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Cities 154 (2024) 105333
Available online 6 August 2024
0264-2751/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Enabling mobility and inclusion: Designing accessible autonomous vehicles
for people with disabilities
Fahimeh Golbabaei
a
, James Dwyer
b
, Rafael Gomez
b
, Andrew Peterson
b
, Kevin Cocks
c
,
Alexander Bubke
c
, Alexander Paz
a
,
*
a
Faculty of Engineering, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
b
Faculty of Creative Industries, Education and Social Justice, School of Design, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
c
Accessible Transport Network, Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Accessible design
User-centred design
Autonomous vehicles
People with disabilities
Transport inequity
Mobility and inclusion
ABSTRACT
Accessible transport would increase opportunities and services for People with Disabilities (PwDs) including but
not limited to work, healthcare, and social inclusion, which will translate into positive economic and community
outcomes. Accessible transport will reduce restrictions on PWDs' freedom of movement, which violates their
rights and undermines their dignity and inclusion. The lack of accessible transport represents one of the biggest
challenges for PwDs. This paper provides an overview of accessible road vehicles and captures key information
needed to design an accessible AV. A comprehensive analysis of 57 studies reveals relevant design requirements
for a diverse group including PwDs. Recommendations for the design of accessible AVs are provided. The paper
emphasizes the importance of user acceptance, accessibility, and trust. The design process should consider
various PwD types and trip stages, employ multimodal outputs, conduct trials, explore subsidizing fares for
PwDs, and create specialized vehicles for different purposes or contexts.
1. Introduction
According to the World Health Organization (2011) an estimated 1.3
billion people, or 1 in 6 of the global population, live with a disability.
People with Disabilities (PwDs) and older individuals are more likely to
experience various forms of social exclusion including transport-related
challenges due to factors such as inaccessibility or unaffordability
(Martínez-Buelvas et al., 2022;Sterkenburg, 2020;Tabattanon et al.,
2019;World Health Organization, 2011). Limited transport access is a
signicant obstacle for PwDs as it restricts their access to essential ser-
vices like healthcare, employment opportunities, and social and cultural
activities (Australia &New Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative, 2020;
Rojas, 2020;World Health Organization, 2011). Accessible Autonomous
Vehicles (AVs) present a signicant opportunity for individuals with
disabilities (PwDs), offering them greater access to transportation and
an enhanced driving experience (Chen et al., 2023;Australia &New
Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative, 2020;Shaee et al., 2020;Ledger
et al., 2018). Furthermore, Harper et al. (2016) proposed that PwDs
could see the greatest increase in distance travelled compared to other
groups, with a predicted increase of over 14 % resulting from the
introduction of AVs. This enhanced mobility would help PwDs access
medical services, improve their employment opportunities and partici-
pate more actively in social activities within their communities (Darcy &
Burke, 2018;Hwang et al., 2020). The wider community would also
benet from the increased involvement of PWDs, as organisations would
gain access to valuable knowledge, skills, and contributions they bring
(Australia &New Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative, 2020). However,
to fully realize these benets and ensure that AVs are ethically devel-
oped, Bricout et al. (2021) and the Australian &New Zealand Driverless
Vehicle Initiative (ADVI) emphasize the importance of using universal
design principles. Universal design principles prioritize accessibility and
usability for individuals with a diverse range of abilities, ensuring that
AVs can be used easily by everyone including PwDs.
This research underscores the urgent need to delineate the funda-
mental features that dene an ‘accessible AV’. Our primary focus is on
the collation and categorization of extant literature that provides in-
sights and recommendations, which could inform the formulation of
design criteria and principles for the construction of accessible AVs. It is
important to note that the intent of this review is not to critique or
critically analyse the underlying research, but rather to encompass the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: alexander.paz@qut.edu.au (A. Paz).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Cities
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2024.105333
Received 14 March 2024; Received in revised form 21 June 2024; Accepted 28 July 2024
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
2
breadth of knowledge available. We recognize that the literature in this
space might be limited and nascent, but it is essential to map the land-
scape of existing studies to set a foundation for future research and
development. It is important to mention that Dicianno et al. (2021)
conducted a systematic review that addresses the topic of automated
vehicles and services for people with disabilities (PwDs). Their review
provides an overview of existing studies in this eld, highlighting the
opportunities and barriers related to accessible autonomous vehicles
and services. However, it is worth noting that there is a gap in
comprehensive and detailed insights into perspectives, user-centered
design (UCD), co-design principles, and the essential features required
for accessible autonomous vehicles (AVs) in relation to different types of
disabilities. This research is grounded in the design domain, which
prioritizes end-user needs, values, experiences, and interactions. This
study aims to address this gap by providing in-depth coverage and
specic recommendations pertaining to these aspects.
