Can Gamification Save the Planet? Revolutionizing Citizen Science for Biodiversity Conservation

Full text

1
Can Gamification Save the Planet? Revolutionizing Citizen Science for Biodiversity
Conservation
Sajan K.C.1 and Anisha Sapkota2
1. Independent Researcher, Koirala Marga, Street 26B, Pokhara 33700, Kaski, Gandaki
Province, Nepal
2. Independent Researcher, Bharatpur 44200, Chitwan, Bagmati Province, Nepal
1 sajankc143@gmail.com
2 anishasapkota363@gmail.com
Declaration of Interest statement: None
Corresponding author: Sajan K.C.
Sajankc143@gmail.com
+977-9846147414
Koirala Marga, Street 26B House 126, Pokhara 33700, Kaski, Gandaki Province, Nepal
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

1
Can Gamification Save the Planet? Revolutionizing Citizen Science for Biodiversity
Conservation
Abstract: The rapid decline in biodiversity and the increasing detachment from nature among
young people present urgent challenges that demand immediate attention. To tackle these issues,
we propose an innovative strategy that utilizes the motivational potential of gamification and
incentives, drawing inspiration, particularly, from the Pokémon franchise. Our approach engages
citizen scientists in documenting local biodiversity, building digital collections, and earning
rewards, promoting active participation, accelerating scientific discovery, and supporting
conservation efforts by providing valuable data to inform management decisions. Rooted in
gamification theory, this strategy not only facilitates data collection and community engagement
but also enhances educational outcomes, emphasizing the crucial role of citizen scientists in
conservation efforts. By leveraging gamification, we aim to engage the next generation in
biodiversity conservation, improve conservation results, and cultivate a deeper connection with
nature. This perspective examines the scope, potential impact, and theoretical underpinnings of
our concept, offering a thorough overview of its benefits and applications for conservation goals
and participant involvement.
Key Words: biodiversity explorers, citizen science, citizen scientists, gamified conservation,
incentivized exploration, Pokémon world
Introduction
The natural world is facing a biodiversity crisis with an alarming rate of species decline (Pimm et
al. 2014) that warns of a sixth mass extinction event (Barnosky et al. 2011). The
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES
2019) reports that approximately one-eighth of the world's 8 million plant and animal species are
currently at risk of extinction. This includes vulnerable groups such as amphibians (41%), reef-
building corals (33%), cycads (63%), and mammals (25%), among others. The International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has a significant knowledge gap in species
assessment, with the assessments being mostly concentrated on vertebrate species (Cazalis et al.
2022). For instance, to date, only 60 species of insects have been officially declared extinct,
representing a tiny fraction of the total assessed (less than 1%) (IUCN 2024) from approximately
one million described species (Stork 2018). Moreover, even among the well-studied taxa, such as
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

2
vertebrates, the extinction rate is substantial, with at least 680 species going extinct since 1500
AD (WWF 2020). The current rate of species extinction suggests that it is 1,000 times higher
than the natural rate, with many species going extinct before their discovery (Gore 2006,
Samways 2007, Pimm et al. 2014, De Vos et al. 2015).
Anthropogenic activities—including deforestation, urban expansion, infrastructure proliferation,
and climate change—are causing extensive habitat destruction and fragmentation, which are in
turn driving declines in biodiversity and exacerbating species isolation (Andrén 1997, Fahrig
2003, Fahrig et al. 2019). This can trigger trophic cascades, affecting ecological balance
throughout the food web (Pace et al. 1999, Estes et al. 2011). In addition, pollution arising from
industrial processes, agricultural runoff, and pervasive plastic waste is adversely impacting both
marine and terrestrial ecosystems (Galgani & Loiselle 2021, Bigalke et al. 2022, Zahoor &
Mushtaq 2023). Climate change is causing profound alterations in ecosystems disrupting species'
habitats and migratory routes, thereby accelerating the trajectory toward widespread extinction
(Wilcove & Wikelski 2008). The loss of biodiversity has severe consequences, including
disrupted ecosystem services, decreased food security and nutrition, economic losses, and
negative impacts on species’ health and well-being including that of humans (Butt et al. 2015,
Naman et al. 2017, Linhares et al. 2023). The urgent need for conservation is compromised by a
growing disconnection between people and nature, particularly among urbanized and digitally
focused younger generations (Santiago Fink 2016). The problem is also present in rural
demography, particularly, in third-world countries where issues such as poverty and
unemployment take precedence over biodiversity conservation (Brockington & Schmidt-Soltau
2004).
Research indicates that technology, particularly smartphones, substantially impacts our daily
behavior and focus (see Richardson et al. 2018). With 6.84 billion smartphones worldwide, users
spend a significant 90% of their daily time on mobile apps (Turner 2020). However, this
increased connectivity has led to a concerning trend: youths are more invested in creating short-
form content for entertainment purposes than engaging in biodiversity conservation efforts.
While immersive technology shows promise in reconnecting people with nature (Soliman et al.
2017), effective solutions remain scarce (Schmidt & Marratto 2008). Gamification offers a
potential solution; by promoting long-term psychological engagement, gamification can
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

