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Beyond private-sphere pro-environmental action: Explaining shared mobility using the Theory of Planned Behavior and solidarity-oriented variables
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Shared mobility has the potential to make urban transportation systems more efficient. However, it has not yet managed to successfully break into most people’s transportation habits. This study attempts to identify the key factors that influence adoption intentions of shared mobility. Based on a behavioral model adapted from the theory of planned behavior with eight latent factors, a survey was conducted amongst 481 Belgian participants. The data were analyzed using a structural equation model and both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. The main results suggest that subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and perceived compatibility with daily life have the greatest impact on adoption intentions but questions remain on why shared mobility usage is low. This study provides insights into how policymakers and commercial operators can improve the adoption of shared mobility services.
Sociopsychological theorizing and research on collective action (e.g., social protests) has mushroomed over the last decade, studying a wide variety of groups, contexts, and cultures. Through a quantitative research synthesis of four motivations for collective action (1,235 effects from 403 samples; total N = 123,707), we summarize and synthesize this body of research into the dual chamber model, a comprehensive and potentially cross-cultural model of collective action. We aim to replicate previous meta-analytic conclusions (about identity, injustice, and efficacy) and break new theoretical ground by (a) integrating a fourth motivation (morality) into the very heart of the psychology of collective action, (b) extending these four motivations to advantaged group members acting in solidarity with the disadvantaged, and (c) integrating theoretically relevant structural (i.e., cultural and other contextual) constraints. Results substantiated the dual chamber model as all four motivations yielded unique, positive, medium-sized effects and interrelationships were positive (particularly among morality and identity, conceptualized as the dual chambers of the protester's beating heart). Meta-analytic structural equation modeling supported the added value of including morality. Moreover, findings confirmed that the strongest specific motivations were emotional injustice and politicized identification, while newly adding moral conviction to that list. Finally, the four motivations extended to advantaged group members acting in solidarity with the disadvantaged, while only the identity motivation was constrained by theoretically relevant cultural dimensions and values (e.g., collectivism and hierarchy). We discuss the implications and limitations of the dual chamber model for integrative theorizing, innovative research, and the practice of collective action. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Zusammenfassung. Zur Analyse der Ursachen für die interindividuelle Variabilität der Verkehrsmittelnutzung werden subjektive Bewertungen von Verkehrsmitteln im Rahmen standardisierter Verkehrserhebungen zunehmend mit berücksichtigt. Im vorliegenden Beitrag wird ein theoretisch fundierter und empirisch validierter Fragebogen zu den psychologischen Einflussfaktoren der Nutzung von Pkw, ÖPNV und Fahrrad (PsyVKN) im Alltag vorgestellt, der Items zu Kontrollüberzeugungen, verkehrsmittelbezogenen Normen und Einstellungen umfasst. Auf der empirischen Basis von sechs Studien mit 10 850 Befragten aus über neun Jahren psychologischer Mobilitätsforschung wurde, auf der Basis von Strukturgleichungsmodellen und Messinvarianzanalysen, ein ökonomisches, reliables und valides Messinstrument für psychologische Merkmale der Verkehrsmittelnutzung entwickelt. Als Ergebnis stehen acht psychologische Konstrukte mit 21 Items für die Anwendung in der interdisziplinären Verkehrs- und Mobilitätsforschung zur Verfügung. Die entsprechenden psychologischen Konstrukte können in Verkehrserhebungen zur Erfassung der interindividuellen Variabilität bei der Verkehrsmittelnutzung und darauf aufbauend zur Planung von Maßnahmen zur Reduktion der Automobilität im Nahverkehr eingesetzt werden.
Carpooling brings benefits to carpool participants and the environment and society. Literature has called for a better understanding of psychological factors encouraging people to carpool however current research does not provide an in-depth psychological understanding of carpooling behaviour. This paper provides a review of psychological factors motivating drivers and passengers to carpool and identifies psychological theories appropriate for carpooling research. The Theory of Planned Behaviour and Norm-Activation Model were used as a priori theoretical frameworks to undertake a systematic literature review to identify important factors and relevant theories. Eighteen psychological factors were identified and classified as either common for drivers and passengers or specific to each group. In addition to the a priori frameworks, Consumer Perceived Value, Social Capital, and Technology Acceptance Model are considered the most appropriate for carpooling research. A conceptual framework and six research propositions were developed. Further, eight additional directions for future research were suggested including employing a variety of data collection methods to ensure rigour; collecting more data from non-Western countries for contextual veracity; exploring and testing psychological factors more deeply; and investigating the impact of COVID-19 on carpooling decisions. This paper contributes to theory through the development of the conceptual framework, identifying research propositions and providing additional research directions. The identified factors can be considered by researchers, matching agencies, and policy-makers to better promote carpooling.
People with high socioeconomic status disproportionally affect energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions directly through their consumption and indirectly through their financial and social resources. However, few climate change mitigation initiatives have targeted this population segment, and the potential of such initiatives remains insufficiently researched. In this Perspective, we analyse key characteristics of high-socioeconomic-status people and explore five roles through which they have a disproportionate impact on energy-driven greenhouse gas emissions and potentially on climate change mitigation, namely as consumers, investors, role models, organizational participants and citizens. We examine what is known about their disproportionate impact via consumption and explore their potential influence on greenhouse gas emissions through all five roles. We suggest that future research should focus on strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by high-socioeconomic-status people and to align their investments, organizational choices and actions as social and political change agents with climate change mitigation goals.