In this study, a systematic review approach was employed to map the
landscape of literature pertinent to understanding user needs and design
requirements for accessible autonomous vehicles. Drawing from a
diverse array of sources, including journal articles, conference papers,
white papers, reports, books, and relevant news articles, the systematic
review aims to rapidly identify key concepts underpinning the research
area and the main types of evidence available, as suggested by Golbabaei
et al. (2021). Furthermore, this approach synthesizes and analyzes a
wide range of both research and non-research material, providing
greater conceptual clarity on the topic. Adopting a human-centred
design approach, this systematic review aims to comprehensively map
the landscape of literature related to AV design for PwDs. In line with
Fig. 1. The review procedure.
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
3
this approach this review will present information on PwDs' needs and
preferences, potential challenges to implementation, and existing design
recommendations. This broad perspective serves to collate a compre-
hensive understanding from varied sources, enabling the AV design
process to be informed and oriented towards the actual requirements
and considerations of PwDs. This approach aligns with the principles of
co-design in the context of vehicle development, prototyping and testing
which must be guided by direct input from PwDs to guarantee equitable
access (Asha et al., 2021;Carvalho et al., 2020;D'Souza, 2013).
2. Research design
2.1. Methodology approach
We utilized a systematic approach to conduct a review and identify
relevant original research papers and sources. We followed the sugges-
tions of scholars (e.g., Golbabaei et al., 2021) on how to include or
exclude references in the literature review. The complete process of the
systematic review is illustrated in Fig. 1. The initial stage is the planning
phase, where the research aim and question, keywords, and a set of
criteria for inclusion and exclusion are developed. The current study
aims to map the breadth of literature concerning PwD's perspectives on
AVs, challenges faced by PwDs in current transport systems, and
research dedicated to the design of accessible vehicles with an emphasis
on AV technology. Thus, the query string shown in Table 1 and Fig. 1
was chosen as the search keywords. Multiple combinations of keywords
were designated for electronic searches until November 2023 across
three major academic search engines, i.e., Google Scholar, Scopus, and
Web of Science. The inclusion criteria aimed to select a wide range of
materials, including peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources such
as journal articles, conference papers, white papers, reports, books, and
relevant news articles. These materials were required to be available
online in full text, published in English, and relevant to the research
objective.
During the next phases, the review process involved scrutinizing
relevant articles. The keywords focused primarily on the titles, abstracts,
and keywords of the searched articles. The abstracts of the chosen ar-
ticles were thoroughly reviewed, and if they were deemed relevant, the
full text was assessed to determine whether the article should be
included in the review. The exclusion criteria aimed to exclude publi-
cations that did not meet the criteria specied in the inclusion criteria.
Given the limited amount of literature in the area, careful selection was
vital in setting exclusion criteria. One salient exclusion criterion stood
out: studies that employed simulated agents within virtual vehicles were
deemed unsuitable for inclusion. The rationale behind this decision was
twofold. First, while valuable in their own right, such simulated studies
do not resonate with the lived experiences and varied needs of PwDs.
Second, the data gathered from these simulated environments might fall
short of capturing the multifaceted, real-world necessities of such a
diverse demographic as PwDs. As a result, these studies did not align
with the user-centric paradigm employed in this paper.
After the initial search, a total of 1761 records were retrieved. These
records underwent a screening process, resulting in a reduction to 1204
based on predened inclusion criteria, which involved excluding
duplicate sources and non-English publications. Subsequently, we
focused on screening research items based on their titles and abstracts to
identify irrelevant documents. As a result, 1087 items that did not meet
the inclusion and exclusion criteria were removed from the dataset.
During the screening process, we conducted a co-occurrence analysis of
keywords from the current studies to gain a comprehensive under-
standing of the conceptual framework of the 1204 articles prior to
screening. Co-occurrence analysis aims to establish a conceptual struc-
ture and identify important general themes and clusters in the research
by examining recurring keywords (Mirhashemi et al., 2022;Nakagawa
et al., 2019). To conduct this analysis, we utilized VOSviewer (Van Eck
&Waltman, 2010). Initially, keywords were extracted from the biblio-
metric data, and a network of co-occurring keywords was created from
these documents. In Fig. 1, part A illustrates the co-occurrence network
of keywords from the 1204 studies. From this plot, we observed that a
majority of the keywords were irrelevant to the aim of the studies. The
network revealed various clusters, with the size of nodes indicating the
frequency of keyword occurrence and the links representing the number
of co-occurrences of words in the studies. This plot helped us identify
irrelevant keywords within the dataset, allowing us to exclude them
from our study. The green cluster in this gure roughly represents
documents related to general themes of autonomous vehicles, accessible
design, and people with disabilities (PwDs) that we have focused on in
this study.
