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10th International
EUROPEAN CONGRESS ON
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
FULL TEXTS BOOK
EDITORS:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eglantina DERVISHI
Dr. Mehtap DEMİR
ISBN: 978-625-367-799-2
Amsterdam
Holland
26-28
JULY
2024
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EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SEARCH AND RESCUE DOGS IN FINDING
SURVIVORS DURING DISASTERS: THE CASE OF SERBIA, CROATIA, AND SLOVENIA
Vladimir M. Cvetković 1,2,3*, Nemanja Miljković2
1Department of Disaster Management and Environmental Security, Faculty of Security Studies,
University of Belgrade, Gospodara Vucica 50, 11040 Belgrade, Serbia; vmc@fb.bg.ac.rs
2Scientific-Professional Society for Disaster Risk Management, Dimitrija Tucovića 121, 11040
Belgrade, Serbia;
3International Institute for Disaster Research, Dimitrija Tucovića 121, 11040 Belgrade, Serbia.
ABSTRACT
Disasters, whether natural or human-induced, pose significant threats to human lives, property, and
infrastructure. This study examines the effectiveness of search and rescue (SAR) dogs in locating
survivors during disasters, with a focus on the experiences in Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. The primary
goals are to evaluate training protocols, operational challenges, success rates, and the overall impact of
SAR dogs in disaster scenarios. The findings indicate that SAR dogs greatly enhance the efficiency of
disaster response operations. Their superior sense of smell, agility, and ability to manoeuvre through
complex terrains make them crucial for quickly locating survivors. However, the performance of SAR
dogs is affected by various factors, including the quality of their training, environmental conditions, and
the coordination between handlers and dogs. The research highlights several challenges encountered by
SAR dogs, such as extreme weather conditions, hazardous terrains, fatigue, and psychological stress.
Additionally, limited resources and inconsistent training standards can hinder their effectiveness. The
study underscores the importance of standardized training protocols, increased resource allocation, and
better coordination among SAR teams. By addressing these challenges, the efficiency of SAR dogs can
be further optimized, resulting in more effective disaster responses and higher survival rates. SAR dogs
play an essential role in disaster management in Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. Ongoing investment in
their training and welfare, along with improved operational protocols, will ensure their crucial
contribution to saving lives during disasters. This study contributes to a broader understanding of the
effectiveness of SAR dogs and provides practical recommendations for enhancing disaster response
strategies.
Keywords: search and rescue dogs; natural disasters; disaster response; survivor; Serbia; Croatia;
Slovenia; effectiveness; training standards; deployment protocols.
1. Introduction
Disasters, whether natural or human-induced, pose severe threats to human lives, property, and
infrastructure
. Also, disasters present profound
threats to human lives, property, and the environment, causing widespread loss and disruption in
communities across the globe
et al., 2021; Phillips, 2014). These catastrophic events can be natural, like earthquakes, floods,
hurricanes, and volcanic eruptions, or human-made, such as industrial accidents, terrorist attacks, and
armed conflicts. Regardless of their origin, disasters often strike without warning, creating chaos and an
immediate need for a rapid and effective response
.
The initial hours and days after a disaster are critical for rescuing survivors and delivering emergency
aid to the injured . In these
circumstances, search and rescue teams are indispensable, utilizing various methods and technologies
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to find and free individuals trapped in debris or stranded by floods and other disasters. Prompt and
efficient actions can be the difference between life and death for many victims -
Mougher, Abu Sharekh, Abu Ali, & Zuhud, 2023; Phillips, 2014; Sergey & Gennadiy, 2022; Shibru,
Operea, Omondi, & Gichaba, 2022).
Nevertheless, conducting search and rescue operations is fraught with numerous challenges, including
adverse weather, inaccessible terrain, limited resources, and logistical hurdles. Despite these obstacles,
the international community is continually striving to improve disaster response capabilities through
training, the advancement of new technologies, and enhanced cooperation among nations and
organizations. Consequently, studying the effectiveness of different search and rescue methods and
tools, including the deployment of specially trained dogs, is crucial for advancing disaster response and
boosting the survival rates of those affected. By understanding and overcoming the challenges in these
operations, we can help build more resilient communities equipped to handle future disasters more
effectively (Ice, Dufour, & Stevens, 2015).
In such critical times, effective rescue operations become essential to minimize casualties and mitigate
role in these operations, thanks to their extraordinary detection and search capabilities. Their exceptional
sense of smell, agility, and speed enable them to locate survivors trapped under debris or in inaccessible
areas where human rescuers might struggle to reach (Grandjean, 2007). In disaster response scenarios,
the swift identification and rescue of survivors is crucial. Among the various methods employed, search
and rescue (SAR) dogs are particularly notable for their exceptional ability to detect human scent,
navigate through difficult terrains, and perform under conditions that might impede human rescuers.
These canine heroes are indispensable assets in disaster situations, greatly improving the efficiency and
success rates of rescue missions (Fischer et al., 2020).