Global use of carsharing has increased. The dominant model is station-based carsharing, but free-floating providers are continuously increasing their businesses volumes. Carsharing customers have been described as environmentally conscious with a high preference for mobility providers who show responsibility and trustworthiness. This generalization of usage determinants appears to be questionable given the background of current market developments. Existing research in the area is lacking a context-sensitive view of the antecedents of potential carsharing usage. Do environmental concerns and trust have similar effects on usage intention of carsharing, when free-floating providers implement business models that are more flexible, digital, and sophisticated? Using a standardized online survey, this study paper applied a framework adapted from the Theory of Planned Behavior (ToPB) that included the constructs of trust and environmental concern. The focus was on Share Now and Stadtmobil, which are the largest free-floating and station-based providers, respectively, in Germany. Using structural equation modeling, the study explored potential perception differences between both business models among German consumers. Although not significant, results indicate slightly higher total effects of environmental concern and initial trust on the usage intention of station-based compared to free-floating carsharing. Depending on the type of carsharing, different priorities should be set in the respective business model.
The sharing economy is making its way into our everyday lives. One of its business models, car-sharing, has become highly popular. Can it help us increase our sustainability? Besides emissions and vehicle miles traveled, one key aspect in the assessment regards the effect of car-sharing on car ownership. Previous studies investigating this effect have relied almost exclusively on surveys and come to very heterogeneous results, partly suggesting spectacular substitution rates between shared and private cars. This study empirically explores the impact of car-sharing on noncorporate car ownership and car markets in 35 large German cities. The analysis draws on publicly available data for the years 2012, 2013, 2015, and 2017, including, among others, the number of shared cars per operating mode (free-floating and station-based) and the number of cars owned and registered by private individuals (i.e., excluding company cars). We find that one additional station-based car is associated with a reduction of about nine private cars. We do not find a statistically significant relation between car ownership and free-floating car-sharing. Neither type of car-sharing appears to impact the markets for used and new cars significantly. Given the measurable impacts on car ownership levels, this result is surprising and invites future research to study car-sharing’s impact on the dynamics of car markets.
The present study investigates the determinants of intention to use carsharing services by an integrated model of psychological predictors of travel behavior. The model proposed is tested by multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) in structural equation modeling (SEM) with further discussion about analysis of invariance and its relevance for comparisons between groups. The sample was classified into four groups: Italian users, Italian non-users, Swedish users, and Swedish non-users of carsharing. The users were respondents who have used or are currently using carsharing, while non-users reported never using the carsharing services. The analysis of data from 6072 respondents revealed that control was the main predictor of intention to use carsharing; driving habits had stronger negative effects for users of carsharing than for non-users; subjective norms positively predicted the intention to use carsharing among all groups; trust was a predictor of intention only for the Italian groups; and climate morality had a small negative effect on the Swedish groups only. The outcomes of this investigation will increase the knowledge about the use of carsharing and help to identify the behavioral and psychological factors that primarily influence people’s intention to use it.
Self-, collective, and participative efficacy are strong predictors of sustainability action. Yet, few studies have investigated the dynamics and variability of efficacy beliefs. In this transdisciplinary study, we tested such factors in the context of a peer-to-peer coaching program for sustainability volunteers, embedded in a structured-educational context. Over weekends, 2 qualified coaches trained 36 German bottom-up, student-led sustainability initiatives. These coaches instructed students in team building, envisioning, project planning, and on-campus sustainability practice. While 317 participants completed our pre-questionnaire, N = 165 completed both the pre-and post-questionnaire. As hypothesized, after having participated in the coaching weekend, action skills, collaboration skills, group identification, and self-, collective, and participative efficacy all increased. The latter of these increased, to our knowledge, for the first time in environmental psychology research. Group identification and having a vision emerged as important efficacy predictors, and participative efficacy beliefs in turn predicted volunteering. Moreover, we took initial steps in investigating the interaction of psychological and structural factors from a multilevel perspective. Our analyses revealed that efficacy beliefs on the individual level were higher when the university had a green office and when the student initiative was at a small university. We conclude by proposing an empowerment model for sustainability volunteers and by discussing the practical implications of our findings.
Though multiple studies have explored the phenomenon of car sharing, very few have indulged into exploring how different forms of trust varies between users of different business models. We address this research gap through employing quantitative data analyses of car sharers in Norway. Results show that the levels of ingroup and outgroup-trust (i.e., trust towards friends/family or unfamiliar persons) are markedly low for the members of the peer-to-peer scheme (M = 3.4/2.9) as compared to the cooperative (M = 6.0/4.8) and business-to-consumer scheme (M = 5.7/4.4). In contrast, technology-based trust is more important for the P2P sharers (M = 5.8) than cooperative (M = 5.6) and the B2C users (M = 5.6). Our findings echo previous studies, indicating that a different set of institutional logics is driving the transactions at the emerging P2P platforms compared to former non-profit sharing communities.
