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Into the Revolution of NanoFusion: Merging High Performance and Aesthetics by Nanomaterials in Textile Finishes

Advanced Materials Interfaces

November 2024
12(1)

DOI:10.1002/admi.202400368

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CC BY 4.0

Authors:

Habibur Rahman Anik

University of Georgia

Shariful Islam Tushar

University of Georgia

Shakil Mahmud

University of Alberta

Ashfaqul Hoque Khadem

Clemson University

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The field of technical textiles has grown significantly during the last two decades, with a focus on functionality rather than aesthetics. However, the advancement of NanoFusion technology provides a novel potential to combine better functionality and aesthetic value in textile finishes. NanoFusion incorporates nanoparticles into textile treatments to improve waterproofing, stain resistance, durability, and breathability. This is performed without affecting the textile's visual appeal or aesthetics and may even improve them. This textile finishing revolution is expected to impact industries such as athletics, outdoor clothing, car upholstery, and luxury fashion. It offers cutting‐edge functionality while maintaining style and design integrity. Furthermore, the use of nanoparticle textile coatings opens up new opportunities for personalization and modification. Manufacturers and designers can now experiment with different color combinations, patterns, and textured finishes while maintaining performance characteristics. NanoFusion technology has the potential to transform the textile industry by providing hitherto unattainable levels of performance and aesthetics. This study reviews the current state of the art in nanofinishes for garment textiles, focusing on their many varieties, techniques, mechanisms, and applications. In addition, it addresses significant concerns such as sustainability and the environmental footprint, paving the way for a new era in textile manufacturing.

Application of nanotechnology in different stages of the apparel manufacturing cycle.

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REVIEW

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Into the Revolution of NanoFusion: Merging High

Performance and Aesthetics by Nanomaterials in Textile

Finishes

Habibur Rahman Anik, Shariful Islam Tushar, Shakil Mahmud, Ashfaqul Hoque Khadem,

Prosenjit Sen, and Mahmuda Akter*

The ﬁeld of technical textiles has grown signiﬁcantly during the last two

decades, with a focus on functionality rather than aesthetics. However, the

advancement of NanoFusion technology provides a novel potential to

combine better functionality and aesthetic value in textile ﬁnishes.

NanoFusion incorporates nanoparticles into textile treatments to improve

waterprooﬁng, stain resistance, durability, and breathability. This is performed

without aﬀecting the textile’s visual appeal or aesthetics and may even

improve them. This textile ﬁnishing revolution is expected to impact

industries such as athletics, outdoor clothing, car upholstery, and luxury

fashion. It oﬀers cutting-edge functionality while maintaining style and design

integrity. Furthermore, the use of nanoparticle textile coatings opens up new

opportunities for personalization and modiﬁcation. Manufacturers and

designers can now experiment with diﬀerent color combinations, patterns,

and textured ﬁnishes while maintaining performance characteristics.

NanoFusion technology has the potential to transform the textile industry by

providing hitherto unattainable levels of performance and aesthetics. This

study reviews the current state of the art in nanoﬁnishes for garment textiles,

focusing on their many varieties, techniques, mechanisms, and applications.

In addition, it addresses signiﬁcant concerns such as sustainability and the

environmental footprint, paving the way for a new era in textile

manufacturing.

H. R. Anik, S. I. Tushar, M. Akter

Department of Apparel Engineering

Bangladesh University of Textiles

Tejgaon, Dhaka 1208, Bangladesh

E-mail: mahmuda@ae.butex.edu.bd

H. R. Anik

Department of Chemistry and Chemical and Biomedical Engineering

University of New Haven

Boston Post Road, WestHaven, CT 06516, USA

The ORCID identiﬁcation number(s) for the author(s) of this article

can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202400368

Wiley-VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the

Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly

cited.

DOI: 10.1002/admi.202400368

1. Introduction

Nanotechnology has emerged as a pio-

neering ﬁeld, fundamentally transform-

ing various industries with its unique at-

tributes. However, the advancement of

NanoFusion technology provides novel

potential to combine better functional-

ity and aesthetic value in textile ﬁn-

ishes. NanoFusion integrates nanotech-

nology with textiles to enhance properties

such as durability, comfort, breathabil-

ity, and aesthetic appeal. NanoFusion em-

ploys nanosized particles ranging from

 to  nm as the widely accepted

ones[]or coatings to infuse fabrics with

attributes such as hydrophobicity, re-

sistance to stains, antimicrobial prop-

erties, ﬁre resistance, and other bene-

ﬁcial traits. This textile innovation im-

proves the functionality and eciency

of materials, opening up possibilities

for diverse applications such as every-

day apparel, sports gear, medical tex-

tiles, and technical textiles in indus-

tries like aerospace and automotive.[]

H. R. Anik, S. I. Tushar

Department of Textiles, Merchandising and Interiors

University of Georgia

Dawson Hall 305 Sanford Dr, Athens, GA 30602, USA

S. I. Tushar

Department of Design and Merchandising

Oklahoma State University

Stillwater, OK 74078, USA

S. Mahmud

Department of Human Ecology

University of Alberta

116 St and 85 Ave, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2R3, Canada

A. H. Khadem

Department of Fabric Engineering

Bangladesh University of Textiles

Tejgaon, Dhaka 1208, Bangladesh

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NanoFusion greatly inﬂuences textiles, fundamentally trans-

forming the advancement of materials that exceed expectations

in performance and use. Furthermore, it addresses important

issues such as sustainability and the environmental footprint,

paving the way for a new era in textile manufacturing. These

advanced textiles have the ability to revolutionize industries and

improve various aspects of our daily lives, including providing

durable and high-performing clothing options and enhancing

safety in dangerous situations. Furthermore, NanoFusion exerts

a more extensive impact on fabrics that extends beyond their

functional attributes.

Natural ﬁbers and textiles have become a part of human life

since ancient times for environmental protection and covering

skin.[]Starting with vegetal ﬁbers, fur, and animal hair, there

has been evidence of using dyed ﬂax ﬁber almost   years

ago.[]Over the centuries ahead, people learned the process of

producing fabrics manually using naturally derived ﬁbers, which

were known as handwoven textiles.[]With the industrial revo-

lution in the eighteenth century, a pivotal industrial revolution

of advanced machinery and technologies welcomed cutting-edge

manufacturing of textiles in the twenty-ﬁrst century.[]By that

time, it had been possible to fabricate artiﬁcial ﬁbers with poly-

mers with attributes including cost-optimization, chemical and

mechanical stability, and other dierent properties.[]Over time,

researchers have developed various methods (such as coloring

techniques, digital printing, and coating deposition) and materi-

als (such as various ﬁnishes) to improve the functionality of tex-

tiles. Nanoparticles have emerged as a game changer in the ﬁeld

of functional and high-performance textiles with some outstand-

ing properties distinctive to conventional textiles.[]

Modifying textile substrates at the nanoscale can enhance fab-

ric performance and introduce valuable new functionalities, all

while maintaining their aesthetic properties such as appearance,

feel, breathability, lightness, ﬂexibility, and comfort.[]In addi-

tion, it is possible to enhance the washing fastness and me-

chanical properties, such as mechanical strength, wear, and abra-

sion resistance. Nanoﬁnishing embedded textiles oer an en-

vironmentally friendly solution by reducing energy consump-

tion while maintaining durability. Additionally, this process pro-

vides signiﬁcant beneﬁts with minimal alteration to the funda-

mental properties of the substrates.[c]With long-lasting eects,

high-performance fabrics can exhibit many functional proper-

ties, including antimicrobial,[]antistatic,[ ]stain-resistant,[]

hydrophobic,[]UV-protective,[ ]and many more properties.[]

