see the study by Ngcobo & Reddy (2024)
5
. Hesiod wrote two works, Works and Days and Theogony. The first can be considered,
in modern terms, an economic and business textbook, while the latter is a metaphysical
work explaining the origins of the gods and the creation of the world. Both of Hesiod's
works, along with Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, have been used as standard texts for
educating future generations of Greeks and non-Greeks alike. On Greeks see Papanikos
(2024). I have written a series of four papers interpreting Hesiod’s first work as an economics
textbook (see Papanikos 2023, 2022a, 2022b, 2022c). I have also written a paper examining
ten meetings mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey (see Papanikos 2021b).

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takes an unexpected turn, shifting to a more general conversation about goodness,
which they refer to as ἀρετή (virtue). The word itself shares the same root as
ἄριστος (the best) and, as a political concept, appears in the term "aristocracy." It
contrasts with democracy in that, in a true aristocracy, the best rule, whereas in a
democracy, the people rule. Both systems have their darker sides: democracy can
devolve into ochlocracy, and aristocracy can deteriorate into oligarchy.
6
In summary, the purpose of teaching is to cultivate skills in individuals based
on what a teacher imparts. For instance, if you follow the lessons of an architect,
you would expect to become an architect. But what if you follow a sophist like
Protagoras? According to him, sophists teach the youth how to effectively manage
their own households and become good citizens who can oversee their city’s
affairs. Socrates, however, holds a different view. The next section contrasts the two
basic hypotheses of the dialogue.
The Hypotheses and their Supportive Arguments
At the academic level, discussing an issue follows a particular methodology—
or, perhaps more precisely, an epistemology—meaning the methods used to
acquire knowledge about a specific subject. Both Protagoras and Socrates are
skilled in applying various methods, but it is essential that the hypotheses to be
tested are clearly stated, as is indeed the case here. In Table 2, I demonstrate the
basic hypotheses proposed by Protagoras and Socrates.
Table 2. Protagoras and Socrates Hypotheses on Virtue (Ἀρετή)
Beginning of the Dialogue
End of Dialogue
Socrates
Ethos or Virtue (Ἀρετή)
cannot be taught
Virtue = Wisdom (σοφία)
Protagoras
Virtue can be taught
Virtue = Wisdom (σοφία)
Socrates sets the question at the outset: Can virtue (ἀρετή) be taught? Both
philosophers agree on the significance of this question, recognizing its importance
for both private (primarily business) and political (social) affairs.
The dialogue does not clearly specify how to test these hypotheses. This
ambiguity arises because it fails to distinguish between individuals possessing
ethos and those who merely act ethically. The dialogue assumes these are
equivalent, but they are not, as I illustrate in Figures 10 & 11. Ethos is unobservable,
whereas ethical behavior can be observed. Assuming we can classify an action as
either ethical or unethical, we may characterize a person as behaving ethically or
6
. On the issue of democracy see Papanikos (2020, 2022d, 2022e, 2022f). Many studies
have examined the issue of politics, law and ethics; see for example Nartey (2024).

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unethically. If the behavior is deemed unethical, we might conclude that this
person lacks ethos—that is, lacks virtue.
Figure 10. Observed Ethical Actions
Observed Behavior: Ethical
Person with an
ethos/virtue
A person lacking ethos or virtue, but for whom the
expected costs of unethical behaviour exceed the
expected benefits.
Figure 11. Observed Unethical Actions
Observed Behavior: unethical
A person lacking ethos but for whom the expected benefits of unethical
behavior outweigh the expected costs.
As explained in the following section, where the multidimensionality of virtue
is defined, it is possible, as Socrates suggests in the dialogue, for the same person
to be considered unethical from one perspective of virtue and ethical from another.
Even if all of a person’s actions align with the complete concept of ethos or virtue,
this does not necessarily mean that the person possesses ethos or virtue in essence.
A rational individual may choose to behave ethically if the costs of unethical
behavior outweigh the benefits. Conversely, a person may act unethically if the
benefits significantly outweigh the costs.
7
Protagoras (324a) argues that virtue is taught by all stakeholders within the
education system mentioned in the second section. However, Protagoras's true
contention is that youth are not taught (μάθηση) to become (ποιείν) individuals of
ethos; rather, they are taught that unethical behavior will result in punishment. In
other words, what is taught is not ethos itself but the costs and benefits of ethical
7
. Rego (2023) connects the morality of actions to luck, suggesting a broader concept:
the 'virtue' some people possess that allows them to conceal the consequences of their
immoral acts.