3
encourage individuals to develop a genuine interest in learning and changing their behavior,
ultimately helping to mitigate serious issues such as climate change (Wee & Choong 2019,
Douglas & Brauer 2021). Furthermore, studies indicate that gamified apps receive higher user
ratings compared to informative apps alone (Beck et al. 2019). This aligns with the widespread
popularity of gaming, as approximately 183 million people in the US engage in gaming
activities, with 5 million of them playing for more than 40 hours per week (Kim 2015). Bowser
et al. (2013) suggested that gamification is crucial for engaging youth in citizen science; they
highlighted examples of successful gamified projects, such as Tiger Nation (Mason et al. 2012)
and Happy Sort (Prestopnik & Crowston 2012), as well as serious games such as Foldit and
Zooniverse. Additionally, they evaluated the effectiveness of the Biotracker app in attracting
citizen scientists. Eveleigh et al. (2013) have detailed about the negative and positive views of
gamification while conducting research about the Old Weather (http://www.oldweather.org/)
project.
Citizen science holds immense potential to leverage public engagement in scientific activities,
generating accurate, comprehensive, and cost-effective data when participants are properly
trained and motivated for sustainability (Kadoya et al. 2009, Dickinson et al. 2010, Theobald et
al. 2015, Kobori et al. 2016). Citizen science projects contribute to conservation, education, and
outreach by engaging local communities (Bonney et al. 2009, Cunha et al. 2017), informing
policymakers and conservation managers about threatened areas or taxa, and monitoring
population statuses (McKinley et al. 2015). Data from citizen scientists helps address
conservation challenges such as climate change, habitat destruction, and invasive species
(Kobori et al. 2016), fills knowledge gaps in species distributions, abundance, and behavior
(Sullivan et al. 2014, Mota et al. 2022), and supports research and monitoring efforts by
identifying areas for further study and providing baseline data (Hochachka et al. 2012). Citizen
science initiatives can be strengthened to support more informed decision-making by cultivating
a richer understanding of environmental concerns among all parties involved (Conrad 2006,
Haywood & Besley 2014). By utilizing citizen scientists for data generation, we promote public
engagement, community awareness and yield high-quality data, ultimately informing
comprehensive solutions to multiple conservation issues (Overdevest et al. 2004, Lowry &
Fienen 2013). Community involvement in citizen science can lead to a new way of protecting the
environment, where everyone works together to make a difference (Cunha et al. 2017).
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

4
By harnessing the vast potential of citizen scientists and the transformative power of digital
technology, particularly gaming, we aim to revolutionize biodiversity conservation and unlock
new dimensions of impact. We envision a more proactive and self-driven role for citizen
scientists, extending beyond participation in specific projects. Analogous to how individuals
actively engage with social media, we propose an innovative approach to empower citizens to
take ownership of biodiversity conservation. This solution aims to inspire a broader audience to
explore, discover, and protect the natural world, thereby accelerating conservation efforts.
Incentivized Gamification: Exploring Ideas for Engaging Biodiversity Conservation
According to Deterding et al. (2011), gamification involves incorporating elements typically
found in games into situations or environments that are not inherently game-like, i.e.,
biodiversity exploration and conservation in this case. A key perspective on gamifying this
aspect leverages the engaging concept of the Pokémon franchise, where citizen scientists are
motivated to explore and document biodiversity in their surroundings, analogous to collecting
virtual creatures in the iconic Japanese anime series; in real world, this motivation can
potentially be achieved by incentivization. Citizen scientists would actively visit different places
in pursuit of target species to capture their wild images and complete their collections, which
would be incentivized upon completion. By collaborating with established organizations such as
iNaturalist, iSpotnature, eBird, eButterfly, and BAMONA, or by creating a new entity, a
gamified experience can be designed to offer real-life prizes for achievements, fostering a sense
of challenge and competition among participants. As Balmford et al. (2002) suggested,
conservationists can draw inspiration from Pokémon creators to engage children in biodiversity.
The phenomenal success of the anime and its gamified offshoot, Pokémon Go, underscores the
potential of this approach. Furthermore, Dorward et al. (2017) have highlighted the benefits,
costs, and lessons learned from applying gamification principles to conservation efforts,
providing valuable insights into the effectiveness of this strategy.
Today, social media platforms such as Facebook, TikTok, and YouTube are universally
accessible. The enthusiasm people have for sharing everyday moments through photos and
videos might have been unimaginable just a few decades ago, but now these activities have
become glamorized and highly sought after (Kaplan & Haenlein 2010). This shift in how we
engage with and share our lives online reflects a broader trend where digital interactions are
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