The nanotechnological approach begins with the production of

nanoﬁbers or nanocomposite ﬁbers, which are then used to cre-

ate nanostructures and garments embedded with nanoelectron-

ics. This process enables the creation of a diverse spectrum of

smart and intelligent textiles.[]A higher surface area-to-volume

A. H. Khadem

Department of Textile Engineering

The International University of Scholars

40, Kemal Ataturk Ave, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh

P. Sen

Department of Yarn Engineering

Bangladesh University of Textiles

Tejgaon, Dhaka 1208, Bangladesh

ratio and high surface energy are the major positive points,

and the reason why they are most eective in action. Nanopar-

ticles generally have a larger speciﬁc surface area. Nanoparti-

cles can provide high coverage of the available micro space of

textile substrates.[]Thus, interparticle spaces have been very

low, as such the dimension is even smaller than the wavelength

of the UV radiation.[]Conductivity, diusion, and size of the

nanoparticles have been some crucial factors in developing high-

performance textiles.[b]

Manufacturing textiles means a set of chain activities that in-

cludes everything from collecting proper ﬁbers to making up the

garments.[]It all starts with sourcing the proper yarn for the

desired ﬁbers, and then it is followed by knitting or weaving the

favorite fabrics. Therefore, cutting the fabrics for making the gar-

ments then sums up the fabrication of conventional textiles.[,]

This process has been demonstrated in Section  to provide an

idea of producing conventional textiles, and the next level starts

with depositing nanoparticles on them. Using nanoparticles for

imparting over clothing or fabric is a process known as nanoﬁn-

ishing or nanocoating. However, it is not an easy job to ﬁnd an

appropriate nanoparticle for the appropriate substrates to impart

appropriate properties. Sometimes dierent properties can be in-

troduced in the fabrics with the nanoﬁnish, or the existing prop-

erties can be enhanced by using it.[]Section  discussed dif-

ferent nanoparticles for nanoﬁnishes and dierent techniques to

impart the properties as well. Moreover, the nanoﬁnish has been

utilized in dierent sectors along with the apparel industry, in-

cluding wearables, healthcare, sports, military and defense, and

automotive and aerospace textiles. Section  demonstrated poten-

tial applications related to nanoﬁnishes.

Merely fabricating nanotextiles and creating more for the mar-

ket cannot be the end of the story, as maintaining quality and

standard production has also been a key challenge.[b]Hence,

there are some major processes to evaluate the performance and

quality of the nanoﬁnished products. Section  discussed that

elaborately. Nanoparticles may exhibit detrimental impacts on

the environment and human health when they are used on a

larger scale. However, in retrospect, the researchers worked hard

to come up with sustainable production methods and materi-

als. Some of the eective and sustainable utilization of nanoﬁn-

ishes has been demonstrated in Section . Finally, the review has

been concluded with essential remarks and directions for future

minds so that they can contribute more to the development of

functional textiles.

2. Apparel Manufacturing Process Flow

From the ﬁber selection, the very ﬁrst step in apparel manufac-

turing, as the type of material—cotton, polyester, blends, etc.,—

is the key factor that determines the properties of the ﬁnished

garments.[]The chosen ﬁbers are then spun to manufacture

yarns, which are then used to weave or knit fabrics.[]After

that, the fabric is cut into patterns, sewn into clothes, and quality

checked.[]Pressing, ﬁnishing, and packaging are the last steps

before distribution. The choice of ﬁber is crucial in determining

the ﬁnal garment’s comfort, toughness, and general quality.[]

This section of the review demonstrated the entire conventional

process of manufacturing apparel goods.

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2.1. Fiber Selection and Yarn Manufacturing

Fiber manufacturing is the ﬁrst step of the apparel manufactur-

ing cycle.[]Textile ﬁber is basically of two types: natural and

manmade.[]The most commonly used natural ﬁbers are cot-

ton, wool, silk, and ﬂax. On the other hand, common man-made

ﬁbers are polyester, nylon, acrylic, aramid, and elastane. Natural

ﬁbers are normally cultivated if they are plant-based (e.g., cotton,

jute, hemp, and lyocell) or collected from bred or raised animals if

they are animal-based (e.g., wool and silk).[]These are collected

from the sources and spun into yarn following a few intermedi-

ate steps, including cleaning, sorting, carding, and spinning.[]

Manmade ﬁbers are normally produced by the chemical reac-

tion of polymers in three spinning processes:[]wet (acrylic,

spandex, and rayon),[]dry (polyvinyl chloride, spandex, and

polybenzimidazole),[]and melt spinning (polyester, nylon, and

polypropylene).[]Here, this category of ﬁber can be customized

according to the required count in a continuous ﬁlament or sta-

ple ﬁber after chopping into the desired length. Dierent types

of nanoﬁbers can be produced through these spinning processes

employing nanotechnology. For example, Wang et al.[]fabri-

cated an aramid nanoﬁber/graphene nanoplatelets hybrid ﬁla-

ment by wet spinning technology for electroconductive and joule

heating purposes. Liu et al.[]fabricated Kevlar aerogel nanoﬁber

having excellent mechanical and thermal insulation properties

employing the wet spinning technique. Nain et al.[]produced

nanoscale polymeric ﬁbers, i.e., polystyrene, with dry spinning

technology, having a diameter of  to  nm.

Some sorts of manmade ﬁber are synthesized by modifying the

natural polymers, known as regenerated manmade ﬁbers.[]For

example, cellulose is regenerated into viscose ﬁber. Some sorts

of blended ﬁbers are produced by mixing synthetic and natural

ﬁbers, for example, / PC (% cotton and % polyester).

Nowadays, dierent advanced technologies are used for man-

ufacturing specialized ﬁber. For example, electrospinning is a

very popular technique for fabricating nanoﬁbers by applying

suitable voltage.[]These nanoﬁbers are normally designed to

have special functionality, including antimicrobial, absorption,

antistatic, energy storage, joule heating, electromagnetic interfer-

ence shielding, and conductive properties.[]For example, poly-

diacetylene nanoﬁbers, fabricated by the electrospinning pro-

cess, could function as a biosensor by detecting the SARS-CoV-

virus.[]

2.2. Fabric Manufacturing

There are dierent categories of fabric manufactured in the

textile industry. These are woven, knitted, nonwoven, and

braided.[]Woven fabrics are produced by interlacing the yarn,

and dierent patterns of interlacing form dierent woven struc-

tures, including plain woven, matt, satin, and twill.[]This cate-

gory of fabric is produced through a series of processes, includ-

ing winding, warping, sizing, and weaving.[]Sizing is the only

chemical treatment process here, normally used for strengthen-

ing the moderate/low strength ﬁber before weaving,[]for exam-

ple, cotton. Nanotechnology can be employed in the sizing stage;

for example, a starch/montmorillonite nanocomposite was used

for sizing the warp yarn, and better performance was recorded,

including greater tensile strength and better adhesiveness of the

sizing chemical to the yarn/ﬁber surface.[]Knitted fabrics are

manufactured by interloping the yarn.[]It can be in two struc-

tures: single jersey and double jersey.[]No chemical process-

ing is normally required to manufacture this category of fabric.