SAR dogs represent a highly specialized and invaluable group of working dogs trained for diverse search
and rescue missions. Their training equips them to locate survivors under rubble, in wilderness areas, or
other challenging environments, making them indispensable during disasters. These dogs are
distinguished not only by their rigorous training but also by their innate abilities, including a keen sense
of smell, agility, and endurance. Historically, SAR dogs have demonstrated their worth as loyal and
brave assistants, often risking their lives to save humans (Gerbec, 2010). The global effectiveness of
SAR dogs in disaster response is well-documented, with numerous case studies highlighting their
significant contributions. This research centres on the effectiveness of SAR dogs in Serbia, Croatia, and
Sloveniacountries that have faced a variety of natural and human-made disasters over the years. The
distinct geographical and socio-political landscapes of these regions provide a rich context for
examining h
2018).
The training and preparation of SAR dogs are vital to their effectiveness. These dogs undergo rigorous
training from a young age to refine their natural abilities and acquire new skills tailored for search and
rescue missions. Their training includes exposure to diverse environments, scents, and simulated disaster
scenarios, ensuring they are well-prepared for actual operations. Psychological resilience is also a key
focus, as SAR dogs must remain calm and focused amidst the chaos of disaster scenes (Moehlmann &
Otto, 2017). Training SAR dogs begins at an early age, with basic commands and behaviours. As they
mature, their training becomes more specialized and challenging, incorporating simulations of real-life
disaster scenarios.
Trained SAR dogs can identify human scents under layers of concrete, earth, and other materials, making
them essential members of rescue teams (Otto et al., 2019). Additionally, the psychological readiness of
SAR dogs is crucial. They must remain calm and focused in chaotic and stressful situations, achieved
through continuous training and positive reinforcement methods. This readiness is also ensured by
rigorous selection processes, focusing on both genetics and early behavioural traits (Otto et al., 2019).
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However, the successful deployment of SAR dogs depends not only on the dogs but also on their
handlers. The relationship between a SAR dog and its handler is symbiotic, requiring coordination,
communication, and trust for effective operations. This study examines these dynamics, underscoring
the necessity of comprehensive training programs that encompass both technical skills and the handler-
dog relationship (Bryson et al., 2019). Despite their heroic contributions, SAR dogs and their handlers
face numerous challenges. Field conditions can be extremely harsh, including working in earthquake
rubble, flooded areas, or mountainous regions with avalanches. These dogs are exposed to physical
injuries, stress, and exhaustion, necessitating meticulous care and support from their handlers and
veterinary teams (Jones et al., 2004).
In Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia, the operational environment presents unique challenges and
opportunities for SAR teams. These countries have developed specific protocols and standards for using
SAR dogs, shaped by their respective legal and organizational frameworks. By analyzing these protocols
and the experiences of SAR teams in recent disasters, this study aims to provide insights into best
practices and areas for improvement (, 2020). Recent disaster case studies in these
countries offer valuable lessons on the deployment and effectiveness of SAR dogs. The responses to the
2014 Balkans floods and the 2020 Zagreb earthquake, for instance, highlighted both the successes and
the challenges faced by SAR teams. These events emphasized the importance of continuous training,
sufficient resources, and international cooperation in enhancing the capabilities of SAR dogs
(& , 2013).
This study provides a comprehensive theoretical and conceptual framework for understanding the role
and significance of SAR dogs, international standards, and the legal frameworks governing their use. It
also examines the organization of rescue services with dogs in Serbia, Slovenia, and Croatia. The
research focuses on the conditions under which SAR dogs operate during disasters, the obstacles they
encounter, and the cultural differences in the perception and treatment of dogs within rescue operations.
A detailed case study is presented on the use of SAR dogs following the earthquake in Turkey,
highlighting the rescue operations involving SAR teams from Serbia, Slovenia, and Croatia. This case
study provides specific examples of the challenges faced by these dogs and their handlers and evaluates
the effectiveness of their deployment in life-saving efforts post-disaster. The findings underscore the
significant role SAR dogs play in disaster scenarios.
2. Background and Significance of Search and Rescue Dogs in Disaster Response
Rescue dogs, also known as search and rescue (SAR) dogs, are specially trained canines whose main
function is to assist in locating missing or trapped individuals during disasters. Their exceptional sense
of smell, agility, and rigorous training render them invaluable in situations where human capabilities are
limited. SAR dogs are trained not only to find survivors but also to perform specialized tasks tailored to
the nature of the emergency. Fischer et al. (2020) emphasize that SAR dogs significantly enhance the
efficiency of rescue missions worldwide due to their unique abilities and comprehensive training.
dogs are registered as vital assets by state or private legal entities, and trained for specific tasks within
these entities' operational scope. Generally referred to as "service dogs," they are integral to various
can also be
privately owned, provided they are specially trained under clearly defined legal frameworks and within
specific time intervals. When privately owned rescue dogs are deployed, both the owner and the trainer
authorized by the owner must be invol
In literature, rescue dogs are mainly categorized based on their purpose into three primary groups
a) dogs that search by following a known or unknown track; b) dogs that search above
or below the ground surface; c) dogs that perform searches on the water surface.
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Additionally, there are sledge dogs and draft dogs used for transportation in snow or difficult terrains.
These dogs can transport injured individuals, essential search and rescue equipment, medical supplies,
and even deceased bodies, ensuring a dignified burial. Consequently, they are also considered a type of
These three primary categories of SAR dogs are defined based on their
training methods for locating individuals. Tracking dogs can work on a leash or off-leash, keeping their
noses close to the ground, following the exact trail left by the missing person. They primarily respond
to specific ground scents, detecting items like clothing or places where the person stayed (Jones et al.,
2004).