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behavior. This is a crucial point, one that Socrates not only acknowledges but also
explicitly addresses in the dialogue, as I discuss in the next section of this paper.
It is this cost-benefit analysis that leads to an apparent agreement between
Protagoras and Socrates, as shown in Table 2 above. In the end, wisdom (lack of
ignorance) is all that is needed to make sound evaluations of costs, benefits, and
the implications of unethical behavior.
The Definition of Virtue in the Dialogue
In this section, I discuss the definition of ethos or virtue as it is developed in the
dialogue.
8
Interestingly, this issue is addressed only at the end of the dialogue,
which is puzzling. It seems that, at the outset, all participants assumed they shared
a common understanding of the notion of virtue and ethos.
9
However, as the
dialogue progresses, it becomes apparent that the meaning of the word virtue is
not as clear and straightforward as initially assumed. This discussion leads to a
compromise by accepting that virtue, after all, is wisdom (sophia)—but wisdom
about what? The dialogue thus comes full circle: if virtue is wisdom and wisdom
can be taught, as Socrates suggests, then this contradicts Socrates’ earlier
hypothesis that virtue cannot be taught. In this section, I’ll offer my own
explanation of what Socrates might have thought about wisdom and virtue. First,
however, I discuss the five elements of virtue.
The most important word in the dialogue is ἀρετή, which may be translated
into English as virtue. In Greek antiquity, ἀρετή had many meanings, as becomes
clear throughout the dialogue. Homer uses the word to mean ability, perfection, or
excellence in any field, often referring specifically to a man's virtues, prowess,
bravery, or great ability. This usage was significant because Homer’s work was
widely used as a textbook in academic teaching in ancient Athens. This is the
meaning used in Plato’s Protagoras. In the works of Plato and Euripides, however,
ἀρετή takes on a moral meaning, referring to goodness and ethical character. In the
works of Theognis of Megara (6th century BCE) and Euripides (c. 480–c. 406 BCE),
the term also implies aristocratic qualities, i.e., noble descent.
8
. Defining concepts such as morality, ethos, and virtue is a topic widely discussed in
moral philosophy and may be influenced by language and historical context. For instance,
Li (2024) argues that morality and virtue have similar, if not identical, meanings in Chinese
language. Ghosh (2024) examined morality within the Indian context. However, this is not
the case in the Greek language.
9
. The word ethos (ἦθος) was first used by Hesiod in Works and Days, a text considered
part of didactic poetry. Hesiod’s work represents the earliest attempt to teach morality and
the importance of ethical behavior. Homer also used the term ethos, but with a different
meaning, referring to a fixed characteristic or instinctual drive in both humans and animals.

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As will become clear in what follows, the meaning of the word virtue
encompasses multiple aspects, primarily those included in the first two definitions
above. The Greek word ἀρετή shares its root with ἄριστοι (the best), which is
connected to the concept of aristocracy, originally meaning "rule by the best" or the
wisest—the so-called philosopher-kings. In this context, the "best" referred to
people of honesty and virtue. Today, however, the term often describes those
descended from noble families.
The Five Elements of Virtue
Throughout the dialogue, the definition of virtue (ethos) remains a thorny
issue. In fact, Socrates even makes a joke about this, taking advantage of the
presence of the sophist Prodicus, who was well known for his insistence on precise
definitions. At the end of the dialogue (349b and following), a serious discussion
begins on the unity of virtue: Is it a single entity, or does it consist of multiple parts?
And if it has multiple parts, are they like the parts (moria) of a substance, such as
gold, or are they more like the distinct parts of the face, each performing a unique
function—such as hearing, smelling, or seeing? Both Socrates and his interlocutor
agree that there are five elements: wisdom or knowledge (Sophia-σοφία), prudence
(sophrosyne-σωφροσύνη), bravery or courage (andreia-ἀνδρεία), justice (dikaiosyne-
δικαιοσύνη), and holiness (hosiotēs-ὁσιότης) (349bc):
Are the five words—wisdom, prudence,
bravery, justice, and holiness—referring to
one and the same thing, or does each of
them separately conceal a distinct essence,
something with its own unique function,
and thus different from the others? Your
answer was that these words do not signify
a single thing, but rather that each of them
represents something distinct from the
others. Furthermore, you explained that all
these are components of virtue, not like
particles of gold, which resemble each
other and the whole to which they belong,
but more like parts of a face: they are not
alike either to the whole to which they
belong or to each other, as each has a
unique function.
σοφία καὶ σωφροσύνη καὶ ἀνδρεία καὶ
δικαιοσύνη καὶ ὁσιότης, πότερον ταῦτα,
πέντε ὄντα ὀνόματα, ἐπὶ ἑνὶ πράγματί
ἐστιν, ἢ ἑκάστῳ τῶν ὀνομάτων τούτων
ὑπόκειταί τις ἴδιος οὐσία καὶ πρᾶγμα
ἔχον ἑαυτοῦ δύναμιν ἕκαστον, οὐκ ὂν
οἷον τὸ ἕτερον αὐτῶν τὸ ἕτερον; ἔφησθα
οὖν σὺ οὐκ ὀνόματα ἐπὶ ἑνὶ εἶναι,
ἀλλὰ [349c] ἕκαστον ἰδίῳ πράγματι τῶν
ὀνομάτων τούτων ἐπικεῖσθαι, πάντα δὲ
ταῦτα μόρια εἶναι ἀρετῆς, οὐχ ὡς τὰ τοῦ
χρυσοῦ μόρια ὅμοιά ἐστιν ἀλλήλοις καὶ
τῷ ὅλῳ οὗ μόριά ἐστιν, ἀλλ᾽ ὡς τὰ τοῦ
προσώπου μόρια καὶ τῷ ὅλῳ οὗ μόριά
ἐστιν καὶ ἀλλήλοις ἀνόμοια, ἰδίαν
ἕκαστα δύναμιν ἔχοντα.
These five elements of virtue are depicted in Figure 8. However, before
proceeding, I will discuss the five elements of virtue from the perspective of ancient
Greek language. Understanding how these terms were used in 5th-century BCE