Thermal, chemical, and mechanical bonding entangle the ﬁbers

together to fabricate nonwoven fabric.[]This fabric category is

specially used for functional purposes, such as protective masks,

sanitary napkins, geomembranes, and gowns.[]

2.3. Chemical Processing

Textiles are colored and processed in this step by dierent liq-

uid/wet treatments.[]This is the step that consumes the most

amount of water.[]Dierent categories of dyes and pigments,

including acid, basic, reactive, disperse dyes, and natural pig-

ments, are used for coloring the fabric.[]The selection of dyes

depends on the fabric composition. Here, dyes chemically re-

act with the ﬁber to color it[]or, in some cases, get trapped

inside the ﬁber, for example, polyester.[ ]The full coloration

process is completed through a series of steps, including pre-

treatment, coloration, and after-treatment/ﬁnishing.[]The fab-

ric can be treated with nanomaterial either during the dyeing

or postdyeing (ﬁnishing) stages to improve or add some func-

tional properties. For example, Qi et al.[]dyed cotton fabric with

self-dispersible nanocarbon black particles at  °Ctomakeit

UV-resistant and antistatic. Ki et al.[]treated wool fabric with

a sulfur nanosilver solution and found a high antibacterial e-

cacy (tested against Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumo-

niae bacteria). For some functional apparel, the textiles are treated

with nanoparticles, even without any coloration. For instance,

high-density polyethylene was treated with ZnO nanoparticles to

impart cooling functionality, and this could protect against over-

heating up to – °C by reﬂecting the solar radiation (%) and

selectively transferring out the human heat radiation.[]

Printing is another sort of wet treatment process for localized

textile coloring.[]This is normally done on cut panels or gar-

ments, depending on the ﬁnal product speciﬁcation. Dierent

nanodyes are printed on textiles for design. Dierent function-

alities can be added to the textiles through technical nanoprint-

ing technology, for example, dot printing, ink-jet printing, and

D printing.[]For example, Weremczuk et al.[]printed silver

nanoparticles on fabric for fabricating wearable humidity sensors

employing ink-jet printing technology. Yarn and ﬁber are treated

with nanomaterials for some functional requirements before fab-

rication. For example, Ghasemi et al.[]treated natural ﬁber yarn

(hemp and ﬂax) with cellulose nanoﬁbrils and nanocrystals to

improve mechanical stability. Sewing thread, which is basically

a textile yarn, is also treated with nanomaterials to impart func-

tionality and it is used for sewing specialized apparel. Venkatara-

man et al.[]treated dierent cotton and polyester industrial

sewing threads with silver nanoparticles and observed eective-

ness against bacterial activity.

2.4. Apparel Manufacturing

The prepared fabric, either woven, knitted, or nonwoven, is cut

into speciﬁed shapes according to the designed marker and sewn

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Figure 1. Application of nanotechnology in diﬀerent stages of the apparel manufacturing cycle.

into a garment.[]This stage of the manufacturing cycle nor-

mally does not require any chemical or liquid treatment, so nan-

otechnology is not applicable here. A few successive steps, includ-

ing marker making, pattern making, cutting, bundling, sewing,

packing, and ﬁnal quality inspection, complete this cycle.[]Dif-

ferent stages of the apparel manufacturing cycle where textiles

are treated with nanomaterials are illustrated in Figure 1.

3. Nanoﬁnishes on Textiles

Nanoﬁnishing can exhibit a myriad of functionalities for textiles,

oering enhanced durability, antibacterial properties, UV pro-

tection, and water repellency.[]The incorporation of nanopar-

ticles, such as silver (Ag), titanium dioxide (TiO), and zinc ox-

ide (ZnO), has proven eective in achieving these outcomes.

The applications of nanoﬁnished textiles extend across diverse

sectors, including healthcare, sportswear, wearables, automo-

biles, aerospace, and environmental protection.[,]It has been a

transformative force in the textile industry, and it can endow un-

paralleled control over the surface properties of textiles.[]This

section of the review discussed dierent methods of preparing

textiles by imparting nanoparticles.

3.1. Nanomaterials Used for Nanoﬁnishes

Nanotechnology has immense potential to improve textile prop-

erties and performance compared to conventional ﬁnishing. Con-

ventional ﬁnishing suers from dierent drawbacks, including

decreasing functional eects after laundry that can also impact

the breathability and moisture-retention properties of the fab-

ric. On the contrary, nanoﬁnishing enables textiles to be more

durable, functional, and aesthetic.[]Nanoﬁnishing on textiles is

widely studied to impart dierent feasible properties like stain re-

pellent, wrinkle resistance, ﬂame retardancy, microbe resistance,

enhanced conduciveness, and many more. Nanoﬁnishing of tex-

tiles can be divided into three categories, including nanostruc-

tures, nanolayers, and nanoroughness, which can be further cat-

egorized into dierent groups as shown in Figure 2.

In the nanostructure group, the nanoﬁnish can be in dier-

ent shapes with a nanosized structure, including nanospheres,

nanoneedles, nanocubes, nanoprisms, nanobars, nanostars,

nanorods, nanopyramids, nanowires, and nanoplates.[]These

nanomaterials can be mostly synthesized using two approaches:

top-down and bottom-up methods. In the case of the top-

down approach, the bulk materials are turned into nanos-

tructures, whereas the bottom-up approach utilizes the atoms

and molecules and assembles into the nanostructure shape

(Figure 3).[]

Nanostructures can be classiﬁed into nanoparticles and

nanocomposites. Nanoparticles contain at least one dimension

of nanosized particles, which can be further grouped as or-

ganic and inorganic nanoparticles. Nanostructured chitosan,

cellulose, alginate, and carbon-based compounds are good ex-

amples of organic nanoparticles. However, metal nanoparti-

cles like Ag, Cu, and Ni, along with metal oxide nanoparti-

cles like ZnO, TiO, etc., are widely used inorganic nanopar-

ticles. The diameter of these inorganic and organic nanopar-

ticles can vary from  nm to  μm. Nanolayer, also called

nanocoating, is another way to implement nanoﬁnishing on

textiles by deposition of one or a multilayer of nanoparticles.

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Conventional coating shows poor adhesion and abrasion with

weak durability, whereas nanolayer is durable, corrosion-

resistant, and has more strength. The ﬁnal category of nanoﬁn-

ishing is nanoroughness, which means the creation of a rough-

treated surface with the nanomaterials. The size and concen-

tration of the nanoparticles impact the surface’s nanoroughness

properties.[]

3.2. Methods of Nanoﬁnishes

Nanocoating or nanolayer is a popular technique of nanoﬁnish-

ing to impart nanoparticles to the surface of textiles. Dierent

types of methods are followed to perform the nanocoating on the

textile surface. For instance, dip coating, chemical vapor deposi-

tion, layer-by-layer (L-b-L) technique, sol–gel, electroless deposi-

tion, electrospraying, and more. The most popular nanoparticle

application techniques have been discussed below brieﬂy.

3.2.1. Dip Coating

Dip coating for nanoﬁnishing is one of the most utilized and

suitable methods, as this process has rarely had any detrimen-

tal eect on the textile properties. In this method, the fabric

is dipped and passed through the nanomaterial solution. After-

ward, the fabric is squeezed with dierent rollers to remove the

excess solution, which is followed by curing or drying (Figure 4).

Dardari et al.[]introduced catalyst based dip coating on syn-

thetic on PES fabric, where graphene oxide (GO) was deposited,

and the fabric was decorated with Cuand Agnanoparticles

(NPs). They followed the process of dip coating and ran the in

Ltd.

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Figure 4. Schematic illustration of dip coating technique (1) squeeze

rollers, (2) fabric, and (3) liquor tank. Reproduced with permission.[70]

situ reduction of Cu+and Ag+to Cuand Agover the surface.

They investigated all the individual condition of the fabric with

GO and other nanoparticles. The functional fabric was used for

the reduction of Rhodamine B ( ppm), -nitrophenol (..