After evaluating the abstracts and titles in alignment with the
research aim, the number of articles was further reduced to 117. The
selected studies underwent additional scrutiny to ensure the reliability
and accuracy of the keyword search. In the next step, a classication
process was implemented to categorize the identied articles into three
levels of relevance. It should be noted that most of the available litera-
ture is from North America and Europe. The articles obtained through
this process were subsequently classied based on keywords and an
assessment of the abstracts. Using this method, the 117 unique articles
were sorted into three relevancy categories. Through this classication
process, 50 documents were selected for inclusion in the literature re-
view and classied as having medium to high relevance as follows:
•High relevance: Articles that provided clear and actionable recom-
mendations for accessible AV design or vehicle design more broadly
where relevant (i.e. door opening widths or ramp angles) or provided
an understanding of PwD needs and perspectives from survey or
interview data (e.g. research focused on accessible AVs with PwDs as
participants).
•Medium relevance: Articles that referred to accessible vehicles more
generally or provided high-level recommendations relating to the
application of accessible or universal design principles to vehicles
including AVs (e.g. accessible low-oor bus research, research that
provides accessible design principles for vehicles).
•Low relevance: Articles that were not considered to provide useful
information or relate to the research area (e.g. trafc modelling and
virtual agent studies).
These medium and high-relevancy articles were then reviewed in-
depth to identify information that would be relevant to understanding
PwDs transport needs, current challenges in accessing transport and
specic recommendations that could be used to guide the design of an
accessible AV. Additionally, by cross-referencing analysis of these 50
studies, an additional 7 records were incorporated into the nal analysis.
Consequently, the review paper ultimately encompassed 57 items. Part
B of Fig. 1 displays a word cloud of the nal selected documents' key-
words, obtained using the Bibliometrix R-package (Aria &Cuccurullo,
2017). This word cloud represents the initial conceptual structure of the
study before the cleaning of keywords. This information was subse-
quently synthesized into distinct areas of knowledge each with several
Table 1
Query string for research identication.
Group Query string
Users ((“Population”OR “People”OR “Physical*”OR
“Person*”OR “Individual*”OR “Social group”) AND
(“Disabled”OR “Disability”OR “Disabilities”OR
“Vulnerable”OR “Special need*”OR “Challenged”OR
“Exceptional”)) OR “Universal design”
Autonomous vehicle
related terms
(“Autonomous”OR “Automated”OR “Driverless”OR
“Self-driving”OR “Intelligent”OR “Automated and
Connected”) AND (“Car”OR “Cars”OR “Vehicle*”OR
“Automobile*”OR “Driving”)
Exception NOT (“agent*”OR “mining”OR “mine*”)
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
4
sub-categories, which are outlined in the following sections.
2.2. Review statistics
Fig. 2 demonstrates the publication patterns over the research
period, encompassing 57 documents published on the subject from 1992
to 2023. This visual representation helps estimate the potential number
of upcoming studies based on historical trends. Notably, around 86 % of
the sources were published within the last eight years, indicating a rising
interest in the topic of designing accessible autonomous vehicles. Over
the past ve years, an average of 7.2 documents have been published
annually, totalling 36 studies, with a peak in 2021. This suggests a sig-
nicant increase in the importance of accessible design for autonomous
vehicles compared to previous periods. Consequently, an upward trend
in publications is expected in the near future, reecting the growing
concern surrounding accessible design for autonomous vehicles among
people with disabilities.
2.3. Conceptual structure
Gaining insights into research fronts is highly valuable as it enhances
understanding and helps identify crucial areas for further exploration.
Additionally, it aids in recognizing primary sub-disciplines that
contribute to the advancement of new scientic branches. In this sec-
tion, we have developed a conceptual analysis of the nal document's
keywords. To achieve this, we identied and merged all synonyms and
plural versions of words into a common version for each group. The
word cloud in Fig. 3, generated using the bibliometrix R-package, pro-
vides a visual representation of the most frequently used keywords in
this study. The size of each word in the cloud corresponds to its fre-
quency and signicance. On the other hand, Fig. 4 illustrates the
keyword trend throughout the research period by displaying the cu-
mulative occurrences of keywords. This depiction facilitates the identi-
cation of the most signicant and popular themes in recent years.