5
increasingly central to social dynamics (Jenkins 2006). Similarly, we envision a future where
documenting biodiversity becomes a coveted and trendy activity, with those who contribute to it
receiving the same level of admiration and hype as social media influencers do today.
While initiatives such as BioBlitz programs offer similar concepts by encouraging biodiversity
documentation, they are often constrained by time and location, limiting their accessibility to a
broader audience (Meeus et al. 2023). iNaturalist was founded with a similar goal of promoting
citizen science and recording biodiversity through technology (Nugent 2018); however, in our
experience, user engagement remains relatively passive for casual or occasional naturalists,
potentially because of insufficient motivating factors. As mentioned earlier, our idea provides
real-life rewards to the explorers to keep their pursuits active. Note that they will take only
images of the species, and not collect the physical specimens; images should be taken in the wild
with the organism unrestrained and unmanipulated. Participants would also have options to be
focused on certain taxa only or complete only certain collections. The quests can also be limited
to certain geographic scales (e.g., North America, Asia, or globally). For example, “Complete the
collection of all Junonia in North America and earn $100 or 100 points”. In the higher tier, this
can be translated as “Complete the collection of all Junonia in the world and earn $10,000 or
10,000 points”. A rather rudimentary example is given in Figure 1. If the challenge is point-
based, one could redeem their points for cash rewards. Funding can be generated through various
revenue streams commonly used in similar initiatives, including application fees, donations from
individuals and organizations, sponsorship partnerships, in-app purchases, and targeted
advertising.
This approach has the following main goals:
1. Develop active engagement among people toward biodiversity exploration and conservation
through incentivized gamification.
3. Use the collected data for conservation efforts.
4. Foster a sense of community and social responsibility among the public for biodiversity
exploration and conservation.
Boosting Motivation: Innovative Additions
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

6
As Dichev et al. (2020) noted, gamification alone does not guarantee increased motivation;
identifying motivating factors within gaming elements is crucial to sustain player engagement.
While reward-based gamification has faced criticism for neglecting intrinsic motivation and
long-term engagement (Kohn, 1999; Nicholson, 2015; Thiel, 2016), it has also shown
effectiveness (Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Mekler et al., 2013; Hamari et al., 2014). To further
enhance engagement, challenge, long-term participation, and complement incentivization, the
following strategies can be incorporated:
-Point system: Provide certain points for general observations which are not part of the
collections. For example, 2 points for each unique species observation, and 0.2 points for each
non-unique species observation. This will encourage participants to actively gather data on
species which they have already encountered.
-Leaderboard: Display top biodiversity explorers or citizen scientists on a global or regional
basis based on points earned. This competitive element will encourage participants to strive for
rare observations, although, as noted by (Preist et al. 2014), not all participants are expected to
exhibit a competitive spirit. See Figure 2 for an example.
- Tiered rewards system: Implement a tiered system where users can progress from bronze to
silver to gold, with increasingly rare and valuable rewards such as those given in the Junonia
example above (Fig. 1).
- Limited-time challenges: Create limited-time challenges or events that offer exclusive rewards
for completing specific tasks or achieving certain milestones. This can be tailored to specific
occasions, such as a World Butterfly Day challenge, where participants earn rewards for
collecting data on targeted species, such as the Monarch butterfly.
- Virtual "showcase": Allow users to display their rarest observations, accomplishments, or
completed collections in a virtual "showcase" for others to admire.
- Collaborative collections: Introduce collaborative collections (clan system) where multiple
users can work together to complete a collection, promoting teamwork and social interaction and
earning collective rewards. Social elements have been proven to be beneficial in the success of
gamification (Hamari & Koivisto 2015). This feature can also be leveraged to develop habitat for
certain species in a community.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

7
The Citizen Science Advantage: How Gamification Helps
Games are known to engage and motivate participants (Karagiorgas & Niemann 2017).
Incentivized gamification holds significant potential to revolutionize conservation efforts by
engaging a broader audience and encouraging active participation in biodiversity exploration and
conservation. The role of platforms such as iNaturalist in conservation by documenting species,
detecting the presence of invasive species, rediscovering species, has been well recognized
(Agarwal 2017, Vásquez-Restrepo & Lapwong 2018, Richart et al. 2019). By harnessing
gamification, we can significantly enhance citizen science contributions (Bowser et al. 2013).
Transforming passive engagement into active participation through reward systems can aid data
scientists, conservation managers, taxonomists, and conservationists in gathering critical data on
species distribution and status, thereby eliminating shortfalls, which is essential for developing
effective conservation strategies (Newman et al. 2012). The Citizen Science Conservation Cycle
(Fig. 3) illustrates this process. This concept is further supported by its engaging features, which
create a collaborative platform for raising awareness, education, community involvement, and
fostering pro-conservation behavior. Additionally, incentivized gamification has a potential to
generate valuable empirical data, facilitate the development of advanced species distribution
models (SDMs) and habitat suitability indices for many under-researched taxa, and foster a
deeper appreciation for natural ecosystems while promoting sustainable behaviors among
participants. This approach can significantly contribute to addressing the Linnean and Wallacean
shortfalls by facilitating the discovery of new distributional ranges for various taxa and the
identification of previously unknown taxa, respectively. Ultimately, this approach can cultivate a
new generation of conservationists, drive engagement, and support impactful conservation
efforts, leading to a profound positive impact on environmental stewardship and biodiversity
conservation.
Solving Taxonomic Biases with Gamification
Taxonomic biases in biodiversity documentation are widespread, particularly in citizen science
initiatives, where they often arise owing to human preferences for certain taxa and logistical
constraints (Díaz-Calafat et al. 2024, Goldstein et al. 2024). Devictor et al. (2010) highlighted
the role of citizen scientists in exploration of different taxonomic groups. Incentivized
gamification can help address taxonomic biases in biodiversity projects by boosting
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