Air-scenting dogs, on the other hand, can work effectively in areas shared with other rescue teams.
Operating typically off-leash, these dogs can cover large areas quickly and are trained to detect the scent
of living people, deceased individuals, or body parts. Air-scenting dogs do not require a scent item from
the missing person, making them more flexible than tracking dogs (Jones et al., 2004). Once these dogs
identify a human scent, they follow it to its source, quickly recognizing when they lose the scent and
changing direction until they return to the point of highest scent concentration. The handler usually
searches the area in a grid pattern against the wind. Besides search and rescue missions, air-scenting
techniques are also used by police dogs to locate explosives, drugs, or crime scene evidence (Jones et
al., 2004).
Water search dogs conduct searches while riding in boats, from the shore, or while swimming. On boats,
the dog and handler typically position themselves at the bow. Upon detecting a victim's scent, the dog
signals the handler by lowering its nose into the water or displaying anxious behaviour such as scratching
the boat, biting the water, whining, barking, or jumping into the water to get closer to the scent source.
If the boat moves away from the scent, the dog will shift from one side of the boat to the other, trying
to "catch" the scent. If no scent is detected during the boat ride, the dog remains calm (Hardy, 1992).
Rescue dogs have a rich history, dating back to the 17th century when monks in Switzerland used Saint
Bernard dogs to locate travellers lost in snowstorms. Known for their strong build and keen sense of
smell, these dogs were the precursors to modern SAR dogs. Over time, the role of rescue dogs has
evolved significantly, encompassing various breeds and specialized training techniques tailored to
different disaster scenarios (Mantrailing, 2022). Modern SAR dogs undergo extensive training from a
young age, starting with basic obedience and progressing to advanced search techniques. Otto et al.
(2019) note that SAR training includes exposure to a wide range of environments, scents, and simulated
disaster scenarios to ensure they are well-prepared for actual operations. This rigorous training helps
dogs develop the necessary skills and psychological resilience to remain calm and focused amidst the
chaos of disaster scenes.
The success of SAR operations relies heavily on the symbiotic relationship between the dog and its
handler. Effective communication, coordination, and trust are essential for successful operations. Bryson
et al. (2019) stress the importance of comprehensive training programs that cover both technical skills
and the handler-dog relationship, highlighting the necessity of a cohesive partnership for optimal
performance in rescue missions. Despite their heroic contributions, SAR dogs and their handlers face
numerous challenges. Harsh field conditions, such as earthquake rubble, flooded areas, or mountainous
regions with avalanches, can expose these dogs to physical injuries, stress, and exhaustion. Therefore,
meticulous care and support from handlers and veterinary teams are crucial to maintaining the dogs'
well-being and effectiveness (Jones et al., 2004).
In Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia, SAR teams operate under specific protocols and standards shaped by
their respective legal and organizational frameworks. Analyzing these protocols and the experiences of
SAR teams in recent disasters provides valuable insights into best practices and areas for improvement.
Case studies, such as the responses to the 2014 Balkans floods and the 2020 Zagreb earthquake, highlight
both the successes and challenges faced by SAR teams, underscoring the importance of continuous
training, sufficient resources, and international cooperation to enhance the capabilities of SAR dogs.
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3. Historical Overview of the Use of Search and Rescue Dogs
For millennia, dogs have been indispensable partners to humans, assisting in various tasks. In the 17th
century, monks at the Hospice of the Great St. Bernard in Switzerland bred a specific dog breed, now
known as the St. Bernard, to locate human tracks buried under snow. Numerous accounts document
these dogs guiding lost individuals through the snow to the safety of the monastery (Mantrailing, 2022).
One of the most renowned St. Bernards, Barry, served at the hospice from 1800 to 1812 and is credited
with
he died in 1814. His preserved body is currently on display at the Natural History Museum in Bern
(Gerritsen & Haak, 2014).
The Industrial Revolution brought significant societal changes, leading to new roles for dogs. Military
campaigns further advanced dog training. Around 1885, the German (Prussian) army began utilizing
dogs as pack animals for transporting ammunition and supplies and as guards for military installations.
Jean Bungartz, a German animal painter, writer, and book illustrator, developed training programs for
(German Association for Medical Dogs), training dogs for war voluntarily, with the army covering the
costs while private individuals conducted the training (Mantrailing, 2022).
2022). Despite these advancements, early 20th-century economic hardships and limited understanding
of dogs' potential hindered widespread support. By 1911, the war ministry had abandoned the use of
dogs. However, World War I saw a resurgence in the use of medical dogs. Initially, only a few were
employed, but as the war continued, their numbers increased to over 4,000. These dogs were privately
owned or recruited from breeders. During World War I, over 30,000 dogs were used, with only 10%
returning to their owners (Mantrailing, 2022). Training techniques evolved, and interest in preserving
medical dogs persisted. Public perception of dogs in Germany improved, with civilians primarily
supporting their popularity, though training remained under military jurisdiction (Mantrailing, 2022).