Upon analyzing Figs. 3 and 4, we identied recurring themes that
accompany the core keywords “autonomous vehicles”,“accessible”, and
“disabilities.”These themes include “mobility”,“people with disabil-
ities”,“design”,“universal design”,“transportation equity”,“public
transportation”, and “wheeled mobility”. Notably, the keywords
“autonomous vehicles”,“accessible”,“disabilities”, and “mobility”
exhibit remarkable occurrence, reaching their peak with 34, 16, and 15
mentions, respectively. The plots further emphasize the signicance of
“universal design,” “transportation equity,” “public transportation,”and
“wheeled mobility”in this eld. It is important to note that these plots
present the information using cleaned keywords, where all synonyms
and plural versions of words have been merged, resulting in a more
concise and accurate representation of the data.
In this study, a co-occurrence analysis was conducted to gain a
deeper understanding of the conceptual structure. Co-occurrence anal-
ysis of keywords is a common research technique used in scientometrics
(the quantitative study of science, scientic communication, and science
policy) to explore the relationships between frequently co-occurring
keywords in documents. The main objective of this method is to
describe the internal composition, relationships, and structure within a
specic academic eld, revealing basic and emerging research fronts.
Using VOS viewer, a co-occurrence analysis of keywords was performed
to examine the research fronts in the 57 nal articles. The analysis
resulted in the identication of three main areas, visually represented in
the co-occurrence network displayed in Fig. 5. In this network, the size
of each node indicates the relative frequency of the words, while the
strength of the links represents the number of times two words co-occur
in the study titles. It should be noted that dening precise boundaries
between clusters can be challenging, and there may be overlap for
certain words.
The rst cluster is closely associated with general concepts such as
universal and accessible design of AVs, encompassing various aspects
including approaches, public opinions, challenges, and barriers in these
areas. The second cluster primarily focuses on public transportation
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Number of studies
Year
Annual Scientific Production
Fig. 2. Publication trend.
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
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accessibility and wheeled mobility, highlighting the importance of low-
oor buses. The third cluster addresses the broader concept of disability
and people with disabilities, including acceptance, perceptions of AVs,
transportation equity among these people, and associated problems and
potential solutions. The rst and second clusters can be considered
subsets of this cluster. Based on Fig. 5, the average publication years of
different themes can be observed within the time frame of 2014 to 2023.
From the analysis, it is evident that initial studies focused on titles
Fig. 3. Word-cloud of keywords.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019 2024
Cumulate occurances
Year
Wor ds' Fr equ ency over Ti me
autonomous vehicles accessible disabilities
mobility people with disability wheeled mobility
design universal design transportation equity
public transportation
Fig. 4. Trends of keywords.
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
6
related to wheeled mobility and low-oor buses, while recent areas of
interest encompass themes such as general mobility of people with
disabilities (PwDs), universal design, and transportation equity. The
current clusters serve as reference points to delve into the themes and
topics within each cluster, leading to the identication of main concepts.
In the next section, we conducted an in-depth investigation of the
aforementioned clusters and described them in ve separate areas,
which will be further discussed.
3. Discussion of ndings and recommendations for policy and
practice
Table 2 provides an overview of the documents included in this
study, encompassing key ndings and case studies. It is important to
note that the majority of the studies have been conducted in the United
States. These ndings are categorized into ve primary sections, which
will be elaborated upon in detail.
1. Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design Perspective:encompasses
research focused on the unique transport needs of different com-
munity groups including the larger PwDs population.
2. Perspectives on AVs from PwDs: encompasses researching about
PwDs' perspectives of AVs, including sentiments and concerns.
3. Benets of AVs for PwDs:reviews research that tries to understand
and quantify the benets of AV technology for PwDs across different
facets of their lived experience.
4. Challenges for Implementation of Accessible AVs: encompasses
research ndings related to the challenges present within the design,
manufacture, and implementation of accessible AVs.
5. Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV) Design Recommendations:
includes research recommendations for accessible vehicle design,
both generally and specically for AVs
3.1. Needs of PwDs from a transport design perspective
Kassens-noor et al. (2021) highlighted the inherent risk of thinking of
PwDs as one collective group without considering heterogeneity needs
that may not be met by a single accessible AV design. Therefore, based
on the work of Kassens-noor et al. (2021), the population of PwDs was
divided into ve distinct communities including:
•Blind and Low-vision Community
•Deaf/Hard of Hearing Community
•Mobility Impaired Community
•Intellectual and Developmental Disability Community
•Older People and Aging Population Community
Each of these groups has unique requirements from a transport
perspective and would benet from different communication and
engagement strategies (Bayless &Davidson, 2019). Bayless and David-
son (2019) stressed the need for policymakers and public transit service
providers to engage with these groups actively to address the current
lack of reliable and representative data. This would further align with a
“co-design”approach ensuring the concerns and specic needs of the
different communities within strategic planning and implementation to
provide highly accessible transport solutions. Generally, there is a sub-
stantial body of literature addressing the challenges related to wheeled
mobility devices and ambulatory impairments, while research on
cognitive and developmental disabilities is limited (Riggs &Pande,
2022).