8
participation, broadening taxonomic coverage, and enhancing data quality. By leveraging
rewards, leaderboards, and challenges, gamification encourages participation from
underrepresented taxa, increasing the diversity of contributions. This approach helps reduce
biases towards charismatic or well-studied taxa, while incentivizing participants to focus on
lesser-known or under-studied species. For instance, the game can be designed to feature specific
lesser-known taxa in collections, prompting players to focus on those groups and generate
targeted data. Similarly, the game can incentivize players to explore and collect data from under-
sampled locations, filling critical knowledge gaps and expanding our understanding of
biodiversity in those areas. Additionally, gamification fosters a sense of community and
competition, motivating participants to learn and improve their taxonomic skills, and provides
feedback mechanisms to help reduce biases through education and collaboration.
A Potential Long-Term Solution for Conservation
Incentivized gamification offers a potential long-term and permanent solution to environmental
conservation, addressing a pressing concern: the dwindling number of conservationists amidst
rapid technological advancements. By harnessing the power of gamification, we can inspire a
new generation of nature enthusiasts, encouraging people to engage in environmentally focused
activities and cultivate a deep-seated culture of appreciating and preserving the natural world.
Although some research suggested that gamified participation can cultivate extrinsic motivation
(Nicholson 2015, Thiel 2016) at the expense of intrinsic motivation (Deci et al. 1999, Thiel &
Fröhlich 2017), other research contradicts this, highlighting the need for further investigation.
Mekler et al. (2013), for instance, suggested levels, points, and leaderboard do not harm intrinsic
motivation and rather enhance the performance of the participants. Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivations can, in fact, complement each other (Cameron & Pierce 1994), and a well-designed
gamification model can increase interest and engagement among participants, ultimately
boosting their intrinsic motivation (Hamari et al. 2014). Thus, if implemented effectively, this
approach has the potential to foster a genuine love and passion for biodiversity exploration,
leading to a deeper and more sustained engagement. Nicholson (2015) argued that reward-based
gamification is ineffective in driving long-term change, but this claim is countered by the
widespread use of social media by professional influencers and enthusiasts alike, who leverage
gamification strategies to grow their followers, monetize their accounts, and derive enjoyment
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

9
from the process, thereby demonstrating its potential for sustained engagement. Incentivized
gamification can rekindle a passion for citizen science and environmental conservation, attract
new audiences, encourage sustained engagement, and develop a community of nature advocates,
promoting a culture of environmental respect and value. The tier system, for example, is a
potentially powerful concept that creates lasting impressions and achievements in users' minds,
motivating them to continue exploring. For instance, a child who completes initial tiers at a
young age can build upon that foundation, progressing to higher-level tiers as they grow, driven
by a sense of accomplishment, experience, and nostalgia. This hierarchical structure fosters a
sense of progression, encouraging users to persist in their journey, fueled by the desire to unlock
new challenges and relive fond memories. Features such as levels, points, and leaderboards have
been known to help in longer participation (Mekler et al. 2013).
As we cultivate environmentally conscious generations, we are shaping the future leaders of
tomorrow - including politicians, scientists, entrepreneurs, and more. Even in fields not directly
related to conservation, the presence of individuals with a deep appreciation for the environment
will have a profoundly positive impact on conservation efforts. This trickle-down effect will
ensure that sustainability and environmental stewardship become integral considerations in all
aspects of society, leading to transformative change and a lasting legacy of a healthier planet for
future generations.
Identifying and Mitigating Potential Constraints
Eveleigh et al. (2013) identified several potential drawbacks of gamification, including
demotivation caused by overwhelming challenges set by high-scoring players, stressful or
exhausting quests that lead to burnout, distrust among participants due to concerns about
cheating, prioritizing quantity over quality of contributions (also in Kohn 1999), and trivializing
the purpose of the game. These negative views highlight the importance of carefully designing
gamification elements to avoid unintended consequences. Our approach offers participants the
flexibility to complete collections at their own pace, earning rewards without the pressure of
competing on the leaderboard. This allows them to engage in a relaxed and stress-free
experience, enjoying the game without feeling compelled to compete. Given the amount of
challenge and rewards, one of the primary concerns, however, is the potential for users to cheat
and exploit the system for rewards, particularly with the increasing sophistication of technologies
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