– ), and Methyl Orange ( ppm). Moreover, the catalyst

also demonstrated a good catalytic activity. On kinetics, the re-

action constants for RhB, -NP, and MO were ., ., and

. min−, respectively. In this method, the absorption capac-

ity of the textiles as well as the solid content of the liquor con-

tribute to the successful deposition of the nanomaterials.[]For

instance, a nanowool-contained cotton fabric was developed by

dipping the cotton fabric in the nanopowder wool solution to im-

part wrinkle recovery properties. The cotton fabric was dipped

ﬁve times in the solution to get a pick-up of  wt%. Afterward,

the fabric was dried and cured to check the improved proper-

ties of the fabric. The pores of the cotton fabric were found

to be blocked by the nanowool after the successful dip coating

technique that enhanced the wrinkle resistance property of this

fabric.[]

3.2.2. Electroless Deposition

Electroless plating, also referred to as chemical plating, is the au-

tocatalytic process of depositing metal ions onto a substrate. This

process involves the presence of a reducing agent and other ad-

ditives to ensure stability. Plating is a method employed to ap-

ply nanostructures onto substrates, as opposed to simply coat-

ing them. Metals like Ag, Fe, Cu, Ni, Al, etc. are widely used

to form their layer on the surface through the chemical reduc-

tion of these metal ions and their subsequent deposition. Elec-

troless plating involves the deposition of metals through chem-

ical reactions rather than the use of electrical energy. Metal

plated fabrics ﬁnd applications in various ﬁelds, including EMI

shielding, self-cleaning, antimicrobial properties, and electrical

conductivity.[]Frunza et al.[]used the electroless deposition

to impart crystalline ZnO particles on polyester textiles, with a

comparison among the materials, i.e., poly(lactic acid) (PLA),

polyamide (PA), and hemp. XRD and SEM revealed wurtzite-

type ZnO particles, – nm in diameter and up to  μm

in length, deposited into the textile ﬁbers. The polyester fab-

rics demonstrated superhydrophobic properties, with water con-

tact angles over °, measured via the sessile drop method.

They used the Cassie–Baxter model to explain hydrophobic be-

havior. Additionally to impart the EMI shielding property in the

poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) fabric, Lu et al.[]developed

an Ag/PET fabric using the electroless deposition method with

the assistance of ultrasonic. In this study, the PET fabric was

pretreated ﬁrst with multiple chemicals to prepare it for electro-

less deposition. Afterward, the pretreated fabric was immersed

in the silver-plating solution without using any other catalyst.

After maintaining the ultrasonic frequency and the pH in the

plating bath, the samples were picked up and rinsed sequentially

with toluene, ethanol, and water, followed by drying in an oven at

 °C for  h. Through the Raman spectra and thermogravimet-

ric analysis test, it was conﬁrmed that the PET fabric had a strong

Ag coating of .%, which ﬁnally enhanced the EMI shielding

property.[]

3.2.3. Layer-by-Layer (L-b-L)

L-b-L is another popular technique for imparting a thin coating

on the textile surface.[]This method is based on electrostatic in-

teraction, which was ﬁrst tried with polyelectrolytes. Nowadays,

it is widely used to deposit nanoparticles on dierent substrates.

In this method, thin nanomaterial ﬁlms are produced by deposit-

ing alternate layers of nanoparticles of opposite charges. First, the

substrate on which the nanoparticles will be deposited is charged

and immersed in an oppositely charged polyelectrolyte, which re-

sults in a strong electrostatic bond between the polyelectrolyte

and the substrate. In the next step, the substrate is rinsed and

afterward, the monolayer-coated substrate is immersed in an-

other opposite-charged solution, which forms the second coat-

ing layer on the surface of the substrate. With consecutive repe-

titions of this process, multilayers of dierent nanoparticles can

be deposited on the textile surface, which can greatly enhance

the functional properties.[]Figure 5brieﬂy illustrates the L-b-

L process.[]For instance, ZnO nanoparticles were deposited on

cotton fabric to impart antimicrobial properties. The cotton fabric

was cationized with ,-epoxypropyl trimethylammonium chlo-

ride. Afterward, the cationized fabric was immersed in ZnO’s so-

lutions multiple times by maintaining the sequence of opposite

charges each time. In this way,  multilayers of ZnO were suc-

cessfully deposited on the cotton fabric surface. Ultimately, the

successful deposition of ZnO nanoparticles on the cotton fabric

enhanced its UV protection and antibacterial properties.[]Gad-

kari et al.[]worked on fabricating a self-assembled antimicrobial

coating on cotton fabric using a layer-by-layer (L-B-L) technique.

Ag-loaded chitosan (CS-Ag) nanoparticles and poly(styrene sul-

fonate) facilitated as cationic and anionic agents, respectively.

They successfully created up to  bilayers, while the applica-

tion was conﬁrmed by color depth measurements after each layer.

However, the deposition of the nanoparticles was ensured by the

SEM and XRD tests. Antibacterial activity, particularly against

Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, showed enhanced

performance with minimal silver loading.

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3.2.4. Vapor Deposition

In the vapor deposition technique, the vapor of the nanomaterials

is condensed through condensation, chemical reaction, or con-

versation and then deposited on the substrate. Physical vapor de-

position (PVD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) are the two

categories of this method.[]In the PVD or sputtering method,

the solid form of a material turns into a vapor phase through

any physical means like high temperature. Afterward, the vapor

is transferred from the source material to the substrate through

molecule-by-molecule or atom-by-atom resulting in the deposi-

tion of that material on the substrate as shown in Figure 6a.[]On

the other hand, with the chemical reaction, CVD generally forms

the coating on the substrate. In this case, the gaseous form of the

coating material is transferred into a reacting chamber at a cer-

tain temperature that reacts with the substrate and, consequently,

deposits on the surface of the substrate, as shown in Figure b.[]

Researchers extensively study both PVD and CVD techniques

for depositing nanomaterials on textile surfaces. For instance,

Xu et al. deposited nano-TiOon cotton and polyester fabrics by

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Figure 7. Primary mechanism of the sol–gel process. Reproduced with

following the PVD method to impart self-cleaning properties.[]

Again, Egami et al. developed a conductive cotton fabric with a

thin layer of polypyrrole nanoparticles (< nm) following the

CVD technique.[]¸Sim¸sek and Karaman[]reported the pro-

cess of synthesizing of poly(hexaﬂuoro butyl acrylate) (PHFBA)

thin ﬁlms on textiles using initiated chemical vapor deposition

(iCVD). PHFBA, with its short perﬂuoroalkyl group, can essen-

tially serve as a low-surface-energy ﬁnish for hydrophobic textile

functionalization. The iCVD method achieved deposition rates

of up to  nm min−, nearly double that of PECVD. Polyester

and cotton fabrics became superhydrophobic after PHFBA coat-

ing, with the decoration of the SiOnanoparticle as it can produce

dual-scale roughness. The ﬁnal treated fabrics exhibited high wa-

ter contact angles (>°), which proves hydrophobicity in princi-

ple. This work deﬁnitely sheds light on motivation and promises

to work more on this process essentially for better performance

of the nanoparticles.

3.2.5. Sol–Gel Process

Nanocoatings can be formed on the substrate by the sol–gel pro-

cess, which is based on hydrolysis and condensation. The sol–

gel process synthesizes metal oxide nanoparticles such as SiO

and TiOfrom precursor molecules. Primarily, hydrolysis and

water- and alcohol-producing condensation are the main mecha-

nisms during the synthesizing and formation of homogeneous

colloids of the nanoparticles of the metal oxides, as shown in

Figure 7.[]A simple pad-dry-cure or dip coating method can be

utilized to apply the sol–gel solution on the substrate.[]After

deposition, the nanoparticle solution is turned into gel, aggre-

gated, and forms a D network during the drying process. After

drying and curing, the gel provided a thin ﬁlm on the surface of

the substrate.[,]Plenty of studies have been carried out on the

TiOdeposition on textile fabric by following the sol–gel method.