3.1.1. Blind and low vision community
Several key needs were identied for the Blind and Visually Impaired
Community to ensure AVs are accessible. First, all information provided
visually needs to be delivered in an alternative sensory format for
effective communication (i.e. auditory or tactile). This delivery method
is required both within and externally to the vehicle, as well as
Fig. 5. Co-occurrence network of studies' keywords.
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
7
Table 2
A summary of reviewed papers.
No Literature Title Case Main themes Findings
1Kassens-noor et al.
(2021)
Autonomous vehicles and mobility for
people with special needs
Michigan/
United States
Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Perspectives on AVs from
PwDs, Benets of AVs for PwDs,
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- Some individuals with disabilities may
have a negative perception of
autonomous vehicles (AVs).
- It is crucial to address the specic
accessibility needs of different disability
communities for inclusive design.
2Bayless and Davidson
(2019)
Driverless cars and accessibility United States Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs
- Automated systems should be designed
to effectively secure passengers and
address accessibility challenges, such as
assisting wheelchair users and handling
emergencies.
3Riggs and Pande
(2022)
On-demand microtransit and
paratransit service using autonomous
vehicles: Gaps and opportunities in
accessibility policy
United States Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs,
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- Boarding and disembarking from
vehicles can pose difculties for many
individuals with disabilities, not limited
to wheelchair users alone.
4Claypool et al. (2017) Self-Driving Cars: The Impact On
People With Disabilities
United States Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Benets of AVs for PwDs,
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- AV technology could lead to a $19
billion decrease in healthcare costs by
improving transportation for medical
appointments.
- Meeting the needs of a diverse
population with unique impairments
requires customized and accommodating
vehicle designs.
5Dicianno et al. (2021) Systematic Review: Automated
Vehicles and Services for People with
Disabilities
N/A Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs
- Individuals with disabilities require
straightforward and easy-to-understand
interfaces, favoring simplicity.
- The Alliance of Automobile
Manufacturers acknowledges the absence
of a universally compatible securement
standard for wheelchairs that can be
operated entirely by wheelchair users.
6The National
Federation of the
Blind Jernigan
Institute (2009)
The Braille Literacy Crisis in America United States Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective
- It is important to note that less than 10 %
of individuals who are legally blind have
the ability to read braille.
7Strickfaden and
Langdon (2018)
Improving Design Understanding of
Inclusivity in Autonomous Vehicles: A
Driver and Passenger Taskscape
Approach
United States Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Accessible Autonomous
Vehicle (AAV) Design
Recommendations
- Passengers may require assistance with
loading, securing items, and essential
equipment like wheelchairs and walkers,
necessitating adequate time allocation in
autonomous systems.
8Fogli et al. (2020) A universal design approach to
waynding and navigation
Italy Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Accessible Autonomous
Vehicle (AAV) Design
Recommendations
- Multimodal outputs play a crucial role in
effectively communicating information to
users.
9World Health
Organization (2022)
Aging and health N/A Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective
- Aging populations face various
challenges including mobility issues,
vision/hearing loss, and cognitive
impairments.
10 Lyons (2021) Potential for Shared, Electric, and
Automated Mobility (SEAM) to Fill
Mobility Gaps for Vulnerable
Populations
North America
and Europe
Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective
- AV technology implementation should
consider the unique needs of the aging
community, including mobility, vision,
hearing, and cognitive challenges, as
access to transportation is crucial for this
population.
11 Wiggers (2020) Autonomous vehicles should benet
those with disabilities, but progress
remains slow
United States Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective
- AV technologies have the potential to
address mobility gaps and provide
enhanced transportation options for older
individuals.
12 Sterkenburg (2020) Assessing the future accessibility of
mobility
Netherlands Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective, Benets of AVs for PwDs
- Advancements in in-vehicle
technologies utilizing automation have
shown benets for the aging community,
enhancing travel comfort and safety.
13 Janatabadi and
Ermagun (2022)
Empirical evidence of bias in public
acceptance of autonomous vehicles
N/A Perspectives on AVs from PwDs - Only 10 % of survey studies on AV public
acceptance include people with
disabilities and racial minorities.