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Athens by Plato and other authors is crucial, as the same word could have different
meanings in other Greek cities and periods.
Σοφία
The word “σοφία” is typically translated as wisdom or knowledge, which are
not necessarily the same. Generally, knowledge implies something learned
through education or training. In Plato, the word γνῶσις (gnosis) best conveys the
concept of knowledge. Plato also uses the adjective γνωστικός (gnostikos), meaning
learning ability, which refers to an individual’s inherent capacity to learn—
distinguishing a good student from a less capable one. In Plato’s time, however, the
term σοφία in Athens often meant science, erudition, or philosophy. Ultimately,
both Protagoras and Socrates agree that virtue is σοφία, which Socrates defines as
a lack of ignorance. But ignorance of what? As discussed below, Socrates did not
waver from his position that virtue can be taught; rather, he argued that
knowledgeable people can discern what is good and what is bad. Yet, this
knowledge alone does not make someone a person of ethos. We thus reach an
impasse, a puzzlement—or as Socrates would call it, an ἀπορία.
Σωφροσύνη
In Plato’s works, σωφροσύνη means moderation in carnal desires,
temperance, self-control, prudence, chastity, and sobriety. This aligns with the
famous Delphic maxim, “Nothing in excess” (μηδέν ἄγαν). In the dialogue
between Protagoras and Socrates, there is no issue with the interpretation of this
term.
Ἀνδρεία
The various meanings of ἀνδρεία create challenges in the dialogue between
Protagoras and Socrates. Socrates argues that one can possess bravery without
necessarily embodying all other elements of virtue. During Socrates’ time,
however, the word signified not only bravery and manliness but also ethos. In the
dialogue, it is clear that ἀνδρεία is used primarily in the context of warfare,
emphasizing bravery in battle rather than broader ethical connotations.
Δικαιοσύνη
The meaning of δικαιοσύνη evolved from Homer’s era in the 8th century BCE
to the 5th and 4th centuries BCE in Athens. By Socrates’ time, this element of virtue
referred to people who followed the laws and customs established by their politeia.
Notably, in 399 BCE, Socrates was sentenced to death by an Athenian court of 501