Heroic stories of dogs during World War I and II represent some of the earliest organized search and
rescue teams involving dogs. Military, ambulance, and Red Cross dogs were used on battlefields to
locate the wounded and deliver first aid (Jones et al., 2
systematically training dogs for avalanche search and rescue. During World War II, the use of dogs
increased significantly, with over 200,000 dogs in service across all fronts, 25,000 of whom died on the
German front. The demand for military dogs was so high that pets were requisitioned for service
(Mantrailing, 2022). Two types of dogs were in use at the time: those using air scent to locate wounded
soldiers and avalanche dogs. In the final years of World War II, rubble search dogs were also trained.
The development of these dogs began when dogs repeatedly found people under the rubble of bombed
houses by chance. With the help of just four dogs, over 35 people were found alive (Mantrailing, 2022).
After World War II, the concept of rubble search dogs spread from England, and efforts were made to
properly train these dogs. In Switzerland, work with disaster dog teams began in 1968. In 1972, the
ociation for Disaster Dogs) published a
training guide. Public awareness of the importance of these dogs grew, especially after earthquakes in
Italy in 1967, Romania in 1977, and Algeria in 1980, significantly increasing their use and trust
(Mantrailing, 2022). However, in Germany, scepticism towards dogs led to more investments in
technology. Civilians again took responsibility for training search and rescue dogs (Mantrailing, 2022).
Disaster protection responsibilities were assigned to individual states, with search and rescue teams
assistin
Rettungshundewesen e.V." (Federal Association for Rescue Dogs) now acts as a regulatory body
(Mantrailing, 2022).
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In the former Yugoslavia, the first avalanche rescue seminar was organized in 1952 by the police,
mountain rescue service, and alpine enthusiasts in the village of Tamarje, Slovenia. Similar efforts
followed for rubble search dogs, with the first seminar in 1977 during the construction of a highway
a physical
Serbia had its first rubble and avalanche rescue dog. In 2009, the Ministry of Defense created an internal
program, and in 2010, the Ministry of Interior, in collaboration with France, established a rescue dog
and in 2019, the Water Rescue Association prepared its first water rescue dog. By 2023, the Mountain
R
4. Comparative Analysis of Search and Rescue Dog Operations in Natural Disasters: Case Studies
from Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia
4.1. Organization and Deployment of Search and Rescue Dogs in Serbia
National teams for the training and utilization of rescue dogs in Serbia operate under the auspices of the
Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Civilian associations such as the Rescue Dog
Association, the Mountain Rescue Service, the Club for
Training Sporting and Service Dogs in Belgrade, and various individuals also play crucial roles in this
field. The Dog Training Center, a division of the Ministry of Defense, offers specialized training for
veterinary services and advanced courses for experts, covering training, retraining, breeding, and
healthcare for defence centre
comprises command, logistics, a training company, and a breeding and reproduction unit. Its primary
responsibilities include training and professional development for veterinary staff, soldiers, non-
commissioned officers, civilians, and international trainees, along with organizing veterinary service
courses. The centre also extends its services to entities outside the Serbian Armed Forces and the
Ministry of Defense (see further and more at https://www.vs.rs/sr_cyr/jedinice/vojska-srbije/komanda-
za-obuku/centar-za-obuku-pasa).
The Center conducts various specialized professional courses, including:
a) Training handlers and guard service dogs: Focuses on the fundamental tasks of guarding and
securing facilities or territories.
b) Retraining guard service dogs and their handlers: Emphasizes retraining dogs to respond
appropriately in specific situations, such as aggressive behaviour towards intruders.
c) Training handlers and protective service dogs: Prepares dogs and handlers for protection and
security tasks.
d) Retraining protective service dogs and their handlers: Specializes in retraining dogs for high-
risk scenarios.
e) Training handlers and dogs for special actions: Prepares dogs and handlers for specialized tasks
such as locating missing persons or detecting hazardous substances.
f) Training handlers and dogs for rubble and avalanche searches: Essential for rescue missions in
debris or snow avalanche scenarios.
g) Tracking service dogs and their handlers: Trains dogs and handlers for tracking and locating
specific targets.
h) Retraining tracking service dogs and their handlers: Focuses on refining the responses of
tracking dogs in unpredictable or risky situations.
i) Training handlers and dogs for mine and explosive detection: Critical for identifying and
marking mines or explosive materials.
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j) Retraining dogs for mine and explosive detection: Specializes in dogs' reactions when
encountering dangerous materials.
k) Training handlers and dogs for detecting psychoactive substances: Vital for the detection of
drugs or other psychoactive substances.
l) Retraining dogs for detecting psychoactive substances: Focuses on refining dogs' quick and
precise reactions in specific contexts.
These courses comprehensively cover the essential aspects of training dogs for specialized rescue and
search missions, equipping them for various scenarios to protect and save lives or detect hazardous
materials. The Dog Training Center was established in September 2020 from the Dog Handlers Training
Company and the Breeding and Training Company of the Logistics Training Center, continuing the
tradition of the 40th Center for Training Dog Handlers and Dogs of the SFRY Ministry of Defense,
founded on October 21, 1957 (https://www.vs.rs/sr_cyr/jedinice/vojska-srbije).
The Ministry of Internal Affairs houses the Sector for Emergency Situations, which includes the
Administration for Fire and Rescue Units and Civil Protection. This Administration ensures timely and
lawful oversight of fire and rescue units, including those of legal entities and volunteer fire brigades. It
also coordinates their efforts during major emergencies, directly impacting regional units' effectiveness
in improving fire and rescue operations. Key tasks include organizing and coordinating fire and rescue
units, equipping them with necessary materials and technology, enhancing emergency response
readiness, managing activities during significant emergencies, drafting laws and regulations, supervising
volunteer fire societies, and educating, equipping, and training civil protection units, alongside
destroying explosive remnants of war (http://prezentacije.mup.gov.rs/).