This paper proposes social identity as a psychological concept that connects societal and individual aspects of transformation processes. To this end, we embed the social identity concept into the multilevel perspective, a framework frequently used for analysing societal transformation processes. The paper presents three meta-analyses summarizing the empirical evidence for the postulated strong pro-environmental social identity-pro-environmental collective action link. A first meta-analysis (nine samples) finds a pooled correlation of r+ = .63 between pro-environmental social identity and intention to participate in pro-environmental collective action. This finding is replicated in a second meta-analysis, which shows a correlation of r+ = 0.56 (15 samples). The third meta-analysis supports that pro-environmental social identity is a stronger predictor of collective pro-environmental action than of individual pro-environmental private-sphere behavior (r+ = 0.35; eight samples). We discuss implications of these findings for further research and highlight power and ideology as additional transformation-oriented psychological constructs.
Based on collective action theories and appraisal theories of emotion, we propose that people are moved and positively overwhelmed by the idea that together they can make a difference for a more sustainable future and that these feelings motivate them to participate in pro-environmental collective action. We surveyed activists and sympathizers of a forest protection campaign (Study 1, N = 210) and conducted an experiment (Study 2, N = 221) to test this claim. As expected, feelings of being moved mediated the effect of collective efficacy beliefs on collective action intentions in both studies. Hence, being moved constitutes a second emotional path to collective action alongside group-based anger. These two emotional paths differently elicited the goal to punish authorities (intergroup goal), to be part of the movement (intragroup goal), and to reduce climate change (ideological goal). The findings suggest that negative and positive emotions (anger and being moved) amplify already existing motivations.
Abstract What are the profiles of both users and non-users of car sharing in European cities regarding their travel patterns and psychological aspects? Two subsamples (1519 users and 3695 non-users of car sharing) participated in a survey, translated into seven languages, with 36 questions regarding attitudes towards car sharing, the environment, political orientation, personal norms, frequency of use of different transport modes and transport mode choice for different travel purposes. Through a hierarchical cluster analysis, five distinct mobility styles were identified, with no a priori restriction of the number of clusters. The mobility styles were further characterised by sociodemographic variables and by the motives for making use of car sharing. This paper discusses the implications of research based decision-making and urban planning in a way that guarantees long-term human and environmental security.
Sharing does not need to involve corporate providers but can also happen on a peer‐to‐peer (P2P) basis. P2P sharing platforms who match private providers and users are thus dealing with two different customer segments. An example of this is carpooling, the sharing of a car journey. Recent years have seen considerable research on why people use sharing services. In contrast, there is little knowledge of why people may offer a good for sharing purposes. Drawing on identity theory, this paper suggests that users and providers of carpooling need to be addressed differently. A pilot study and two studies, including both actual car owners and nonowners confirm that the extent to which one identifies as an environmentalist predicts car owners' willingness to offer carpooling, but does not affect nonowners' willingness to use carpooling services. These findings remain robust when controlling for various potential confounds. Furthermore, Study 2 suggests that an environmentalist identity plays an important role for car owners' actual decision to offer a ride via an online platform. These results suggest that marketers of P2P platforms need to pursue different strategies when addressing potential users and providers on the same platform.
In a wider understanding, shared mobility can be defined as trip alternatives that aim to maximize the utilization of the mobility resources that a society can pragmatically afford, disconnecting their usage from ownership. Then, shared mobility is the short-term access to shared vehicles according to the user’s needs and convenience. The contributions and added value of this paper are to provide an up-to-date and well-structured review on the area of shared mobility to researchers and practitioners of the transport sector. Hence, this paper presents a bibliographical review of shared mobility and its diverse modalities, as an alternative to individual transportation, especially in cases of individual automobiles or short trips restricted to an urban city. The present literature review on shared modes of transportation has discovered that the introduction of these modes alone will not solve transportation problems in large cities, with elevated and growing motorization rates. However, it can among the strategies employed to help alleviate the problems caused by traffic jams and pollution by reducing the number of vehicles in circulation, congestions, and the urban emission of polluting gases. Thus, the implementation of shared mobility schemes offers the potential to enhance the efficiency, competitiveness, social equity, and quality of life in cities. This paper covers the fundamental aspects of vehicle and/or ride sharing in urban centers, and provides an overview of current shared mobility systems.
This paper aims to review variables and behavioural theories originating from social and environmental psychology as applied to transport research, to better understand decision-making mechanisms, information processing and modal choice. The first section provides an overview of the main psycho-social variables which explain behaviour and, notably, pro-environment behaviour. The analysis shows the relations among variables, highlighting some potential cause-effect mechanism or, at least, the influence that such variables can have on behaviour. Furthermore, the strengths and weaknesses of using psycho-social variables to predict travel behaviour are discussed. Such analysis feeds the section related to the behavioural theories. These are reviewed with a focus on potential application to transport sector, showing the would-be added value of introducing a socio-psychological approach in the current vision, focused on stochastic models based on maximisation of personal utility. To this end, attention is paid to the data collection and analysis, basic for any models and even more challenging to collect when they deal with personal characteristics of individuals. Finally, the concept of attitude and intention is discussed, opening the doors between disciplines to overcome the attitude-behaviour gap.