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judges for allegedly violating Athenian law by (a) corrupting the youth and (b)
introducing new gods.
Ὁσιότης
Ὁσιότης is difficult to translate precisely into English, but its meaning is clear.
It implies that virtuous individuals should follow divine law. In Plato’s works, this
term is associated with being sanctioned by divine law. The phrase τὰ ὅσια καὶ
δίκαια (what is lawful by God’s and the city’s laws) highlights this concept.
Although it would be interesting to explore the relationship between human and
natural law, this issue is not fully addressed in the dialogue. The sophist Hippias
briefly raises the topic, but it is ignored (337cd). The dialogue does not discuss
instances where divine or natural law may conflict with human laws.
Figure 8. The Definition of Ἀρετή (Virtue)
An apparent contradiction arises in the dialogue between Protagoras and
Socrates: the question is whether one of the five elements alone suffices for
someone to be considered ethical, or if all five must be present simultaneously. For
example, a person may be brave but fail to respect divine laws (Gods’ justice).
These five elements are discussed extensively by Protagoras and Socrates. In
the end, Socrates seems to persuade Protagoras and the others that there is only
one virtue, which is knowledge or wisdom. Knowledge and wisdom, however, are
learned from good teachers. Yet, as the discussion progresses, the focus shifts
toward the concepts of knowledge and ignorance. But knowledge and ignorance
of what, exactly? I will return to this question below in this section.
Bravery or
Courage
Holiness
(natural-
divine law)
Justice
(human law)
Knowledge
or Wisdom
Prudence or
Temperance

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Why Does the Same Person Sometimes Behave Ethically and Sometimes
Unethically? A Cost-Benefit Analysis
My interpretation of what Socrates says at the end is not a refutation of his
thesis that virtue cannot be taught. Rather, if we define virtue as wisdom-
knowledge (σοφία), then it can be used to evaluate (or, in modern scientific terms,
perform a cost-benefit analysis) the costs and benefits of non-virtuous behavior
(Table 3). Wisdom does not make people ethical, but it "compels" them to behave
ethically after calculating the costs (displeasures) and benefits (pleasures), and this
requires knowledge. Ignorant people cannot make these calculations, or as Socrates
puts it (356b):
But, like a skilled weigher, make one bundle of
the pleasant and another of the sad. Place on the
scale the weights of things near and far, and tell
me which way the scale leans. Because if you
place pleasant things on both sides, it makes
sense each time to prefer the larger and greater
amount; if unfortunate things, then the fewer
and smaller ones. And if you place the pleasant
things on one side and the sad ones on the
other, then, if you see the pleasant ones
outweigh the sad, whether in the present or the
future, you put into practice the action that
contains them. But if you see that the sad things
weigh more heavily than the pleasant ones, do
not proceed in practice. My people, I would ask
them, is there any other opinion on this? I'm
certain they couldn't have a different view.
ἀγαθὸς ἱστάναι ἄνθρωπος, συνθεὶς
τὰ ἡδέα καὶ συνθεὶς τὰ λυπηρά, καὶ
τὸ ἐγγὺς καὶ τὸ πόρρω στήσας ἐν τῷ
ζυγῷ, εἰπὲ πότερα πλείω ἐστίν. ἐὰν
μὲν γὰρ ἡδέα πρὸς ἡδέα ἱστῇς, τὰ
μείζω ἀεὶ καὶ πλείω ληπτέα· ἐὰν δὲ
λυπηρὰ πρὸς λυπηρά, τὰ ἐλάττω καὶ
σμικρότερα· ἐὰν δὲ ἡδέα πρὸς
λυπηρά, ἐὰν μὲν τὰ ἀνιαρὰ
ὑπερβάλληται ὑπὸ τῶν ἡδέων, ἐάντε
τὰ ἐγγὺς ὑπὸ τῶν πόρρω ἐάντε τὰ
πόρρω ὑπὸ τῶν ἐγγύς, ταύτην τὴν
πρᾶξιν πρακτέον ἐν ᾗ ἂν ταῦτ᾽ ἐνῇ·
ἐὰν δὲ τὰ ἡδέα ὑπὸ τῶν ἀνιαρῶν, οὐ
πρακτέα. μή πῃ ἄλλῃ ἔχει, φαίην ἄν,
ταῦτα, ὦ ἄνθρωποι; οἶδ᾽ ὅτι οὐκ ἂν
ἔχοιεν ἄλλως λέγειν.
The statement above by Socrates is an excellent description of what we would
consider today to be a cost-benefit analysis of unethical behavior. It is clear from
the dialogue that there are rewards for behaving ethically and costs (punishments)
for behaving unethically. A rational decision-maker will then weigh these costs and
benefits.
My translation of the above statement by Socrates faces the same challenges as
many translations of ancient Athenian philosophical texts mentioned above: words
quite often have multiple meanings. Sometimes, a discussion of the etymological
meaning of the words can shed more light on their true significance. Socrates says
that skilled people (ἀγαθὸς ἱστάναι ἄνθρωπος). The word ἀγαθὸς here is
translated as "skilled," but its more accurate meaning is "best." Best at what? Of
course, it refers to the ability to perform the cost-benefit analysis that follows.
Socrates’ cost-benefit analysis takes into account both present and future costs and
benefits. The two words ἐγγὺς and πόρρω capture this distinction: the first means