Fire and Rescue Units (FRU) are the first to respond to emergencies, aiming to save lives and protect
health, property, and the environment. They collaborate with other relevant entities to mitigate
emergency consequences. Emergency Management Administrati
Kragujevac feature fire and rescue brigades, while Departments for Emergency Situations have fire and
rescue battalions. Since 2017, efforts have been ongoing to select, train, equip, and recruit new members.
Specialized teams for water rescue and rubble rescue operate within the FRU, and firefighters receive
special training for technical interventions in traffic and hazardous material incidents. FRUs work with
other Ministry of Internal Affairs units (Helicopter Unit, Gendarmerie, Special Anti-Terrorist Unit),
other ministries, the Serbian Armed Forces, and services during joint emergency actions. They also
provide international assistance during natural disasters and other accidents outside Serbia, adhering to
international agreements (http://prezentacije.mup.gov.rs/).
Within the Administration, the Specialist Team for Rubble Rescue and the Center for Dog Handler
Training, equipped with trained rescue dogs, play pivotal roles. They are responsible for managing dog
handlers, maintaining the health and training of service dogs, and conducting daily training for various
taking place in Moldova and Turkey. These teams also collaborate effectively with the Slovenian Civil
Prot
A notable member of this specialist team is Zigi, a Belgian Shepherd Malinois, who participated with
the Serbian team in Turkey, searching for survivors in the rubble following the devastating earthquake
in February 2023, saving two lives. Zigi has completed basic obedience and rescue training and has
participated in international exercises in Ljubljana in 2017 and 2019, as well as searches for missing
persons at the "Technical-Overhaul Institute" in Kragujevac. He has been actively involved in numerous
ope
-rescuer and member of the Specialist Team for Rubble
Rescue (MUP RS, 2023).
The Mountain Rescue Service (MRS) of Serbia conducts searches for missing persons, frequently
involving lost hikers. The MRS team studies the terrain, develops strategies, and searches the area,
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providing medical assistance and ensuring the safe return of the missing. Since early 2014, MRS dog
handlers and rescue dogs have been actively participating in rescue missions. MRS dogs undergo
training that typically spans around two years, after which the handler and dog must pass an exam to
demonstrate their readiness for the most challenging tasks. MRS has several dogs that have completed
this training and have participated with their handlers in various rescue missions
(https://www.gss.rs/predstavljamo-nove-clanove-gss-a).
In February 2024, a training session for avalanche search and rescue dogs was held on Kopaonik, in
collaboration with the Club for Sporting and Service Dogs Belgrade. This session included MRS dogs
and other dogs trained in Serbia, now internationally licensed for forest searches, enhancing Serbia's
capability with dogs trained and licensed for avalanche rescues (Tanjug, 2024).
The training and utilization of rescue dogs in Serbia are relatively recent and still developing. Significant
investment is required in training handlers and dogs and increasing their numbers, particularly by the
state. The growing enthusiasm from the civilian sector, with individuals joining organizations,
undergoing training, obtaining licenses with their dogs, and participating in various operations, is a
positive development. An increase in the number of trained handlers and rescue dogs for various
conditions and circumstances is anticipated in the future.
4.2. Protocols and Training Standards for Search and Rescue Dogs in Croatia
The Croatian Mountain Rescue Service (HGSS) operates as a national, voluntary, professional,
humanitarian, and non-partisan organization recognized for its public significance. Its primary goals are
to prevent accidents, conduct rescue operations, and provide initial medical assistance in mountainous
and other inaccessible terrains, as well as in emergencies requiring specialized knowledge and technical
rescue equipment, all aimed at preserving human life, health, and property (Croatian Mountain Rescue
Service, 2024). HGSS encompasses mountain rescuers who cover the entire territory of Croatia. The
operation of HGSS is governed by the Civil Protection Act and the Croatian Mountain Rescue Service
Act, enacted by the Croatian Parliament on June 30, 2006 (Croatian Mountain Rescue Service, 2024).
HGSS collaborates with various governmental bodies, local self-governments, institutions, the Croatian
Armed Forces, health and social institutions, the Croatian Mountaineering Association, and other legal
and natural persons in fields such as culture, sports, tourism, nature protection, traffic, and the
environment. Additionally, it works closely with public institutions and relevant authorities to protect
and preserve mountain nature and the environment. HGSS's activities also extend to urban areas and
non-mountainous regions, including operations in high-rise buildings, tunnels, pipes, traffic accidents,
and at sea, as well as during extreme sports events like paragliding, mountain biking, and rafting. Besides
rescue operations and providing first aid in remote areas, HGSS emphasizes education and prevention
to avoid accidents, particularly in mountaineering (Croatian Mountain Rescue Service, 2024).