The sharing economy has gained a lot of attention in recent years. Despite the substantial growth in shared services, its impact overall on transport is unclear. This paper analyses the literature on sharing in transport and includes government and consultant reports, websites and academic journals. The drivers of ride-sharing, car-sharing, car-pooling and freight-sharing are largely economic and convenience related for participants. Trust, technology platforms and the trend to avoid ownership of assets are facilitating factors in its growth. Over-regulation, inconsistent quality of service and the need for recommendation are potential barriers. The transport journals in particular are relatively slow to research this topic with more focusing on bike-sharing than other modes of vehicle sharing. The paper discusses the impact of sharing on transport suggesting it is likely to be part of a solution to transport problems and congestion perhaps in combination with other developments such as driverless vehicles. It also warns of the dangers of over-regulation and under-regulation. The future will require holistic transport strategies that consider sharing options and will require government departments to work cooperatively.
Large-scale environmental crises are genuinely collective phenomena: they usually result from collective, rather than personal, behavior and how they are cognitively represented and appraised is determined by collectively shared interpretations (e.g., differing across ideological groups) and based on concern for collectives (e.g., humankind, future generations) rather than for individuals. Nevertheless, pro-environmental action has been primarily investigated as a personal decision-making process. We complement this research with a social identity perspective on pro-environmental action. Social identity is the human capacity to define the self in terms of “We” instead of “I”, enabling people to think and act as collectives, which should be crucial given personal insufficiency to appraise and effectively respond to environmental crises. We propose a Social Identity Model of Pro-Environmental Action (SIMPEA) of how social identity processes affect both appraisal of and behavioral responses to large-scale environmental crises. We review related and pertinent research providing initial evidence for the role of four social identity processes hypothesized in SIMPEA. Specifically, we propose that ingroup identification, ingroup norms and goals, and collective efficacy determine environmental appraisals as well as both private and public sphere environmental action. These processes are driven by personal and collective emotions and motivations that arise from environmental appraisal and operate on both a deliberate and automatic processing level. Finally, we discuss SIMPEA’s implications for the research agenda in environmental and social psychology and for interventions fostering pro-environmental action.
Car sharing services gain momentum as a potential alternative to various modes of transportation, including privately owned cars. This trend goes hand in hand with a renewed interest in the sharing economy, which has as essential premise that product ownership is of minor relevance. Using an online experiment, this study investigates if individual differences in psychological ownership influence the effects of well-known instrumental car attributes (price, parking convenience, and car type) on people's intention to select a shared car. Results confirmed that instrumental attributes generally impact preferences for car sharing services, and that a low psychological ownership may lead to a higher preference for a shared car under specific circumstances. This suggests that not only instrumental car attributes, but also psychological disposition, specifically psychological ownership, of potential customers need to be taken into consideration when developing measures to stimulate car sharing services in society.
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
The term “environmental problem” exposes a fundamental misconception: Disruptions of Earth’s ecosystems are at their root a human behavior problem. Psychology is a potent tool for understanding the external and internal drivers of human behavior that lead to unsustainable living. Psychologists already contribute to individual-level behavior-change campaigns in the service of sustainability, but attention is turning toward understanding and facilitating the role of individuals in collective and collaborative actions that will modify the environmentally damaging systems in which humans are embedded. Especially crucial in moving toward long-term human and environmental well-being are transformational individuals who step outside of the norm, embrace ecological principles, and inspire collective action. Particularly in developed countries, fostering legions of sustainability leaders rests upon a fundamental renewal of humans’ connection to the natural world.
Carsharing, currently growing strongly in Germany, is an important instrument for sustainable urban mobility. The present boom is mainly due to so-called “free-floating carsharing”. Whilst the environmental effects of station-based carsharing have been intensively studied in the German-speaking context, to date there have been hardly any empirical findings on the effect of free-floating carsharing.
The sharing economy is a fast-growing and heavily debated phenomenon. This study provides an overview of motivations of people willing to participate in different forms of the sharing economy. A survey was held amongst 1330 respondents from Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Using stated preference data, we investigate the relative importance of (1) economic, (2) social and (3) environmental motivations to participate in peer-to-peer sharing. Hereby we consider differences between (a) sectors of the sharing economy, (b) socio-demographic groups, and (c) users and providers. Results are descriptive as well as based on ordered logit models. Notable differences are observed in the motivations for sharing between sectors. To a lesser extent there is variety in sharing drivers between socio-demographic groups. Finally, users seem more economically motivated than providers of goods.
Zusammenfassung
Gemäß der Low-Cost-Hypothese wird eine negative Korrelation zwischen den Kosten ökologischen Verhaltens und der Stärke des Effekts von Umweltbewußtsein auf das Verhalten erwartet. Die Hypothese wird in dem vorliegenden Artikel präzisiert und anhand der Daten des Surveys „Umweltbewußtsein in Deutschland 1996“ empirisch überprüft. Wir verwenden dabei zwei Teststrategien. Methode 1 geht von der Annahme aus, daß die relative Häufigkeit einer ökologischen Aktivität als Indikator der Verhaltenskosten gelten kann. Bei Methode 2 werden dagegen die Angaben der Befragten zur Entscheidungssituation herangezogen und entsprechend diesen High-Cost- von Low-Cost-Situationen unterschieden. Die Befunde sind nicht nur für die Erklärung von Umweltverhalten von Interesse. Sie liefern allgemein einen Beitrag zur Debatte über den Einfluß moralischer Überzeugungen bzw. Einstellungen auf das Verhalten und demonstrieren deutlich, daß mit schwindender Kostenträchtigkeit einer Entscheidungssituation das restriktive Modell des Homo Oeconomicus an Erklärungskraft verliert.