10
such as AI. To prevent this, measures can be taken to maintain the integrity of the experience.
Image verification processes, such as through Google reverse image search, can ensure the
authenticity of user-submitted images (Niemiller et al. 2021). AI detection tools can also identify
generated or manipulated images, while a user reputation system rewards genuine contributions
and penalizes false ones. A well-designed reward structure encourages users to submit multiple
images of the same species, promoting genuine participation. Fostering a community where users
share knowledge and collaborate on conservation efforts builds trust and encourages authentic
engagement (Conley & Moote 2003). Establishing transparent guidelines and rules, combined
with ongoing monitoring, enables the detection and prevention of cheating, allowing for swift
adaptation of measures to maintain integrity.
Another concern is that the commercialization of biodiversity exploration could have unintended
consequences on the natural environment. As more people become actively involved in the quest
for rare species, particularly, if solely for monetary purposes, there is a risk of harm to the
ecosystems being explored. This phenomenon parallels the detrimental impacts of wildlife
tourism on wildlife populations (Green & Geise 2004, Luo et al. 2018). To mitigate this risk and
ensure sustainable practices, it is essential to establish clear guidelines and ethics for users,
emphasizing responsible behavior and conservation priorities. Education and awareness
campaigns can also promote sustainable wildlife observation practices and habitat preservation.
Collaborations with conservation organizations can help identify and protect threatened habitats,
while community moderation and rewards for responsible behavior encourage users to prioritize
conservation. By focusing on easily observable, yet lesser-known, species and avoiding
endangered ones, the platform can minimize its impact on vulnerable ecosystems. Regular
monitoring and evaluation of the project's environmental impact enable necessary adjustments to
prioritize conservation.
Finally, should this concept gain widespread momentum, the platform may face challenges in
providing monetary rewards to all participants. To address this, a bottleneck mechanism can be
introduced that requires users to monetize their profiles to redeem their rewards. This can be
achieved by completing a specified threshold of observations/points, or collections, or the
number of followers, or a combination of all, thereby creating a tiered system that incentivizes
active engagement and rewards dedicated users; this would be very similar to monetizing one's
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

11
YouTube channel. Finally, a certain portion of the profit generated by the organization would be
invested in the conservation of vulnerable species/habitats or for scientific research.
Conclusions
When carefully implemented, incentivized gamification holds substantial potential for elevating
citizen science, biodiversity exploration, and conservation efforts to new heights. At the current
pace, we are losing hundreds of species even before they are described, particularly, the lesser-
studied arthropods. The incentivized gamification of biodiversity exploration has the potential to
inspire a new generation of citizen scientists. By engaging the public, youths in particular, in the
thrill of discovery and exploration, we can foster a culture of appreciation and stewardship for
the natural world. This is particularly crucial at a time when habitat loss and anthropogenic
climate change are resulting in the loss of hundreds of species. By implementing this approach
seriously, we can create a brighter future for biodiversity conservation and ensure that the natural
world continues to thrive for generations to come.
Figure 1: A basic visual representation of the incentivized collection-based gamification with
Junonia collection of Nepal. Layout from: (removed for anonymity purpose)
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

12
Figure 2: A basic visual representation of the Global Leaderboard, showing top citizen scientists
ranked by points.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

13
Figure 3: Citizen Science Conservation Cycle. Illustrating the interplay between citizen science
data, scientists, and conservation efforts, fueled by incentivized gamification.
Acknowledgments
We thank the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful and constructive feedback.
References
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

14
Agarwal, M. 2017. First record of Dendronotus orientalis (Baba, 1932) (Nudibranchia:
Dendronotidae) in the temperate eastern Pacific. BioInvasions Records 6(2): 135–138.
Andrén, H. 1997. Habitat fragmentation and changes in biodiversity. Ecological Bulletins 46:
171–181.
Balmford, A., Clegg, L., Coulson, T., & Taylor, J. 2002. Why conservationists should heed
Pokémon. Science 295(5564): 2367.
Barnosky, A. D., Matzke, N., Tomiya, S., Wogan, G. O., Swartz, B., Quental, T. B., Marshall,
C., McGuire, J. L., Lindsey, E. L., Maguire, K. C., & Mersey, B. 2011. Has the Earth's
sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature 471(7336): 51–57.
Beck, A. L., Chitalia, S., & Rai, V. 2019. Not so gameful: A critical review of gamification in
mobile energy applications. Energy Research & Social Science 51: 32–39.
Bigalke, M., Fieber, M., Foetisch, A., Reynes, J., & Tollan, P. 2022. Microplastics in agricultural
drainage water: a link between terrestrial and aquatic microplastic pollution. Science of
the Total Environment 806: 150709.
Bonney, R., Ballard, H., Jordan, R., McCallie, E., Phillips, T., Shirk, J., & Wilderman, C. C.
2009. Public participation in scientific research: Defining the field and assessing its
potential for informal science education. Center for Advancement of Informal Science
Education (CAISE), Washington, DC.
Bowser, A., Hansen, D., He, Y., Boston, C., Reid, M., Gunnell, L., & Preece, J. 2013. Using
gamification to inspire new citizen science volunteers. Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Gameful Design, Research, and Applications: 18–25.
Brockington, D., & Schmidt-Soltau, K. 2004. The social and environmental impacts of
wilderness and development. Oryx 38(2): 140–142.
Butt, N., Seabrook, L., Maron, M., Law, B. S., Dawson, T. P., Syktus, J., & McAlpine, C. A.
2015. Cascading effects of climate extremes on vertebrate fauna through changes to
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