14 Dennis et al. (2021) Perceptions and Attitudes Towards the
Deployment of Autonomous and
Connected Vehicles: Insights from Las
Vegas, Nevada
Las Vegas,
Nevada/
United States
Perspectives on AVs from PwDs,
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- This study recommends a trial period to
be considered by groups introducing AV
technologies before committing to
widespread implementation.
15 Golbabaei et al.
(2021)
The role of shared autonomous vehicle
systems in delivering smart urban
mobility: A systematic review of the
literature
N/A Perspectives on AVs from PwDs - Limited accessibility, coupled with
decreased mobility and social interaction,
exacerbates transportation disadvantages
for individuals with disabilities (PWDs).
(continued on next page)
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
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Table 2 (continued )
No Literature Title Case Main themes Findings
16 Hwang et al. (2020) People with disabilities' perceptions of
autonomous vehicles as a viable
transportation option to improve
mobility: An exploratory study using
mixed methods
Texas/ United
States
Perspectives on AVs from PwDs, Benets
of AVs for PwDs, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs
- Individuals with disabilities (PwDs)
have a positive attitude towards
autonomous vehicles (AVs) and are
willing to pay for them if they incorporate
accessibility and safety features.
- PwDs expect AV technologies to enhance
their mobility but have concerns about
the accessibility of supporting
infrastructures.
- PwDs have doubts about the ability of
AV technology to ensure safety during
emergencies.
17 Bennett et al. (2019) Attitudes towards autonomous
vehicles among people with physical
disabilities
United
Kingdom
Perspectives on AVs from PwDs,
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- Individuals with disabilities have shown
a positive attitude and willingness to
adopt autonomous vehicles (AVs)
18 Petrovi´
c et al. (2022) Persons with physical disabilities and
autonomous vehicles: The perspective
of the driving status
Serbia Perspectives on AVs from PwDs,
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs, Accessible Autonomous
Vehicle (AAV) Design
Recommendations
- The attitudes, accessibility, and trust of
individuals with disabilities (PwDs) are
considered crucial factors in the
successful introduction of autonomous
vehicles (AVs).
19 Hwang and Kim
(2023)
Autonomous vehicle transportation
service for people with disabilities:
Policy recommendations based on the
evidence from hybrid choice model
Texas/ United
States
Perspectives on AVs from PwDs,
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- Individuals with disabilities who have a
negative perception of current public
transit services and neighbourhood
environments are more likely to choose
autonomous vehicle services.
20 Cordts et al. (2021) Mobility challenges and perceptions of
autonomous vehicles for individuals
with physical disabilities
United States Perspectives on AVs from PwDs - PwDs showed a positive attitude
towards AVs
21 Disability
Discrimination Act
(1992)
Disability Discrimination Act Australia Perspectives on AVs from PwDs - Shared AV services were seen as
necessary to alleviate congestion and
reduce costs, while the legality of
paratransit varies across countries, with
Australia prohibiting it under the
Disability Discrimination Act of 1992.
22 Bricout et al. (2021) Exploring the smart future of
participation: Community, inclusivity,
and people with disabilities
N/A Benets of AVs for PwDs, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs
- The study emphasized the need for
inclusive design in autonomous vehicles
(AVs) to promote societal participation
among people with disabilities (PwDs)
and older individuals.
23 Australia and New
Zealand Driverless
Vehicle Initiative
(2020)
Universal Design of Driverless Vehicles Australia Benets of AVs for PwDs - Impaired mobility poses a signicant
barrier for individuals with disabilities
(PwDs), restricting their access to
healthcare services and job opportunities.
24 Holt-Lunstad (2020) Social Isolation And Health (Culture of
Health)
United States Benets of AVs for PwDs - Limited access to reliable transportation
is a major contributing factor to social
isolation, which, in turn, is strongly
associated with higher rates of mental
health issues.
25 Gluck et al. (2020) Putting Older Adults in the Driver Seat:
Using User Enactment to Explore the
Design of a Shared Autonomous
Vehicle
United States Benets of AVs for PwDs - During emergencies, autonomous
vehicles have the capability to contact
emergency services directly or transport
passengers to the nearest healthcare
facilities, provided the passengers give
consent to share their information.
26 Lim et al. (2021) Facilitating independent commuting
among individuals with autism –A
design study in Singapore
Singapore Benets of AVs for PwDs - Automated vehicles can reduce social
isolation, provide access to essential
services, and enhance personal
independence for individuals with
various disabilities, including conditions
like autism.
27 Wang et al. (2020) Attitudes towards privately-owned and
shared autonomous vehicles
United States Benets of AVs for PwDs - Shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs) can
improve mobility and accessibility for
vulnerable groups.