To promote sustainable consumption, predictors of individuals’ intentions need to be understood. Focusing on the example of collaborative consumption, we look at facilitating and inhibiting factors in a preregistered correlational study (N = 378). We hypothesized the Value-Identity-Personal norm (VIP) model to explain variance in sharing intention. In addition, we expected sharing intentions to be linked to attitudes about (de-)ownership. We also hypothesized self-extension into an object to be a barrier to sharing this object. The results supported all hypotheses: The VIP model and de-ownership orientation were related to sharing intentions. Moreover, self-extension into a car was significantly higher among subsamples of car owners than car sharers. Exploratory findings show that the value-intention link predicted by the VIP can be found for biospheric as well as altruistic values if sharing intentions are assessed with items framed to match these respective values. We discuss implications for attempts to promote sustainable consumption.
Shared mobility has the potential to reduce private car use and can thereby contribute to a mobility transition which reduces energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions. At the same time, shared mobility services still have a niche existence - even in major cities. If the goal is to establish shared mobility as a significant part of the mobility system, a key question is which factors determine the acceptance of individual services. Can perceived innovation-specific factors that can be more directly influenced by policies explain differences in attitudes and acceptance or does the explanatory power lie with psychological dispositions that are more difficult to change by policies? Do these factors apply in general or differ between different sharing services? We investigate these questions based on a survey study in major German cities to analyse the acceptance of two car-based shared mobility services, carsharing and ridepooling, in society (N = 1,531). The data analysis based on two path models shows that perceived compatibility with daily life is the most important factor related to the acceptance of carsharing and ridepooling. Perceived ease of use positively affects the general attitude towards both services. We conclude that our findings offer potential intervention routes for policies that increase the acceptance of shared mobility. The prerequisites for the services to contribute to a reduction in energy consumption in the transport sector are also discussed.
Pro-environmental behavior, a form of prosocial behavior that ultimately benefits all humanity, is essential for addressing climate change. This review presents pro-environmental behavior in a social dilemma framework describing how non-aligned interests in nested groups (e.g., smaller groups with interests opposing the interests of a superordinate group entailing the smaller groups) and unequal opportunities (e.g., differential access to resources) constitute barriers to pro-environmental behavior. We then summarize recent literature on three ways in which these barriers could be addressed. Specifically, we review how individual and conflicting interests might be overcome and benefits for the collective can be achieved by (1) collective action and global identities, (2) insights from another global crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, and (3) a shift to research methods that consider the nested structure of and unequal opportunities within global crises as well as high-impact actions. Taken together, these approaches might foster one form of prosociality, pro-environmental behavior, that is desperately needed in the pursuit of sustainability.
This paper focuses on evaluating the effects of an Urban Living Lab (ULL), which aims to promote the sustainable transition of a local mobility system through civic engagement within a multi-actor cooperation network. For this purpose, an approach is presented on how to measure and evaluate the impacts of a ULL on different levels. Therefore, a framework integrating the transition management approach and the multi-level perspective is developed and used for a mixed-methods evaluation approach of a ULL in a small rural town. The empirical results provide some evidence that after one year, the ULL activities cause some ‘cracks in the wall’ of the currently car-use dominated local mobility system: A significant decrease in the perceived social support of a local transport policy prioritizing car user needs is observed, as well as a significant decrease in the perceived social support for policy measures aiming to upgrade the existing car use infrastructure. Furthermore, citizens now perceive a higher local descriptive norm in favour of walking and cycling. However, ULL activities are not associated with a significant reduction of personal car use. Implications of the evaluation results for the further development of this specific local ULL as well as ULLs in general are discussed. Moreover, lines of psychological research aimed at supporting a better understanding of effective ULLs are described.
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in studying the interactions between the fields of digital technology and transport and multiple terms to describe these interactions have been proposed. These include terms such as “smart mobility”, “new mobility”, “3-revolutions” and “Mobility-as-a-Service”, amongst others. While these terms encompass a wide range of technology-transportation interactions, all of them include shared mobility as one of its elements, yet there is still no broadly accepted definition in the academic literature of what the term “shared mobility” means or what type of technology-transport interactions it encompasses. The aim of this paper is to propose a taxonomy for shared mobility based on a critical engagement with the main bodies of literature across disciplinary areas that underpin this concept: (1) the interactions between digital technology and transport, and (2) the broader concept of the sharing economy. Though these two elements are sometimes mentioned together in the literature as relevant to shared mobility, to the authors’ knowledge they have not yet been combined in a published study to explicitly propose a definition or taxonomy. Having a clearly defined and broadly accepted terminology for shared mobility is important, as this is a term that is used not only in the academic literature, but also by policymakers and in policy documents, and the lack of a definition leads to a lack of clarity and shared understanding of what shared mobility involves. The literature reviewed carried out for this paper suggests that different authors use the term shared mobility in diverse ways to refer to a diverse set of solutions. The proposed taxonomy can therefore be used by public and private policymakers and academics alike to speak a common language when referring to, planning for, and evaluating shared mobility solutions.