HGSS currently has 68 active search teams with dogs. Thirty-six of these teams are licensed and trained
for searches in non-urban areas, while the others are in training. Dogs entering HGSS undergo long-
term training and can start the licensing process at eighteen months old, which lasts an entire day. Before
licensing, they must pass obedience and socialization exams. HGSS has advanced significantly in
standardizing its K9 rescue teams. Internal protocols for accessing, testing, and licensing these teams
include numerous rules for their use. Among these protocols is the "Regulation on Licensing HGSS
Search Teams," which outlines exercises such as marking, handling and direction, abseiling, path
searching, open terrain searching, inaccessible terrain searching, persistence, conditioning, and
independence in work. Another important document is the "Regulation for Mantrailing Exams," which
involves finding and tracking human trails (Croatian Mountain Rescue Service, 2024).
member of DVD Opatija, in collaboration with JVP Opatija and the Firefighting Association of
Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, started training a Belgian Malinois for search purposes. After the
training, Zoran and his dog "Ginger Runningwild - Rain" joined JVP Opatija, marking the beginning of
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the use of search dogs in firefighting. Following Opatija, other units joined the project, including JVP
-9 teams operate in Croatia,
ensuring that the entire country is covered within an hour's reach of the nearest K-9 team (K9 Vatrogasci,
n.d.).
Firefighting K-9 teams are licensed for various tasks, including (K9 vatrogasci, n.d.): a) searching for
missing persons under rubble; b) searching for missing persons in nature; c) searching for missing
persons in avalanches; d) helicopter-assisted activities. In addition to their basic training at the
Firefighting K-
covering various rescue segments, with the most recent being helicopter training (K9 vatrogasci, n.d.).
The Croatian Association for Search Dog Training (HUOPP) was founded on June 14, 2004, though its
members began their first rescue efforts in the summer of 1999 at an international summer camp for
rescue dogs in Slovenia. In 2005, HUOPP became a member of the International Search Dog
Organization (IRO), and from April of the same year, HUOPP members became active participants in
specialist civil protection units for rubble rescue (https://www.huopp.hr/o-nama/).
Search dog handlers must master various skills, and their exams consist of theoretical and practical parts,
including (https://www.huopp.hr/o-nama/): a) hazards in rubble; b) hazards in mountains; c) orientation
and topography; d) basic techniques of mountaineering and speleology; e) first aid for humans; f) first
aid for dogs. In 2009, HUOPP established the Rijeka Search Dog Group, followed by the Zagreb Search
Dog Group in 2011. Today, HUOPP has a total of 16 members in Zagreb and Rijeka
(https://www.huopp.hr/o-nama/).
4.3. Effectiveness and Challenges in Using Search and Rescue Dogs in Slovenia
the Commission for Rescue Dogs under the Slovenian Cynological Association. Comprising 18 units
within various cynological societies, ERPS includes organizat
-
Doline, KD Kamnik, KD Izvinite, and KD Logatec. These units consist of handlers and dogs trained to
rescue victims from rubble, and avalanches, and to search for missing persons in various terrains.
Depending on their performance in tests and exams, these handlers and rescue dogs are allocated to
Regional Units, the Missing Persons Search Group (SIP), and the National Intervention Unit (MERP),
which is qualified for large-scale disaster interventions both domestically and internationally. This unit
is also part of the MUSAR (Middle Urban Search and Rescue) team within the Administration of the
Republic of Slovenia for Protection and Rescue (URSZR) (Gerbec, 2010).
ERPS organizes numerous events for its members as part of its annual training. At the beginning of each
year, seminars for beginners are held, offering both theoretical and practical knowledge crucial for
rescue dog handlers. Additionally, the Rescue Dog Commission conducts a five-day winter and summer
training annually, focusing on avalanche rescue in winter and rubble and field searches in summer.
Further training and education take place at the Police Training Center in Gotenica and the Educational
Center for Protection and Rescue in Ig, along with regular joint exercises for all units and international
training sessions (Gerbec, 2010).
societies primarily focused on training handlers and dogs for rescue tasks. That same year, the founding
associations left the Rescue Dog Unit of Slovenia and the Slovenian Cynological Association. The
founding assembly saw the inclusion of the Association of Rescue Dog Handlers of Slovenia, the Rescue
Dog Handlers' Club of Kranj, and the Rescue Dog Handlers' Club of Postojna. Later, in 1999, the
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Cynological Society for Rescue Dogs of Maribor joined, followed by the Burja Koper Rescue Dog
Society in 2008 (Gerbec, 2010).
The Association collaborates with various individuals and organizations, such as Civil Protection and
the Mountain Rescue Service of Slovenia, municipalities, regions, and the state. Members have
participated in numerous domestic and international rescue operations and successfully competed in
national and international competitions and trials. Knowledge level tests are conducted by domestic
judges, and the exams are aligned with the difficulty of international IPO exams. Organizational,
professional, and financial matters are managed by the Board of Directors, comprising representatives
of member associations and the president, while the Expert Commission oversees the coordination,
workflow, annual training programs, and proficiency testing for handlers and dogs (Gerbec, 2010).
a voluntary, amateur organization founded in 1994, focusing on amateurism and humanitarian activities.