Allaka and Yepuri[]presented an economical method for pro-

ducing superhydrophobic cotton and silk fabrics with the combi-

nation of sol–gel and dip coating technique. They mostly put em-

phasis on addressing the necessity for hydrophobic and highly

luminous clothing in applications like COVID- frontline gar-

ments and military apparel. According to their XRD report, the

anatase phase of titania in the coated fabrics has been explored

clearly. On the studies of wetting properties, it showed the con-

tact angles of °for cotton and °for silk, which is pretty ﬁne

for the hydrophobic surface. In terms of the diuse reﬂectance

spectroscopy, it indicated % reﬂectivity in the UV and % in

IR wavelengths. The coated fabrics exhibited excellent hydropho-

bicity and reﬂectivity, which made them an ideal candidate for the

application like various low-maintenance apparel applications.

Daoud et al.[]studied the application of the TiOnanopar-

ticles on the cotton fabric to enhance its UV protection and an-

timicrobial properties. TiOnanosols were synthesized from the

titanium tetraisopropoxide by following the sol–gel process with

the help of acetic acid, nitric acid (HNO), and ethanol. Finally,

the coating process was completed with the help of the dip-pad-

dry-cure technique.[]

3.2.6. Plasma Coating

The plasma coating technique is preferable to the conventional

method due to its environment-friendly behavior, which requires

less energy and low material input.[]Plasma, which is the fourth

state of a material, can be created with the gas by applying an elec-

tric ﬁeld. This ionized gas can react with the surface of the fab-

rics and enhance its functionalities. Gas ﬂow, frequency, the right

combination, and selection of gases are the key factors for the ef-

fective plasma coating over the fabric.[]In brief, plasma poly-

merization results in the nanocoating on the substrate following

gas phase activation and plasma substrate interactions.[]Multi-

ple articles can be found on the plasma polymerization-assisted

coating on the textiles. For instance, clay and hexamethylene dis-

iloxane silicon were coated to develop the atmospheric plasma-

treated cotton fabric to impart the ﬂame retardancy property by

Horrocks et al.[]Again, Alongi and Malucelli followed cold oxy-

gen plasma treatment to coat the cotton fabric with silica and

talcite nanoparticles to enhance the ﬁre resistance property.[]

Shariat[]explored plasma printing and direct one-step print-

ing of Ag nanoparticles on ﬂexible substrates. Using a silver ni-

trate solution aerosolized into a nonthermal plasma jet, the re-

searcher produced the Ag nanoparticles and deposited them on

polyester fabrics. According to the characterization by FESEM,

XRD, and EDX, spherical nanoparticles were conﬁrmed with a

face-centered cubic crystalline structure. The best SERS perfor-

mance was found at a  kV plasma voltage, with potential for

swab-based analyte detection.

3.2.7. Electrospraying Process

The nanoparticles of certain materials can also be deposited by

the electrospraying process, which consists of a syringe fed and a

collector plate. The syringe fed contains a polymer solution that

is applied to the high electric voltage, which results in charged

droplets in the capillary tip of the syringe. The droplets at the tip

can overcome the surface tension of the liquid and start to spread

by forming a conical shape. When the low-viscosity polymer so-

lution is used in this process, the jet of solution breaks down and

the liquids start to drop down as a spray, and this process can

be referred to as the electrospraying process. The electrospray-

ing process is shown in Figure 8.[]

Güne¸sogluetal.

[]electrospray the ﬂuorocarbon resins and

dimethyloldihydroxylethyleneurea (DMDHEU) reagents on the

cotton fabrics to impart the oil and water repellency on the

fabric. It was found that the polymer solution of ﬂuorocar-

bon resins and DMDHEU avoided any unnecessary agglomer-

ation on the surface of the fabrics through this technique which

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was veriﬁed by scanning electronic microscopic test. Through

this electrospraying, the ﬂuorocarbon resins and DMDHEU im-

proved the oil and water repellency of the cotton fabric. ˙

Ibili and

Da¸sdemir[]demonstrated superhydrophobic and antibacterial

properties for medical applications using a one-step electrospray-

ing method. They also ran a comparison with the pad-dry-cure

method. Coatings made from silver chloride–titanium dioxide

(AgCl–TiO) and dendritic polymer with methyl end groups were

applied. Electrospraying has dramatically improved water repel-

lency, putting a shift of the contact angle from .°to .°.

The textiles also showed over % antibacterial activity against

Escherichia coli and S. aureus.Table 1represents the summary

of dierent methods of incorporating nanoparticles over textiles

substrates.

4. Functional Properties on Textile Materials

With the help of dierent nanoparticles and their deposition, tex-

tile materials can essentially exhibit dierent kinds of functional

properties, including ﬂame retardancy, UV protection, antiodor,

wrinkle resistance, antistatic, hydrophobicity, antibacterial, and

many other properties.[]Fabrication, characterization, and dif-

ferent properties of functional textiles were discussed in the pa-

per of Mishra et al.[]They demonstrated basic mechanisms

with dierent aspects of nanotechnology with the necessary fu-

ture research direction. This part of the review discussed the dif-

ferent properties of high-performance textiles with nanoparticles.

4.1. Antimicrobial Property

Nanoparticles in antimicrobial applications actually set a strong

defense against harmful microorganisms so that they keep germs

and bacteria away from the patients or wearers.[]As a result,

it has a wide range of applications in the healthcare industry.

Nanoparticles, including Ag, Cu, TiO, and ZnO, hold some in-

herent antimicrobial properties. Nanoparticles on textiles can re-

lease ions that can damage cell structures, stop enzymes from

working, and cause oxidative stress when they come into contact

with pathogens.[b]This ultimately results in microbial death,

or it can also slow down the growth of the bacteria. Additionally,

nanoparticles with high surface area-to-volume ratios enhance di-

rect contact with microorganisms, inﬂuencing their ecacy.[]

This mechanism prevents microbial proliferation on textile sur-

faces, welcoming various applications, including healthcare, or

even in food processing, and personal protective equipment.[]

Therefore, the antibacterial properties in textiles keep the bacte-

ria away through inhibiting, killing, or preventing their growth.

With the help of the nanoparticles via coating, the nanoparticles

generally disrupt the bacterial cell wall, create the oxidative stress,

interrupt with the function of the enzymes, and eventually they

kill the bacterial cells.[]Other organic elements like quaternary

ammonium compounds create a leakage in the cell wall, and then

it inhibits the growth of the bacteria.[]Moreover, photocatalytic

activity with TiONPs can produce reactive oxygen species un-

der the light that can damage the bacterial cells.[]This is how

nanoparticles helps in controlling bacterial growth, resulting in

reducing the risk of infection, hygiene concerns, and generating

bad odors.[]

Due to the chemical composition of the textile materials (ly-

ocell, linen, cotton, viscose, as in most of the natural materials,

cellulose, and bast ﬁbers), the textile fabrics are more prone to be-

ing attacked by dierent microorganisms, i.e., fungi, algae, pro-

tozoa, bacteria, and dierent microbial elements.[]With the

trend of being aware of health and hygiene, antimicrobial eect

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Tabl e 1 . Summary of diﬀerent methods of incorporating nanoparticles over textiles substrates.