Identity can improve our understanding of personal climate action, particularly when climate action becomes an expression of a person’s self. However, it is unclear which kind of self or identity is most relevant. Building on a comprehensive series of eight meta-analyses (using data from 188 published articles, N = 414,282 participants) this research systematically compares how strongly climate-friendly intentions and behaviors are associated with place identity, personal connectedness to nature, environmental self-identity (i.e., personal self-definition as a pro-environmentally acting person), and social identity (i.e., identification with social groups). Results suggest robust, medium-sized to strong links of both pro-environmental intentions and behaviors to people’s nature connectedness (r = 0.44/0.52), environmental self-identity (r = 0.62/0.56), and identification with groups considered to support climate-friendly behavior (r = 0.48/0.51), but markedly weaker effects for identification with groups which are unrelated to environmental topics (r = 0.30/0.15) and for place identity (r = 0.18/0.32). Implications for policy interventions and psychological theory are discussed.
Previous studies on consumer behavior in the sharing economy mainly focused on users' utilitarian benefits in market‐mediated exchange businesses and the social benefits of not‐for‐profit sharing practices. In particular, existing research on market‐mediated exchange indicates that the effect of personal utility outweighs altruistic and pro‐social values in consumers' sharing behavior; social utility factors, such as sustainability and benefits for the community, do not play significant roles in consumers' participation in for‐profit sharing businesses. Theoretically, this study complements previous studies on consumer behavior in the sharing economy with the social exchange theory (SET). It is important because it fills the research gap by proposing the effects of consumers' altruistic traits, interpersonal relationships, and pro‐social concerns on the commercial shared‐ride service. We conducted two empirical studies in the contexts of Uber in Taiwan and Didi in Mainland China. The results show a significant effect of altruism and social utility on consumers' sharing participation in market‐mediated exchange. Practically, this study highlights the significance of socio‐cultural contexts and psychological mechanisms to sharing‐platform operators. Efforts to promote consumers' altruism and concerns for sustainability and others' benefits will encourage the consumers' involvement. Our results also reveal the cultural differences between Taiwanese and Chinese consumers' sharing adoption.
Prior research has focused on individual difference variables that predict various prosocial behaviors. This work, however, has neglected to consider the underlying commonalities between the different domains behavior can be performed. In line with other authors we propose that individual difference factors can indicate one’s propensity toward acting prosocially across domains, and that prosocial behaviors also include behaviors that support behavior for the common good. We argue that in order for one’s prosocial propensity to be actualized in a particular domain, a motivator in the form of connectedness to the domain is necessary. This paper examines such a model exemplified in the ecological domain by explaining pro-environmental actions. Through two studies (total N = 760) we provide evidence for a mediation model whereby connectedness to nature mediates the positive relation between prosocial propensity and pro-environmental behavior. Prosocial propensity was operationalized as altruism (studies 1 and 2) and honesty-humility (study 2). Further, study 1 also showed a comparison between participants indicating membership in environmental and humanitarian organizations and non-members. This indicated that prosocial propensity was higher in environmentalists and humanitarians compared to non-members, while connectedness to nature and pro-environmental behaviors were higher only in environmental organization members. These studies provide evidence for the premise of a prosocial propensity being actualized in the ecological domain via connectedness to that domain.
The present study aimed to identify psychological barriers which potentially prevent individuals from implementing collaborative car use in their every-day mobility behaviour. We suggested a model consisting of four psychological barriers: Autonomy Loss, Privacy Invasion, Interpersonal Distrust, and Data Misuse. Perceived Financial Benefit was included as a main incentive for collaborative car use. Using two samples, a community (N = 176) and a student sample (N = 265), three forms of peer-to-peer collaborative car use were examined: lending your own car to another private person (Lending To), renting a car from another private person (Renting From) and sharing rides with others (Ridesharing). For all three forms, a standardised questionnaire was developed which included the psychological barriers, self-reported collaborative car use intention and behaviour, and evaluations of scenarios. The results showed that different barriers predicted specific forms of collaborative car use: Autonomy Loss was connected negatively with Ridesharing and Privacy Invasion predicted Lending To negatively. Data Misuse was related negatively with Renting From, when the renting was arranged via internet. Interpersonal Distrust showed no predictive value for collaborative car use. Perceived Financial Benefit was a consistent incentive for all forms of collaborative car use. Overall, the results confirm the relevance of psychological barriers for collaborative car use. Practical implications to overcome the psychological barriers are discussed.
Young people will experience stronger consequences of climate change in their future adult lives than older people are facing today. Against this background, large demonstrations and school strikes for climate protection started all over the globe, called the Fridays For Future (FFF) movement. Drawing on the social identity model of pro-environmental action (SIMPEA) and theories on pro-environmental actions of children and adolescents, we examined psychological drivers of pro-environmental activism in the FFF movement. Young people recruited during a FFF demonstration in a German city (N=144, 16-25 years old) and from all over Germany recruited through an online panel (N=418, 13-25 years old) participated in our online survey study. A comparison of these samples and a regression analysis with the joint sample both revealed that perceiving friends participating in the movement, identification with others engaging in climate protection, and personal norms in the form of a felt obligation based on values were most strongly related to their participation in FFF protests. We discuss theoretical implications of our findings as well as practical implications for interventions to encourage young people’s pro-environmental engagement.