15
low‐latitude tree flowering and fruiting phenology. Global Change Biology 21(9): 3267–
3277.
Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. 1994. Reinforcement, reward, and intrinsic motivation: A meta-
analysis. Review of Educational Research 64(3): 363–423.
Cazalis, V., Di Marco, M., Butchart, S.H., Akçakaya, H.R., González-Suárez, M., Meyer, C.,
Clausnitzer, V., Böhm, M., Zizka, A., Cardoso, P. and Schipper, A.M. 2022. Bridging the
research-implementation gap in IUCN Red List assessments. Trends in Ecology &
Evolution 37(4): 359–370.
Conley, A., & Moote, M. A. 2003. Evaluating collaborative natural resource management.
Society & Natural Resources 16: 371–386.
Conrad, C. 2006. Towards meaningful community-based ecological monitoring in Nova Scotia:
Where are we versus where we would like to be. Environments 34: 25–36.
Cooper, C. B., Dickinson, J., Phillips, T., & Bonney, R. 2007. Citizen science as a tool for
conservation in residential ecosystems. Ecology and Society 12: 11.
Cunha, D. G., Marques, J. F., Resende, J. C., Falco, P. B., Souza, C. M., & Loiselle, S. A. 2017.
Citizen science participation in research in the environmental sciences: Key factors
related to projects' success and longevity. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 89:
2229–2245.
De Vos, J.M., Joppa, L.N., Gittleman, J.L., Stephens, P.R. and Pimm, S.L. 2015. Estimating the
normal background rate of species extinction. Conservation Biology 29(2): 452–462.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. 1999. A meta-analytic review of experiments
examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin
125(6): 627.
Deterding, S., Dixon, D., Khaled, R., & Nacke, L. 2011. From game design elements to
gamefulness: defining gamification. Proceedings of the 15th International Academic
MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments, 9–15. ACM.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

16
Devictor, V., Whittaker, R. J., & Beltrame, C. 2010. Beyond scarcity: citizen science
programmes as useful tools for conservation biogeography. Diversity and Distributions
16(3): 354–362. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2009.00625.x
Díaz-Calafat, J., Jaume-Ramis, S., Soacha, K., Álvarez, A., & Piera, J. 2024. Revealing biases in
insect observations: A comparative analysis between academic and citizen science data.
PLOS ONE 19(7): e0305757.
Dichev, C., Dicheva, D., & Irwin, K. 2020. Gamifying learning for learners. International
Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education 17: 1–14.
Dickinson, J. L., Zuckerberg, B., & Bonter, D. N. 2010. Citizen science as an ecological research
tool: challenges and benefits. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 41:
149–172. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144636
Dorward, L. J., Mittermeier, J. C., Sandbrook, C., & Spooner, F. 2017. Pokémon Go: Benefits,
costs, and lessons for the conservation movement. Conservation Letters 10(1): 160–165.
Douglas, B. D., & Brauer, M. 2021. Gamification to prevent climate change: A review of games
and apps for sustainability. Current Opinion in Psychology 42: 89–94.
Estes, J. A., J. D. Smith, & E. B. P. R. K. S. 2011. Trophic cascades in kelp forests: The role of
sea otters in shaping community structure. Science 293: 980–983.
Eveleigh, A., Jennett, C., Lynn, S., & Cox, A. L. 2013. "I want to be a Captain! I want to be a
Captain!": Gamification in the Old Weather Citizen Science Project. Proceedings of the
First International Conference on Gameful Design, Research, and Applications, 79–82.
ACM.
Fahrig, L. 2003. Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology,
Evolution, and Systematics 34(1): 487–515.
Fahrig, L., Arroyo-Rodríguez, V., Bennett, J. R., Boucher-Lalonde, V., Cazetta, E., Currie, D. J.,
Eigenbrod, F., Ford, A. T., Harrison, S. P., Jaeger, J. A., & Koper, N. 2019. Is habitat
fragmentation bad for biodiversity? Biological Conservation 230: 179–186.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

17
Galgani, L., & Loiselle, S. A. 2021. Plastic pollution impacts on marine carbon biogeochemistry.
Environmental Pollution 268: 115598.
Goldstein, B. R., Stoudt, S., Lewthwaite, J. M., Shirey, V., Mendoza, E., & Guzman, L. M. 2024.
Logistical and preference bias in participatory science butterfly data. Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment e2783.
Gore, A. 2006. An inconvenient truth: The planetary emergency of global warming and what we
can do about it. Rodale Books, New York.
Green, R., & Giese, M. 2004. Negative effects of wildlife tourism on wildlife. Wildlife Tourism:
Impacts, Management and Planning: 81–97.
Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. 2014. Does gamification work?--a literature review of
empirical studies on gamification. Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International
Conference on System Sciences, 3025–3034. IEEE.
Haywood, B. K., & Besley, J. C. 2014. Education, outreach, and inclusive engagement: Towards
integrated indicators of successful program outcomes in participatory science. Public
Understanding of Science 23(1): 92–106.
Hochachka, W. M., Fink, D., Hutchinson, R. A., Sheldon, D., Wong, W-K., & Kelling, S. 2012.
Data-intensive science applied to broad-scale citizen science. Trends in Ecology and
Evolution 27(2): 130–137. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.11.006
IPBES. 2019. Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services. In E. S.
Brondizio, J. Settele, S. Díaz, & H. T. Ngo (Eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany.
IUCN. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of
Nature - IUCN, 2024. https://www.iucnredlist.org
Jenkins, H. 2006. Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York University
Press.
Kadoya, T., Ishii, H. S., Kikuchi, R., Suda, S. I., & Washitani, I. 2009. Using monitoring data
gathered by volunteers to predict the potential distribution of the invasive alien
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