Method Application process Description Functional

properties

Advantages Disadvantages Refs.

Dip-coating The textile substrates are

dipped into the solution

having a nanoparticle

suspension, and then the

process is followed by

drying.

Using this technique, textiles are

submerged in a suspension of

nanoparticles and allowed to

absorb the particles onto their

surface. It is an easy-to-use,

reasonably priced method that

works well for mass production.

Antimicrobial, water

repellency, stain

resistance

•Simple and cost-eﬀective

•Sustainable

•Less NP needed

•Suitable for large-scale pro-

duction

•Limited control over nanoparticle

dispersion

•Uniformity may be challenging to

achieve

•Time consuming

•It requires multiple dips for de-

sired coverage.

[92]

Electroless

deposition

Making textiles immersed in a

chemical bath for

electroless deposition.

Metal ions on textile surfaces are

chemically reduced during

electroless deposition,

resulting in the formation of a

layer of nanoparticles. It oﬀers

a consistent layer that adheres

well to intricate shapes.

Conductivity,

corrosion

resistance, wear

resistance

•This method ensures uni-

form coating.

•It shows good ﬁxation and

adhesion of nanoparticles.

•They can be used for com-

plex shapes.

•This method is expensive.

•It requires speciﬁc chemical

baths.

•It is limited to certain types of

nanoparticles.

•It may involve multiple steps.

[93]

Layer-by-layer In this process, layers of

oppositely charged

nanoparticles are applied

sequentially, and it allows

each layer to adhere before

the next application.

The layer-by-layer technique

deposits alternating layers of

nanoparticles with opposite

charges to produce a

multilayered structure. It is

adaptable to many types of

nanoparticles and provides

accurate control over layer

thickness.

Controlled drug

release, enhanced

UV protection,

gas barrier

properties

•It can ensure adjustable layer

thickness.

•It can use various nanoparti-

cle types.

•This is a time-consuming process.

•It requires a certain set and spe-

ciﬁc equipment.

•The application process it limited

to certain types of nanoparticles.

[77,94]

Vapor deposition It is necessary to use physical

vapor deposition methods

to deposit nanoparticles

onto textile surfaces.

Vapor deposition is the process of

applying nanoparticles to textile

surfaces by sputtering or

evaporating them. It oﬀers

consistent and managed

coating that is highly precise

and appropriate for intricate

structures.

Reﬂective coatings,

barrier layers,

enhanced

thermal

properties

•This method ensures uni-

form and controlled coating.

•It is suitable for complex

shapes.

•It can maintain a high preci-

sion.

•The equipment cost may be high.

•The process is limited to certain

types of nanoparticles.

•It may also require vacuum condi-

tions.

[82,95]

(Continued)

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Tabl e 1 . (Continued)

Method Application process Description Functional

properties

Advantages Disadvantages Refs.

Sol–gel In this process applying a

sol–gel solution containing

nanoparticles onto textiles

is necessary, followed by

gelation.

By adding nanoparticles to a

solution, the sol–gel technique

applies the solution on textiles

and allows it to gel. It works

well with diﬀerent kinds of

nanoparticles and may be

applied to diverse textile

materials.

Transparent

coatings,

enhanced

adhesion, scratch

resistance

•It is ﬂexible for various

nanoparticle types.

•It can be applied to diﬀerent

textile materials.

•It is a relatively simple pro-

cess.

•It may require very high-

temperature processing.

•Having control over nanoparticle

distribution may be challenging.

[96]

Plasma coating It requires plasma activation

to treat textile surfaces,

followed by the deposition

of nanoparticles.

Plasma coating involves using

plasma to activate textile

surfaces, allowing

nanoparticles to be deposited

onto the activated surface. It

provides a uniform coating with

good adhesion and can be

applied to various textile

materials.

Flame retardancy,

improved

dyeability,

enhanced

adhesion

•A good ﬁxation of the

nanoparticles.

•Good adhesion of nanoparti-

cles.

•It requires a specialized setup.

•It may involve complex process

optimization.

[97]

Electrospraying

process

This method used an

electrostatic spray of a

liquid solution containing

nanoparticles onto textile

surfaces.

After being dispersed in a liquid

solution, nanoparticles are

electrostatically sprayed onto

textile surfaces in the electro

spraying process. It works well

with a variety of textile

materials and provides ﬁne

control over particle size.

Moisture

management,

conductive

textiles

•It can ensure tunable particle

size.

•It can exhibit uniform coat-

ing.

•It is suitable for a wide range

of textile materials.

•High equipment cost

•Settling diﬀerent spraying param-

eters is crucial.

[91, 97c, 98]

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has been a serious concern in the ﬁeld of textiles, especially in

the ﬁeld of medical textiles, and surgery products.[]Dierent

metals, such as silver, gold, copper, zinc, and titanium nanoparti-

cles, along with dierent metal oxides (i.e., CuO, ZnO, and TiO

nanoparticles), are possibly popular nanoparticles used over tex-

tile materials for exhibiting antibacterial eects. Nanoparticles,

with their higher surface area-to-volume ratio, can essentially

impart a strong antimicrobial impact on textile materials. Sil-

ver (Ag) served as one of the earliest antimicrobial nanoparticles

that was utilized on textile surfaces.[]It serves as an antimi-

crobial agent, demonstrating exceptional antimicrobial activity

while maintaining its mechanical properties. Due to their small

size, Ag nanoparticles possess a signiﬁcantly large surface area,

enabling them to eectively interact with bacterial proteins and

hinder the proliferation of bacterial cells. Ag nanoparticles dis-

rupt the electron and substrate transport pathway.[]Upon re-

acting with moisture, the Ag+ions rapidly diuse through the

cell wall and cell membrane, ultimately reaching the cytoplasm.

Ag+ions on the cell membrane undergo a reaction with proteins

containing sulfur, resulting in a change in the structure of the cell

wall.[]Consequently, the cell membrane undergoes degrada-

tion and releases the cytoplasm as a result of osmotic action. The

Ag+ions also engage in interactions with proteins that contain

phosphate, leading to the condensation of DNA and ultimately

resulting in cell death.[]The antibacterial eectiveness of Ag

nanoparticles is determined by their size, surface area, concen-

tration, and the release of Ag+ions. The antibacterial eective-

ness of Ag nanoparticles depends on their size, surface area, con-

centration, and the release of Ag+ions.[]Figure 9aexplains

how the antimicrobial activities take place with the help of dier-

ent nanoparticles.[]Martinaga Pintari´

cetal.

[]imparted an-

timicrobial impact on the textile materials through the sol–gel

technology for coating with ZnO. They investigated dierent an-

timicrobial eects with dierent concentrations of the solution

(having acids, precursor, and the nanoparticle) and dierent ul-

trasonic irradiation power. They found the homogeneity of layers

with ZnO NPs over the samples increasing with the ultrasonic ir-

radiation power and time. Moreover, ultrasonic irradiation could

prevent the agglomeration of the nanoparticles, which has been

a serious concern over time.