Human-induced climate change poses an unprecedented global threat. Researchers agree that dealing with climate change requires international collective action and widespread social transformation. This study integrates insights from the Social Identity Model of Collective Action (SIMCA) and the Encapsulated Model of Social Identity in Collective Action (EMSICA) to explain participation in the environmental movement, Extinction Rebellion (XR). Structural equation models of data from a survey of 203 current or potential XR activists supported two identity-based pathways to collective action behavior and future intentions: moral convictions → anger → XR identification → collective action and global identification → participative efficacy → XR identification → collective action. Perceived group efficacy predicted collective action intentions but not behavior. Fear, guilt/shame, and hope did not significantly predict collective action behavior or intentions. We discuss the interplay of personal and social identity processes underlying climate change activism, as well as the need for longitudinal and experimental studies to disentangle causal relations. We propose that environmental campaign groups could foster group identification and thence collective action by communicating moral outrage about climate change, together with the potential efficacy of individuals’ actions toward achieving the group’s goals.
Widening income and knowledge inqualities have led to growing expectations for universities to integrate social innovation in their core missions as a response to societal problems.This systematic review of literatureprovides an overview of the state-of-the-art of knowledge on the role of the university in enabling social innovation through its missions of teaching, research and third mission. It also identifies knowledge gaps in the field. A bibliometric approachwas usedto identify and analyze books, journal articles and reports examining factors drivingsocial innovation activities at universities, organizational and insitutional change to accommodate such activities as well as their impact.The review revealsthatthe literature on university engagementin socially-oriented activities as part of the third mission of the university is conceptually well developed and a growing field of inquiry. It alsopoints togaps in the knowledge base; relatively few studiesaddressissues related to institutional change and incentive structures that influences the abilityof universities to engage in social innovation. Likewise, impact studies on social innovation activities at universities are scarce.Further research that builds an impact measurement framework wouldsupport the process of integrating social innovation activitiesin the three missions of the university.
This paper has two objectives. First, the paper aims to advance knowledge on factors that lead to the choice of car sharing, by proposing, for the first time a different perspective based upon the attitude towards the use of private car. Second, the study helps to understand the connection between the rate of penetration of car sharing services and the attitude towards the use of the private car, analysing also the socio-demographic influences on car-sharing behaviour.
The paper draws on the findings from a telephone-structured questionnaire we carried out in this under-explored market area in four urban metropolitan cities in Italy (Rome, Milan, Turin and Genoa). For this purpose, we firstly made an exploratory factor analysis to determine the key dimensions of private car behaviour. We then performed a logistic regression model in order to analyse which factors may affect the dependent variable.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an attempt to overcome market segmentation by offering transport services tailored to the individual traveler's needs. An alternative to prior investment into single mobility tools, it may allow less biased mode choice decisions. Such a setting favors shared modes, where fixed costs can be apportioned among a large number of users. In turn, car-sharing, bike-sharing or ride-hailing may themselves become efficient alternatives to public transport. Although early field studies confirm the expected changes away from private car use and towards public or shared modes, impacts are yet to be studied for larger transport systems. This research conducts a first joint simulation of car-sharing, bike-sharing and ride-hailing for a city-scale transport system using MATSim. Results show that in Zurich, through less biased mode choice decisions alone, transport-related energy consumption can be reduced by 25%. In addition, introduction of car-sharing and bike-sharing schemes may increase transport system energy efficiency by up to 7%, whereas the impact of ride-hailing appears less positive. Efficiency gains may be higher if shared modes were used as a substitute for public transport in lower-density areas. In summary, a MaaS scheme with shared mobility may allow to slightly increase system efficiency (travel times & cost), while substantially reducing energy consumption.
Free-floating car sharing allows customers to rent a shared car on a per-minute rate of use, with liberty of withdrawal and return. The present study aims to enhance the knowledge of motives for re-use of free-floating car sharing through the theory of planned behavior. A mixed-method research approach was adopted (integration of qualitative and quantitative data collection) to support the proposed hypothesis. The relationships among attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, which influence the re-use intention, were tested through structural equation modeling. Our findings showed that economic, environmental, and social benefits indicate the attitude toward the free-floating car sharing and that attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm have a significant influence on the future intention to re-use the service. Our results also provide practical implications for operators to improve the quality of their offerings.
Peer-to-peer (P2P) carsharing is a system where car owners rent their vehicle out to other individuals, usually through a facilitating company. One public policy objective of carsharing is to reduce vehicle miles travelled (VMT), which happens as members (renters) reduce car ownership. With a P2P system, VMT reductions could also occur if vehicle owners leave their car to be rented when they would normally drive. This paper assesses how participation in P2P carsharing affects the driving behavior of participating car owners. Data are from 235 car owners in Portland, Oregon who enrolled in a P2P program. The analysis is based on surveys, vehicle use data collected via in-vehicle GPS, and in-depth interviews. Overall, vehicle owners made very few changes to their driving behavior according to the GPS data, with average vehicle use increasing slightly. However, a subset of owners (39%) did decrease their driving by 10% or more one year after the baseline. Factors associated with this reduction in use included higher baseline vehicle use, higher rental activity, income constraints, and more flexibility in daily travel. In addition, some owners appear to use P2P as a catalyst to change travel behavior, including increased use of other modes.