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"immediate," while the latter means "far in the future." What is missing here is a
discount rate. Socrates refers to the costs as λυπηρὰ ("sad things") and the benefits
as ἡδέα ("pleasures"). He then suggests comparing various actions according to the
sum of all the sad things and pleasures. He distinguishes four cases and proposes
a decision rule: if all actions result in sad things, then choose the one that minimizes
them. In all other cases, choose the actions that provide the greatest pleasure.
Table 3. Decision Making after a Skilful Cost-Benefit Analysis
Cases
Actions
Decision
In the Greek Text the
Decision Rule
I
Only pleasures
Choose the ones that
give the maximum
τὰ μείζω ἀεὶ καὶ
πλείω ληπτέα·
II
Only sads
Choose the fewer that
give the minimum
τὰ ἐλάττω καὶ
σμικρότερα·
III
Pleasures > Sads
Choose these actions
ταύτην τὴν πρᾶξιν
πρακτέον ἐν ᾗ ἂν
ταῦτ᾽ ἐνῇ
IV
Pleasures < Sads
Do not choose these
actions
οὐ πρακτέα.
How does the above discussion relate to modern academic ethos and
academic integrity? This issue will be addressed in the next section of the paper.
Academic Ethos
There are many statements in the dialogue that concern the role of academics.
The most obvious is what teachers should do. It is well accepted by all participants
in the dialogue that the primary role of academics is to teach students what they
were trained to teach. This is clear when Socrates, at the beginning of the dialogue,
states that if you want to learn how to paint (and many other professions), you go
to someone who knows the subject. The teacher should then teach what they know,
and nothing else. In other words, teachers should not use their position to teach
students anything beyond their area of expertise. This establishes the first rule of
academic integrity:
Rule 1. Teach what you were assigned to teach and nothing else.
Protagoras acknowledges that many teachers, like himself, claim to teach one
thing while actually teaching sophism. Why do they do this? Protagoras explains
that there is jealousy among academics (316d):

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For these things stir up great jealousies,
enmities, and persecutions of every kind
οὐ γὰρ σμικροὶ περὶ αὐτὰ φθόνοι τε
γίγνονται καὶ ἄλλαι δυσμένειαί τε καὶ
ἐπιβουλαί.
This jealousy is directed toward his teaching of sophism. In fact, there is no
issue with other forms of teaching. The problem arises when sophists disguise their
teachings as something else. This has always been the case, and Protagoras gives
some historical examples to illustrate it.
Rule 2. The teacher’s goal should be to make their students better at what
they teach.
Both Socrates and Protagoras agree on this point. Protagoras even claims that
his students will return home better every day, and this improvement will continue
as long as they follow his lectures.
Rule 3. Nobody can be made ethical or virtuous, but they can become a
person of wisdom by learning to weigh the current and future effects
(positive or negative) of unethical behavior.
We cannot determine from actions alone whether a member of the academic
world is someone with ethos and integrity. In other words, we cannot teach a
professor or teacher to become virtuous, but we can reduce the probability of
unethical behavior. Therefore, policies and regulations must exist, just as they did
in the ancient world, and those who violate them must be punished. However,
there must also be a mechanism to enforce laws and regulations, as well as a way
to verify whether accusations are true or false. Socrates provides an example from
his own life: when he was sentenced to death by a 501-member jury in 399 BCE for
corrupting the youth and introducing new gods.
Conclusions
The main conclusion of this paper is that ethical behavior can be encouraged
among all stakeholders in the academic world by educating them on what is wrong
(punishable) and what is right (non-punishable or rewarding). However, this
approach alone cannot transform individuals into those with intrinsic ethos and
integrity. In the academic world, we cannot always distinguish between those who
truly possess ethos and integrity and those who do not.
While ethical behavior is necessary, it is not sufficient to identify academics
with genuine ethos and integrity. Therefore, our primary task is to educate
academics on what is permitted and what is prohibited; what is good and what is
bad; what is acceptable and what is unacceptable; what is punishable and what is

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not. Additionally, we should teach them the consequences (punishments) of
unethical behavior.
We are still far from an ideal society in which individuals naturally act with
ethics and academic integrity because they embody ethos and integrity from
within.
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