The antibacterial impact started to show severely impactful

results after  h of exposure to cellulose materials that were

previously modiﬁed with NPs under ultrasonic irradiation com-

pared to control samples (Figure b). This experiment set the

parameters in the trails of ultrasonic irradiation power (rang-

ing from  to  kHz), dierent concentrations of reagents

and a time limit (duration from  to  min). Bhattacharjee

et al.[]developed graphene oxide and Ag NP-based pathogens

protective materials for personal protective equipment in health-

care systems. They demonstrated the antimicrobial impact and

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cytotoxicity of the cotton/silk fabrics treated with reduced

graphene oxide (RGO) and Ag/Cu NPs. The functional materi-

als were prepared using a -glycidyloxypropyl trimethoxy silane

coupling agent, and they utilized vacuum heat treatment with

chemical reduction in the process. Incorporating NPs over the

RGO layer substantially showed an increased antimicrobial ef-

fect (Figure c). Mehravani et al.[]reviewed the use of gold

nanoparticles to assess the antimicrobial performance of treated

synthetic ﬁbers. They reported dierent information on the func-

tionalization of textile materials with Au NPs by dierent tech-

niques, and they tried to initiate methods of enhancing the an-

timicrobial properties (Figure d). Despite applying and discov-

ering dierent kinds of antimicrobial ﬁnishes, the ﬁeld of facile

and sustainable ﬁnishing materials leaves a large gap in this ﬁeld.

Moreover, at the industrial level, these ﬁnishes are yet to go a long

way toward commercialization and making them ready to go into

people’s lives.

4.2. Flame Retardant Property

Flame-retardant textiles incorporating nanoparticles can es-

sentially exhibit enhanced ﬁre resistance and safety for the

wearer.[]Nanoparticles like alumina, silica, and titanium diox-

ide generally act well as ﬂame retardants by adding some substan-

tial protective layers over the fabric surfaces.[]Flame retardant

materials can actually disrupt the combustion process in three

ways primarily. ) Gas phase inhibition, this process facilitates

with producing noncombustible gases (like water vapor or CO)

to dilute ﬂammable gases. ) Thermal shielding via creating a

char layer on the textile surface for insulation and slowing down

heat transfer. ) Endothermic reactions with the materials that

absorb heat, lowering the temperature below the ignition point.

As a result, the ﬂame retardant fabrics can delay the ignition, may

have reduced ﬂame spread, and self-extinguishing behavior, and

it makes early protection during exposure to ﬁre.[,]In their

mechanism of action, these nanoparticles release inert gases dur-

ing combustion, and by diluting the ﬂammable gases and sup-

pressing ﬂame propagation, they provide safety from any kind

of ignition.[]Additionally, nanoparticles may also catalyze char

formation, and they can also create a barrier to insulate the fabric

from heat and prevent further ignition. The required high surface

area can ensure better dispersion within the fabric matrix, as well

as uniform ﬂame retardancy.[]By leveraging nanotechnology,

ﬂame retardant textiles with nanoparticles provide excellent pro-

tection against ﬁre hazards in various industries, including au-

tomotive, aerospace, and construction.[]Nanoparticles can be

incorporated into the coating materials to make them more stable

ﬂame retardants than the textile materials. Most defensive cloth-

ing uses ﬂame-retardant fabrics to protect against emergency ﬁre

conditions.[]

Talebi et al.[]tried to incorporate silica NPs into the denim

fabrics. They fabricated silica NPs-coated denim fabric through

the Stöber method using sodium silicate solution and Keliab as a

natural alkali source. Apart from enhanced ﬂame-retardant prop-

erties, it showed some excellent properties, including heat re-

sistance, strength, water absorption, air permeability, and self-

cleaning, and many more (Figure 10a). Goda et al.[]demon-

strated a novel technique to fabricate O-carboxymethyl chitosan

nanoparticles–incorporated graphene sheets (O-GRP) through

ultrasonication, and it was utilized as a green binder for Ppy–

Ag nanocomposite-coated textile substrates. The resulting CT/O-

GRP-Ppy-Ag textiles exhibited improved thermal, mechanical,

electrical, antimicrobial, and ﬂame-retardant properties. More-

over, the burning rate has decreased to . mm min−,and

the limiting oxygen index (LOI) has increased to .%, demon-

strating enhanced ﬁre retardation compared to uncoated tex-

tiles (Figure b). Ur Rehman et al.[]fabricated starch–clay–

TiO-based nanocomposites over cotton fabric via a layer-by-layer

(LBL) process. They successfully enhanced ﬂame retardancy and

inhibited pyrolysis. The sample with seven bilayers exhibited

the greatest pyrolysis reduction (≈% and % via MCC and

TGA). Moreover, it showed improved PHRR (≈ W g−), THR

(≈. kJ g−), HRC (≈ J g−K−), and LOI (≈.%) values

via UL- testing (Figure c). Researchers sometimes become

skeptical about the toxicity of using nanoparticles and additives.

Therefore, they tried to come up with some less toxic and sustain-

able solutions. For example, Liao et al.[]used the ammonium

salt of meglumine phosphoric ester acid (ASMPEA) for coating

cotton fabric. ASMPEA, a halogen-free, formaldehyde-free ﬂame

retardant, was synthesized, and it was easily grafted onto cotton

ﬁbers. They treated the cotton fabric, and it exhibited an LOI of

.%, decreasing to .% after  laundering cycles, indicating

durable ﬂame retardancy. Thermal analysis showed ASMPEA de-

composition hindered ﬂame spread. Despite minor mechanical

property reduction, ASMPEA eectively enhanced cotton’s ﬂame

resistance.

4.3. Self-Cleaning

Self-cleaning textiles using dierent nanoparticles can oer a

lot of beneﬁts for maintaining fabric cleanliness and hygiene.

Nanoparticles like titanium dioxide (TiO),whichhavesomepho-

tocatalytic properties, can enable the decomposition of organic

substances upon exposure to light.[]Moreover, it can break dirt

and stains on fabric surfaces. Additionally, nanoparticles on tex-

tile substrates may sometimes have the superhydrophobic prop-

erties to create a self-cleaning eect just by repelling water and

preventing liquid absorption.[]As a result, it can make the

dirt, and liquids slide o the fabric. Some nanoparticles also ex-

hibit antibacterial properties, further enhancing fabric cleanli-

ness. With the blessing of these mechanisms, self-cleaning tex-

tiles with nanoparticles can essentially reduce the load of fre-

quent washing and maintenance of clothing, especially in the

colder parts of the world.[]

The concept of self-cleaning property rose from the hydropho-

bic nature of the lotus leaves, known as the “Lotus Eect.” The

coatings with nanoparticles like silica or TiOcan create a rough

surface with micro- and nanoscale structures. This surface gen-

erally repels water due to low surface energy, and it makes the

droplets roll o, then it removes the dirt and contaminants with

that. TiOalso provides photocatalytic activity, which can help

in decomposing organic stains when the fabrics are exposed to

sunlight. This dual-action of water-repellency and photocataly-

sis gives textiles self-cleaning properties leading to cleanliness

and reducing the need for frequent washing or chemical clean-

ing agents.[]Wan et al.[ ]worked with cotton fabrics having

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on cotton fabric with a matrix composed of cationized starch and clay nanoparticles: thermal parameters derived from microcone calorimetry data include

(i) heat release capacity (HRC) values for individual coated samples, ii) heat of combustion (Hc), iii) limiting oxygen index (LOI) analysis, and iv) ﬁre

N-halamine structure that were coated with TiOnanoparticles

(.% weight) via PDA/PEI. As it was observed, photocatalytic

activity degraded with the use of .% methylene blue in  h.

Chlorinated fabrics sterilized % of S. aureus and E. coli within

 min. TiOexhibited lotus leaf-like hydrophobicity at  °C,

enabling self-cleaning (Figure 11a). Rananavare and Lee[]also

worked with the hydrophobic wetting properties of the cotton fab-

rics. A hydrophobic cotton fabric was fabricated, and they used

poly(glycidyl methacrylate) (PGMA) nanoparticles that were syn-

thesized via radical-induced dispersion polymerization. Octade-

cyl mercaptan provided low surface energy, while PGMANPs an-

chored to cotton via covalent bonds, increasing the surface rough-

ness to enhance the hydrophobic properties of the textile sub-

strates. Modiﬁed fabric displayed nano- and microscale rough-

ness, achieving a contact angle of °, exhibiting self-cleaning

and droplet resistance properties (Figure b). Tudu et al.[]

worked on the superhydrophobic coating for cotton fabric, and

they successfully achieved it through immersion in a solution

containing TiOnanoparticles and perﬂuorodecyltriethoxysilane.