The negative impact of motorized private mobility on the environment can be decreased successfully by encouraging more people to carpool. From a psychological perspective, only little is known about the determinants of carpooling. Therefore, this study investigated car- pooling behavior based on a theoretical background that integrates (1) the theory of planned behavior, (2) the norm activation model, and (3) dispositional trust. Additionally, we studied carpooling from two separate perspectives: Passengers sharing rides, and the drivers offering rides. We conducted a survey with a representative sample of 342 participants in Switzerland. The results showed that for both, passengers and dri- vers, normative aspects such as descriptive and personal norms, in combination with per- ceived behavioral control predicted carpooling intention. Attitude toward carpooling behavior, however, did not have any predictive power regarding carpooling intention, nei- ther for passengers nor drivers. Dispositional trust displayed an indirect effect on intention to carpool as a passenger or driver via perceived behavioral control. Based on these results, we discuss practical implications for designing measures to promote carpooling success- fully in the future.
Contemporary e-commerce platforms enable the exchange of idle resources among private individuals directly from peer to peer. The success of peer-to-peer sharing platforms largely depends on the capability of platform providers to understand the users' motives for engagement. To investigate the relative importance of consumer motives for and against peer-to-peer sharing, we develop a theoretical model based on a comprehensive set of potential consumer motives. We validate our model by means of a survey among 745 participants. Our findings suggest financial benefits, trust in other users, modern
lifestyle, effort expectancy, and ecological sustainability as the five most important drivers and prerequisites of platform usage intentions. Based on our findings, we suggest directions for future research on peer-based sharing and discuss implications for both theory and practice.
Earlier research has yielded contradictory results as to the main drivers of environmentally significant behavior. Intent-oriented research has stressed the importance of motivational aspects, while impact-oriented research has drawn attention to people’s socioeconomic status. In this study, we investigated the diverging role of a pro-environmental stance under these two research perspectives. Data from a German survey (N = 1,012) enabled assessment of per capita energy use, and individual carbon footprints (impact-related measures), pro-environmental behavior (an intent-related measure), and behavior indicators varying in environmental impact and intent. Regression analyses revealed people’s environmental self-identity to be the main predictor of pro-environmental behavior; however, environmental self-identity played an ambiguous role in predicting actual environmental impacts. Instead, environmental impacts were best predicted by people’s income level. Our results show that individuals with high pro-environmental self-identity intend to behave in an ecologically responsible way, but they typically emphasize actions that have relatively small ecological benefits.
Motorized individual transport affects our urban lives negatively regarding its environmental, social and economic aspects. To resolve mobility-related issues significantly and in the long term, all of the relevant influences on individual mobility behaviors in an urban environment must be detected. The aim of this paper is therefore to analyze psychological and environmental-external factors hypothesized to influence sustainable mobility intentions, as well as their consequent behaviors. On the theoretical basis of an extended version of the ‘theory of planned behavior’ (Ajzen, 1991), a multi-methods approach, using person-based GPS tracking, questioning and an interactive online evaluation (prompted recall survey) are applied (N = 73). Sixty percent of the variance of sustainable mobility behavior could be explained by our structural equation model. The results of our analysis confirmed significant effects of both intrinsic and external determinants. Municipalities, operators of public transport systems and even citizens themselves must pay particular attention to external costs, the habitual usage of sustainable modes of transportation and the difficulties perceived to be associated with sustainable mobility to support it thoroughly.
Shared mobility-the shared use of a motor vehicle, bicycle, or other mode-enables travellers to gain short-term access to transportation modes on an as-needed basis. The term 'shared mobility' includes the modes of carsharing, personal vehicle sharing (peer-to-peer carsharing and fractional ownership), bikesharing, scooter sharing, traditional ridesharing, transportation network companies (or ridesourcing), and e-Hail (taxis). It can also include fl exible transit services, including microtransit, which supplement fi xed-route bus and rail services. Shared mobility has proliferated in global cities not only as an innovative transportation mode enhancing urban mobility but also as a potential solution to address fi rst-and last-mile connectivity with public transit. It can extend the catchment area of public transportation, potentially playing a pivotal role in bridging gaps in the existing transportation network and encouraging multimodality for fi rst-and last-mile trips rather than driving alone. While public transit is often constrained by fi xed routes, driver availability, and vehicle scheduling, shared mobility's 'on-demand' access provides the fl exibility that travellers need to access or egress from a bus or rail 'trunk line'. Moreover, shared mobility provides an alternative to costly feeder bus services and land-intensive parking infrastructure. This paper discusses the history of shared mobility within the context of the urban transportation landscape, fi rst in Europe and Asia, and more recently in the Americas, with a specifi c focus on fi rst-and lastmile connections to public transit. The authors discuss the known impacts of shared mobility modes-carsharing, bikesharing, and ridesourcing-on reducing vehiclemiles/ vehicle-kilometres travelled (VMT/VKT), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and modal splits with public transit. The future of shared mobility in the urban transportation landscape is discussed, as mobile technology and public policy continue to evolve to integrate shared mobility with public transit and future automated vehicles.