The association has over fifty handler-rescue dog pairs trained to search for missing persons in natural
settings, buried under rubble, and in avalanches. They have participated in international rescue missions,
assisting earthquakes in Egypt, Turkey (twice), and Sumatra in 2009. The association's involvement in
of its goals of integrating its expertise and high professional training into international rescue activities
(Gerbec, 2010).
association that trains handlers and rescue dogs. Covering municipalities such as Bloke, Cerknica,
-Dolina
assists around 74,000 residents but also operates beyond their territory if necessary. They cooperate with
various organizations needing their assistance, such as firefighters, police, and the Mountain Rescue
Service. Due to the specific terrain, they also train their dogs to search in caves, aiding cave rescue teams
(Gerbec, 2010).
pse Maribor) focuses on training rescue dogs. They have trained several handlers and rescue dogs
equipped with theoretical knowledge about mountain hazards, rubble, veterinary first aid, first aid for
injured persons, radio communication, field orientation, rope techniques, and dog psychology. The
society collaborates with the Municipality of Maribor and the Protection and Rescue Service, extending
their work
Rescue Dogs of Maribor is a co-founder of the Rescue Society Organizations of Slovenia for
international aid and was granted humanitarian organization status by the Ministry of Health of the
Republic of Slovenia in 2010. The association is also verified by the Organization for the Coordination
of Humanitarian Assistance in Case of Natural Disasters at the United Nations (Gerbec, 2010).
to saving human lives. To stay current with rescue dog training developments, they regularly participate
in competitions, exercises, and seminars domestically and internationally. Despite being a young
association, they have many experienced members involved in Slovenia's protection and rescue system
and the international IPO unit. Among their ranks is a world champion from 2008 and a world vice-
champion from 2009, the dog Kan, who works closely with Roman Starman, the president of the Burja
Rescue Dog Society (Gerbec, 2010).
with the primary mission of voluntarily assisting people in mountain accidents and difficult-to-access
terrains. Operating throughout Slovenia, the Mountain Rescue Service is an association of independent,
voluntary, non-profit mountain rescue societies and mountaineering societies with registered rescue
activities. They perform humanitarian tasks of public importance: protection, rescue, and assistance in
mountain environments and during natural and other disasters when safety, health, and lives are at risk.
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The Mountain Rescue Service's operations are geographically divided into 17 regions in Slovenia. They
conduct rescue, preventive, and other actions and activities according to their rules and regulations.
Members join as trainee mountain rescuers and can specialize further upon obtaining their mountain
rescuer license, including becoming rescue dog handlers (Gerbec, 2010).
Significant advancements have been made in training rescue dogs within the Mountain Rescue Service
of Slovenia. Handlers now purposefully select future rescue dogs from puppyhood, ensuring consistent
training from an early age. The handler and dog go through all training phases together, both in winter
avalanches and summer missing person courses. After completing their training, they are placed on an
alert list following a two-day annual test. Rescue pairs on the alert list participate in all rescue operations
in their home Mountain Rescue Service station's area. They also assist other stations when needed,
although the team leader on the ground is always from the home station. This is especially common in
avalanche rescue operations, which are often prolonged and physically and mentally demanding
(Gerbec, 2010).
The organization of rescue dog handlers within the Administration of the Republic of Slovenia for
Protection and Rescue (URSZR), an agency under the Ministry of Defense, focuses on developing
national protection programs against natural and other disasters, proposing research and development
projects, preparing risk and hazard analyses, and implementing preventive measures in emergency
prevention, as well as rescue and assistance in emergencies. URSZR includes rescue dog handlers in its
protection, rescue, and assistance forces, which comprise units and services of associations and other
non-governmental organizations, companies, institutions, and other organizations, civil protection units,
services, and authorities, police, and the Slovenian army (Gerbec, 2010).
The Rapid Intervention Unit MUSAR (Enota za hitre intervencije MUSAR) was established in 2001 by
order of the Minister of Defense, defining its organization and equipment criteria. The unit was created
following bilateral mutual assistance agreements, particularly with neighbouring countries, to provide
aid both domestically and internationally. MUSAR participates in international humanitarian and rescue
operations within the frameworks of the UN, NATO, EU, and other international organizations. EHI
(state rapid intervention rescue unit) is designed for particularly demanding rescue interventions,
requiring rapid action during earthquakes, floods, landslides, and other large-scale disasters. EHI
comprises 221 members from state units, civil protection services, and other protection, rescue, and
assistance forces under state jurisdiction or co-financed by the state (URSZR, 2009).
The Technical Rescue Squad is a subunit of EHI, including the Mechanized Rescue Platoon, the
Technical Search Department, the Dog Search Team, and MUSAR. This team encompasses all units
performing search and rescue operations for buried and missing persons using dogs and technical means,
as well as rescuing and caring for found persons. The Dog Search Team conducts protection, rescue,
and assistance tasks independently or with other EHI units, performing search and rescue for buried
victims of natural and other disasters, assisting survivors, and locating missing persons in major
disasters. The team includes three administration members and two dog search units, each with a
commander and nine rescue dog handlers, totalling 23 members. Members who pass the international
exam join the MUSAR unit after a preliminary exam (URSZR, 2009).
The MUSAR platoon is organized, equipped, and trained to independently conduct search and rescue
operations for large-scale natural disaster victims abroad. It operates within the EU Civil Protection
Mechanism and follows the guidelines and methodology of the UN International Search and Rescue
Advisory Group. The unit includes seven rescue dog handlers. Organizationally, the MUSAR platoon
consists of a search group, a rescue group, a medical care group, and a logistics support group. The
search team comprises 12 members, including the leader (a member of the EHI Dog Search Unit), four
geophonists (from the EHI Technical Search Department), and seven rescue dog handlers (from the EHI
Dog Search Unit) (URSZR, 2009).