18
bumblebee Bombus terrestris. Biological Conservation 142(5): 1011–1017.
doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.01.012
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. 2010. Users of the world, unite! The challenges and
opportunities of social media. Business Horizons 53(1): 59–68.
Karagiorgas, D. N., & Niemann, S. 2017. Gamification and game-based learning. Journal of
Educational Technology Systems 45(4): 499–519.
Kim, B. 2015. The popularity of gamification in the mobile and social era. Library Technology
Reports 51(2): 5–9.
Kobori, H., Dickinson, J. L., Washitani, I., Sakurai, R., Amano, T., Komatsu, N., Kitamura, W.,
Takagawa, S., Koyama, K., Ogawara, T., & Miller-Rushing, A. J. 2016. Citizen science:
A new approach to advance ecology, education, and conservation. Ecological Research
31: 1–19.
Kohn, A. 1999. Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise,
and other bribes. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Linhares, Y., Kaganski, A., Agyare, C., Kurnaz, I. A., Neergheen, V., Kolodziejczyk, B., Kędra,
M., Wahajuddin, M., El-Youssf, L., dela Cruz, T. E., & Baran, Y. 2023. Biodiversity: the
overlooked source of human health. Trends in Molecular Medicine 29(3): 173–187.
Lowry, C. S., & Fienen, M. N. 2013. Crowd Hydrology: Crowdsourcing hydrologic data and
engaging citizen scientists. Ground Water 51(1): 151–156.
Luo, Q., Song, Y., Hu, X., Zhu, S., Wang, H., & Ji, H. 2018. Effects of tourism disturbance on
habitat quality and population size of the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus).
Wildlife Research 45(5): 411–420.
Mason, A., Michalakidis, G., & Krause, P. 2012. Tiger nation: Empowering citizen scientists.
Proceedings of DEST 2012, IEEE.
McKinley, D. C., Miller-Rushing, A. J., Ballard, H. L., Bonney, R., Brown, H., Evans, D. M.,
French, R. A., Parrish, J. K., Phillips, T. B., Ryan, S. F., Shanley, L. A., Shirk, J. L.,
Stepenuck, K. F., Weltzin, J. F., Wiggins, A., Boyle, O. D., Briggs, R. D., Chapin, Iii, F.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

19
S., Hewitt, D. A., Preuss, P. W., & Soukup, M. A. 2015. Investing in citizen science can
improve natural resource management and environmental protection. Issues in Ecology
2015 (19): 1–27.
Meeus, S., Silva-Rocha, I., Adriaens, T., Brown, P. M., Chartosia, N., Claramunt-López, B.,
Martinou, A. F., Pocock, M. J., Preda, C., Roy, H. E., & Tricarico, E. 2023. More than a
bit of fun: The multiple outcomes of a bioblitz. BioScience 73(3): 168–181.
Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Opwis, K., & Tuch, A. N. 2013. Do points, levels and
leaderboards harm intrinsic motivation? An empirical analysis of common gamification
elements. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Gameful Design,
Research, and Applications, 66–73.
Mota, L. L., Boddington, S. J., Brown Jr, K. S., Callaghan, C. J., Carter, G., Carter, W., Dantas,
S. M., Dolibaina, D. R., Garwood, K., Hoyer, R. C., & Robbins, R. K. 2022. The
butterflies of Cristalino Lodge, in the Brazilian southern Amazonia: An updated species
list with a significant contribution from citizen science. Biota Neotropica 22(3):
e20221367.
Naman, C. B., Leber, C. A., & Gerwick, W. H. 2017. Modern natural products drug discovery
and its relevance to biodiversity conservation. In Microbial resources (pp. 103–120).
Academic Press.
Newman, G., Wiggins, A., Crall, A., Graham, E., Newman, S., & Crowston, K. 2012. The future
of citizen science: emerging technologies and shifting paradigms. Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment 10(6): 298–304.
Nicholson, S. 2015. A recipe for meaningful gamification. Gamification in Education and
Business, 1–20.
Niemiller, K. D. K., Davis, M. A., & Niemiller, M. L. 2021. Addressing ‘biodiversity naivety’
through project-based learning using iNaturalist. Journal for Nature Conservation 64:
126070.
Nugent, J. 2018. iNaturalist: Citizen science for 21st-century naturalists. Science Scope 41(7):
12–15.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