28 Harper et al. (2016) Estimating potential increases in travel
with autonomous vehicles for the non-
driving, elderly and people with travel-
restrictive medical conditions
United States Benets of AVs for PwDs - PwDs are projected to experience a
notable increase in travel distance of over
14 % with the adoption of AVs.
29 Carvalho et al. (2021) An Accessible Autonomous Vehicle
Ridesharing Ecosystem
N/A Perspectives on AVs from PwDs Interfaces of AVs should be customizable
to meet individual user needs and present
information using sensory modalities
preferred by the user.
30 Patel et al. (2021) Exploring Preferences towards
Integrating the Autonomous Vehicles
with the Current Microtransit Services:
A Disability Focus Group Study
Texas/ United
States
Perspectives on AVs from PwDs - An attendant's presence during boarding
and disembarking of AVs would benet
PwDs by improving convenience and
reducing injury risks.
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Table 2 (continued )
No Literature Title Case Main themes Findings
31 Teece (2016) Enabling Technologies N/A Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- Enabling technologies tend to progress
faster than user adaptations, creating a
digital divide for individuals with
disabilities (PwDs) and limiting their
access to emerging technologies.
32 Lee and Kockelman
(2022)
Access Benets of Shared Autonomous
Vehicle Fleets: Focus on Vulnerable
Populations
Texas/ United
States
Benets of AVs for PwDs, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs
- Accessibility improves as vulnerability
levels increase across various types of
vulnerabilities.
33 Darcy and Burke
(2018)
On the road again: The barriers and
benets of automobility for people
with disability
Australia Benets of AVs for PwDs, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs
- AVs offer potential advantages for PwDs,
including increased opportunities for
community engagement in social
activities.
34 D'Souza (2013) Usability and Person-Environment
Interaction in Constrained Spaces:
Wheeled Mobility Users and Interior
Low-oor Bus Design
United States Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs, Accessible Autonomous
Vehicle (AAV) Design
Recommendations
- Users of wheeled mobility devices face
increased injury risks while boarding,
disembarking, and maneuvering within
vehicles.
35 Tabattanon et al.
(2019)
Accessible Design of Low-Speed
Automated Shuttles: A Brief Review of
Lessons Learned from Public Transit
N/A Benets of AVs for PwDs, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs,
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- The importance of vehicle interior
design on accessibility and usability for
PwDs was highlighted, indicating the
limitations of existing accessibility
standards when designing beyond
minimum requirements.
36 Kuzio (2021) Autonomous vehicles and paratransit:
Examining the protective framework
of the Americans with Disabilities Act
United States Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- Built environment challenges pose
signicant barriers to transportation for
PwDs.
37 Aissaoui (2021) The digital divide: A literature review
and some directions for future research
in light of COVID-19
N/A Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- Enhancing performance in various
product categories tend to advance faster
than user adaptations or device usability.
This trend contributes to the digital divide
or digital inequality for PwDs, which
refers to limited access to emerging
technologies for specic groups.
38 VTA (2019) Serving as a model for accessible
autonomous vehicle use
United States Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- The universal design of AVs should
consider various features throughout
different stages of a trip.
39 Prioleau et al. (2020) Barriers to the Adoption of
Autonomous Vehicles in Rural
Communities
United States Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
Rural communities in the US have a
higher proportion of older adults and
individuals with disabilities (PwDs)
compared to urban areas.
40 Bennett et al. (2020) Willingness of people who are blind to
accept autonomous vehicles: An
empirical investigation
United
Kingdom
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs
- In the early stages of AVs, user concerns
can hinder service usage. Service
providers can address these worries
through security measures, public
campaigns, and education programs.
41 Bharathy and D'Souza
(2018)
Revisiting Clear Floor Area
Requirements for Wheeled Mobility
Device Users in Public Transportation
United States Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- Among wheelchair users, those with
powered wheelchairs, particularly those
in the 95th percentile, require adequate
space to manoeuvre a wheelchair.
42 Choi et al. (2020) User Experiences with Two New
Wheelchair Securement Systems in
Large Accessible Transit Vehicles
Buffalo-
Niagara/
United States
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- In the US, vehicle operators commonly
assist PwDs in securing themselves on
public transport, with some regions
providing wheelchair securement
training for operators.
43 Steinfeld et al. (2020) Accessible Public Transportation
Designing Services for Riders with
Disabilities
N/A Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- Minimizing the oor-to-entry surface
difference is recommended to achieve
ramp slopes with a grading of 1:8 or less.
44 Shaw (2000) Wheelchair rider risk in motor
vehicles: A technical note
United States Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- Improperly restrained wheelchairs can
cause injuries and fatalities due to sudden
acceleration, deceleration, or sharp turns.