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The MUSAR platoon has a total of 47 members. The core group consists of operational firefighters with
additional technical rescue skills, while other groups or members from different EHI units join the
MUSAR platoon. The platoon must be capable of performing its tasks in smaller formations when
transportation limitations prevent the entire unit from operating abroad (URSZR, 2009).
- MERP) requires handlers to pass exams
outlined in the Regulations for Testing Knowledge and Skills of Rescue Dogs and Handlers of the
Slovenian Rescue Dog Unit for Rubble (IRP-R). Handlers must have passed all six handler exams and
be of legal age. When applying for testing, handlers must submit a written statement of voluntary
participation in MERP as civil defence members in Slovenia's protection and rescue system. The
regulations specify that trial searches cover larger areas (500 to 2000 square meters), with markers
buried up to 1.5 meters deep. Various distractors may be used, and dogs must not wear collars or leashes
for safety reasons. Searches during trials occur both day and night, lasting up to 36 hours with a
maximum of seven searches. Light usage is permitted at night, and a maximum of three searches can be
conducted consecutively, with a minimum 20-minute rest between searches. Each search lasts 20
minutes, with a maximum of 14 markers allowed, and one search area may have no hidden marker
(Gerbec, 2010).
In addition to searching, each participant must pass tests in rope techniques, providing first aid to the
injured dogs, physical fitness for handlers, and using a handheld radio. Successful rescue pairs based on
these results are placed in the state intervention unit MERP, with their placement valid for one year
(Gerbec, 2010).
5. Challenges and Limitations Faced by Search and Rescue Dogs During Operations in Disasters
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6. Conclusion and Recommendations
The assessment of search and rescue (SAR) dogs' effectiveness in locating survivors during disasters in
Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia highlights the crucial role these expertly trained canines play in disaster
response. The study reveals that SAR dogs are invaluable due to their exceptional sense of smell, agility,
and ability to navigate difficult terrains, which significantly boost the efficiency and success rates of
rescue missions. Key factors impacting the effectiveness of SAR dogs include the quality of their
training, environmental conditions during operations, and the coordination between handlers and dogs.
The research identifies several challenges that SAR dogs encounter, such as extreme weather, hazardous
terrain, fatigue, psychological stress, and limited resources. Addressing these issues is vital for
optimizing the performance and well-being of SAR dogs.
The study underscores the necessity for standardized training protocols, sufficient investment in
resources, and improved coordination among SAR teams. Ongoing training and support for both dogs
and handlers are essential to maintaining high-performance levels during rescue missions. Additionally,
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the research points to the importance of international cooperation and the exchange of best practices to
refine SAR dog deployment strategies. In summary, SAR dogs are an indispensable part of disaster
response teams in Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. Their ability to swiftly and effectively locate survivors
makes them a critical asset in saving lives during disasters. Continued investment in training, resources,
and international collaboration will ensure that SAR dogs remain at the forefront of effective disaster
management, thereby enhancing the resilience of communities and their capacity to respond to future
disasters.
To further enhance the effectiveness of SAR dogs in disaster response, the study proposes several key
recommendations:
a) It is essential to develop and implement standardized training protocols across all SAR teams.
This ensures consistent, high-quality training for both SAR dogs and their handlers. Regular drills,
exposure to various environments, and advanced training techniques tailored to specific disaster
scenarios should be included.
b) More resources should be allocated for the training, care, and deployment of SAR dogs. This
includes funding specialized training facilities, veterinary care, and the acquisition of necessary
equipment.
c) Improving coordination and communication among SAR teams, both domestically and
internationally, is crucial. Establishing clear communication channels and collaborative frameworks will
facilitate better resource sharing and more efficient deployment of SAR dogs during disasters.
d) Providing psychological support and ensuring the welfare of SAR dogs and their handlers is
vital. Addressing the mental and physical health of both dogs and handlers helps maintain high-
performance levels and ensures long-term effectiveness.
e) Raising public awareness about the role and importance of SAR dogs in disaster response is
important. Educational campaigns can help garner support and funding for SAR programs and foster a
greater appreciation for these canine heroes.
f) Ongoing research and development in SAR dog training and deployment should be encouraged.
Innovations in training methods, scent detection technologies, and health monitoring can further
enhance the capabilities of SAR dogs.
g) Strengthening international collaboration and sharing best practices among countries is
essential. Participation in international training exercises, conferences, and knowledge exchange
programs will contribute to the continuous improvement of SAR dog deployment strategies.
SAR dogs are a crucial part of disaster response teams in Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia. Their remarkable
ability to swiftly and efficiently locate survivors makes them indispensable for saving lives during
emergencies. Ensuring continued investment in their training, and resources, and fostering international
collaboration will keep SAR dogs at the cutting edge of effective disaster management. This, in turn,
will enhance the resilience of communities and their preparedness for future disasters. Implementing the
recommendations from this study will not only boost the effectiveness of SAR dogs but also contribute
significantly to the overall improvement of disaster response strategies in the region.
Author Contributions:
Funding:
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Informed Consent Statement:
Data Availability Statement:
Conflicts of Interest:
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