20
Overdevest, C., Orr, C. H., & Stepenuck, K. 2004. Volunteer stream monitoring and local
participation in natural resource issues. Human Ecology Review 11: 177–185.
Pace, M. L., N. G. Hairston, & D. P. C. E. J. 1999. Trophic cascades revealed in diverse
ecosystems. Nature 401: 529–532.
Pimm, S. L., Jenkins, C. N., Abell, R., Brooks, T. M., Gittleman, J. L., Joppa, L. N., Raven, P.
H., Roberts, C. M., & Sexton, J. O. 2014. The biodiversity of species and their rates of
extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 344(6187): 1246752.
Prestopnik, N., & Crowston, K. 2012. Purposeful gaming and Socio-computational systems: A
citizen science design case. Proceedings of Group 2012, ACM Press.
Priest, C., Massung, E., & Coyle, D. 2014. Competing or aiming to be average? Normification as
a means of engaging digital volunteers. Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on
Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing: 1222–1233.
Richardson, M., Hussain, Z., & Griffiths, M. D. 2018. Problematic smartphone use, nature
connectedness, and anxiety. Journal of Behavioral Addictions 7(1): 109–116.
Richart, C. H., Chichester, L. F., Boyer, B., & Pearce, T. A. 2019. Rediscovery of the southern
California endemic American Keeled Slug Anadenulus cockerelli (Hemphill, 1890) after
a 68-year hiatus. Journal of Natural History 53(25-26): 1515–1531.
Samways, M. J. 2007. Insect conservation: a synthetic management approach. Annual Review of
Entomology 52(1): 465–487.
Santiago Fink, H. 2016. Human-nature for climate action: Nature-based solutions for urban
sustainability. Sustainability 8(3): 254.
Schmidt, L., & Marratto, S. L. 2008. The end of ethics in a technological society. Montreal, QC:
McGill-Queen’s Press.
Soliman, M., Peetz, J., & Davydenko, M. 2017. The impact of immersive technology on nature
relatedness and pro-environmental behavior. Journal of Media Psychology 29(1): 8–17.
Stork, N. E. 2018. How many species of insects and other terrestrial arthropods are there on
Earth? Annual Review of Entomology 63(1): 31–45.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

21
Sullivan, B. L., Aycrigg, J. L., Barry, J. H., Bonney, R. E., Bruns, N., Cooper, C. B., Damoulas,
T., Dhondt, A. A., Dietterich, T., Farnsworth, A., Fink, D., Fitzpatrick, J. W., Fredericks,
T., Gerbracht, J., Gomes, C., Hochachka, W. M., Iliff, M. J., Lagoze, C., La Sorte, F. A.,
Merrifield, M., Morris, W., Phillips, T. B., Reynolds, M., Rodewald, A. D., Rosenberg,
K. V., Trautmann, N. M., Wiggins, A., Winkler, D. W., Wong, W-K., Wood, C. L., Yu,
J., & Kelling, S. 2014. The eBird enterprise: An integrated approach to development and
application of citizen science. Biological Conservation 169: 31–40.
doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2013.11.003
Theobald, E. J., Ettinger, A. K., Burgess, H. K., DeBey, L. B., Schmidt, N. R., Froehlich, H. E.,
Wagner, C., HilleRisLambers, J., Tewksbury, J., Harsch, M. A., & Parrish, J. K. 2015.
Global change and local solutions: tapping the unrealized potential of citizen science for
biodiversity research. Biological Conservation 181: 236–244.
doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.021
Thiel, S. K., & Fröhlich, P. 2017. Gamification as motivation to engage in location-based public
participation? In Progress in Location-Based Services 2016, 399–421. Springer
International Publishing.
Thiel, S.-K. 2016. A Review of introducing Game Elements to e-Participation. Proceedings of
CeDEM16: Conference for E-Democracy and Open Government, 3–9. IEEE.
Turner, A. 2020. How many smartphones are in the world, 2020, [online] Available:
Bankmycell.com.
UNEP-WCMC, & IUCN. 2018. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas
(WDPA). Retrieved from www.protectedplanet.net
Vásquez-Restrepo, J. D., & Lapwong, Y. 2018. Confirming the presence of a fourth species of
non-native house gecko of the genus Hemidactylus Oken, 1817 (Squamata, Gekkonidae)
in Colombia. Check List 14(4): 665–669.
Wee, S. C., & Choong, W. W. 2019. Gamification: Predicting the effectiveness of variety game
design elements to intrinsically motivate users' energy conservation behaviour. Journal of
Environmental Management 233: 97–106.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

22
Wilcove, D. S., & Wikelski, M. 2008. Going, going, gone: Is animal migration disappearing?
PLoS Biology 6: 1361–1364. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060188
WWF (World Wildlife Fund). 2020. Living Planet Report 2020. World Wildlife Fund, Gland,
Switzerland.
Zahoor, I., & Mushtaq, A. 2023. Water pollution from agricultural activities: A critical global
review. International Journal of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences 23(1): 164–176.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5008056
Preprint not peer reviewed