The resulting coating exhibited some remarkable results, includ-

ing a high-water contact angle of .°±.°and a low tilt angle

of .°±.°, indicating super hydrophobicity. Additionally, the

coated fabric showcased an excellent self-cleaning eect, demon-

strating an excellent hydrophobic property (Figure c).

4.4. UV-Resistance

UV-resistant textiles or UV-blocking textiles with nanoparti-

cles have the ability to oer advanced protection against harm-

ful UV radiation.[]Nanoparticles like TiOhave the UV-

blocking ability to eectively absorb and scatter UV rays upon

open exposure to sunlight.[]Additionally, these nanoparti-

cles can be modiﬁed to form a protective layer on the fab-

ric surface with coating or using additives, which can further

improve the UV protection ability.[]ZnO nanoparticles also

contribute to UV resistance with their ability to absorb and

reﬂect UV radiation.[]By incorporating these nanoparticles

into textiles, UV-resistant fabrics can essentially play a vital role

in creating protection against sunburn, premature aging, and

skin cancer.[]The functional fabrics protect the skin from

harmful UV radiation by incorporating materials that can ab-

sorb or reﬂect UV rays. TiOor ZnO nanoparticles can either

scatter or absorb UV radiation. Additionally, certain ﬁbers like

polyester and nylon naturally have the ability of better UV pro-

tection due to their tight molecular structure. Dyeing fabrics

with UV-blocking agents or using special UV-stabilizing coat-

ings can further improve the UV protection properties. The

mechanism of preventing UV rays is mainly restricting the

UV rays penetrating the fabric and reaching the skin, and it

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Figure 11. a) PDA/PEI and TiO2nanoparticle ﬁlm, and N-halamine-incorporated cotton fabric mimicking lotus leaf for self-cleaning, antibacterial, and

Elsevier Ltd. c,d) SEM images of TiO2-incorporated cotton fabrics demonstrating (a,b) coated and (c,d) uncoated cotton fabric, with corresponding

static water contact angles (inset). The EDS spectra of the coated sample demonstrate the presence of C, Ti, O, F, and Si elements. Reproduced with

also oers protection against sunburn and long-term skin dam-

age.

Štular et al.[]introduced a novel eco-friendly method to a fab-

ricate multifunctional antibacterial and UV-protective cotton sur-

face. Cellulose ﬁbers in their experiment were premodiﬁed with a

polysiloxane matrix beforehand, followed by green in situ biosyn-

thesis of Ag NPs using sumac leaf extract. With the structure,

the generated Ag NPs were face-centered cubic, averaging –

 nm. Ag NP concentration ranged from  to   mg kg−

with increasing AgNOprecursor concentration. Ag NPs and

sumac leaf extract provided a UV protection factor of more than

, regardless of Ag NP concentration, with an increased dura-

bility at higher concentrations (Figure 12a).

El-hady et al.[b]also treated the cotton fabric with a ZnO/SiO

nanocomposite via electrostatic self-assembly layer-by-layer tech-

nique. They tried varying ratios (Zn/Si) and layer numbers af-

fected UV protection. However, the best UV protection factor

(UPF) values were achieved at a Zn/Si ratio of . Moreover, they

reported that the dyeing process in general enhances UV protec-

tion. El-Naggar et al.[]synthesized titanium oxide doped silver

nanoparticles (Ag/TiONPs) for making functionalized cotton

fabrics, and they compared their ecacy with individually pre-

pared Ag NPs and TiONPs. Ag NPs were synthesized from

the arabic gum, and then the cotton fabrics were treated with

two nanoparticle concentrations using the pad-dry-cure (PDC)

method with a ﬁxing agent for durability against washing cycles.

Ag/TiONPs-treated fabrics showed superior antimicrobial and

UPF properties, along with enhanced tensile strength and elon-

gation. These fabrics are promising for medical clothing to pre-

vent bacterial spread and infection transmission (Figure b).

Xu et al.[b]worked with carboxymethyl chitosan to prepare

Ag/TiOcolloid solution for coating cotton fabrics via the PDC

method. The functionalized fabric showed excellent antibacte-

rial and UV protective properties. The UPF value reached ≈..

These properties remained durable even after  washing cy-

cles, which indicated their potential applications in medical and

outdoor apparel. Rabiel et al.[]evaluated the UPF of cotton–

polyester twill fabric coated in situ with TiOnanoparticles. UPF

values for uncoated and coated fabrics were . and ., re-

spectively, demonstrating eective UV protection. The coating

of TiOnanoparticles enhanced UV protection without aecting

any further fabric properties.

4.5. Antistatic

In the fabrication of antistatic textiles, using nanoparticles can

oer some essential properties with the ability to mitigate the

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Figure 12. a) (i) Sumac leaf extract for in situ biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles in a polysiloxane matrix led to the development of UV-resistant cotton

ﬁber materials, (ii) UV transmission and (iii) reﬂection spectra of raw and functionalized cotton samples. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY

accumulation and discharge of static electricity, as sometimes

it can cause discomfort, harm, or even damage to electronic

devices.[]Nanoparticles, such as conductive carbon black or

metal oxides, are dispersed within the fabric matrix, and it can

produce functional textiles. These nanoparticles facilitate the

dissipation of static charges by providing conductive pathways

for the electrons to ﬂow, preventing their buildup on the fab-

ric surface.[]Additionally, nanoparticles can modify the sur-

face properties of the textile, reducing its propensity to gener-

ate static electricity through friction with other materials.[]

By incorporating nanoparticles into textiles, antistatic properties

are imparted, ensuring wearer comfort and the protection of

sensitive electronic equipment from electrostatic discharge.[]

TiOnanoparticles, Sb-doped SnOnanoparticles, among oth-

ers. These nanoparticles disperse the static charge on the cloth

because they are conductive. Nanosols containing silanes have

been utilized as antistatic agents due to their ability to absorb

moisture from the air through interactions with surface hydroxyl

groups. A commercially available antistatic membrane made of

poly(tetraﬂuoroethylene) has been created. This membrane is

equipped with conductive nanoparticles that are connected to its

surface.[]

Kim[]investigated the UV protection and antistatic prop-

erties of PET fabrics incorporated with AlO/ATO/TiO

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b) Antistatic properties of the nanoparticle incorporated textile fabric after multiple washings for the two-bath process, including evaluation of frictional-

of the antistatic behavior, (i–vi) conductivity measurements at ﬁve distinct locations on the F-ZnO seed layer. Optical images showing presence and

absence of static charges generated by (vii) Van de Graaﬀ generator, (viii) optical image capturing the charging process of untreated fabric, (ix) optical

image depicting the charging process of antistatic F-ZnO/TiO2modiﬁed fabric, (x) initial stage of a gold leaf electroscope, (xi) optical image illustrating

the measurement of static charges on untreated fabric using a gold leaf electroscope, and (xii) optical image showing the measurement of static charges

nanoparticles. Fabrics with a lower AlO/ATO percentage

showed better heat release and higher UPF. On the other hand,

the higher

Into the Revolution of NanoFusion: Merging High Performance and Aesthetics by Nanomaterials in Textile Finishes

Abstract and Figures