45 Kostyniuk and
D'Souza (2020)
Effect of passenger encumbrance and
mobility aid use on dwell time
variability in low-oor transit vehicles
Michigan/
United States
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- A lowered oor and raised ceilings were
seen as important design elements.
46 Jayaprakash and
D'Souza (2012)
Task Analytic Study of Variability in
Wheeled Mobility Ingress on Low-oor
Buses
Michigan/
United States
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- Incorporating a lowered oor and raised
ceilings are important design elements, as
the latter can offer additional headroom.
47 Wolfgang and
Korydon (2011)
Universal Design of Automobiles N/A Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
In accessible AV design:
- Lowered oors and raised ceilings are
important design elements for
accessibility.
- High door openings and wide doors are
necessary for easy access from a variety of
mobility devices.
- Multimodal outputs are important for
communicating information to users.
- Providing mechanical loading systems
and eliminating horizontal gaps between
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throughout the infrastructure; to assist in navigation and waynding.
Other requirements include auditory notications or alerts regarding
whether the vehicle requires maintenance or refuelling (Claypool et al.,
2017). It should also be noted that some people with low vision prefer
large print data displays over audio interfaces (Dicianno et al., 2021).
Two communication methods that have been suggested are
“Refreshable Braille”(an automatically updating braille display) and an
auditory system that noties passengers where the vehicle is located at
any given time during travel (Claypool et al., 2017). However, it should
be highlighted that less than 10 % of legally blind individuals are braille
literate (The National Federation of the Blind Jernigan Institute, 2009).
3.1.2. Deaf and hard of hearing community
Individuals from the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Community are often
fully capable of driving modern vehicles. However, the rise of AVs may
present challenges for this community regarding the user interface. For
example, all information provided through auditory channels will also
need to be presented in graphic and textual formats viewable from all
seating positions. Furthermore, passengers must be alerted in an effec-
tive and timely manner to critical issues that may arise to ensure they
can respond appropriately in real-time (Claypool et al., 2017;Dicianno
et al., 2021).
3.1.3. Mobility impaired community
Various challenges are present within AV interactions for members
of the Mobility Impaired Community (Dicianno et al., 2021). These
include:
•Independence in boarding and disembarking from the vehicle
•Impaired mobility of limbs or issues with dexterity
•Reduced abilities to reach and manipulate controls
These factors may vary with the degree of mobility impairment
(Dicianno et al., 2021). Some members of this community prefer to
transfer from their wheelchairs during transit so appropriate support
systems need to be provided (Strickfaden &Langdon, 2018). Waynding
and information required to navigate the surrounding infrastructure
towards adequate boarding locations should also be considered (Fogli
et al., 2020). This could include the integration of technology into the
surrounding infrastructure allowing AVs to notify passengers of poten-
tial infrastructural barriers or provide information about the nearest
accessible walkways (Claypool et al., 2017). AVs should be designed
Table 2 (continued )
No Literature Title Case Main themes Findings
platforms and vehicles for improved
accessibility is a crucial recommendation.
48 Epting (2021) Ethical requirements for transport
systems with automated buses
N/A Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- AV technologies should not be fully
automated due to the need for additional
care from vehicle operators to protect
vulnerable populations.
49 Ferati et al. (2018) Universal Design of User Interfaces in
Self-driving Cars
N/A Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- In AV design, Adjustable seats were
recommended to accommodate a greater
variety of body dimensions and postures.
50 Carvalho et al. (2020) UTT: A Conceptual Model to Guide the
Universal Design of Autonomous
Vehicles
N/A Perspectives on AVs from PwDs,
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- In the realm of vehicle development,
prototyping, and testing, it is crucial to
integrate co-design principles, guided by
direct input from PwDs, to ensure fair
access
51 Costa et al. (2018) Tackling Autonomous Driving
Challenges –How the Design of
Autonomous Vehicles Is Mirroring
Universal Design
United States Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- For higher-level accessibility, the design
should enable users to select options
using eye gaze where possible, and for
vocal and auditory interfaces, users
should be able to use voice commands.
52 Shi et al. (2020) Molder: An Accessible Design Tool for
Tactile Maps
United States Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- The study demonstrated the
effectiveness of “tactile maps”for visually
impaired users in accessible transport
design.
53 Rojas (2020) Vehicle Performance Analysis of an
Autonomous Electric Shuttle Modied
for Wheelchair Accessibility
United States Benets of AVs for PwDs, Challenges for
Implementation of Accessible AVs,
Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- People with disabilities (PwDs)
encounter barriers to accessing public/
private transport due to inadequate
vehicle and facility design.
- In the US, modifying a vehicle for
accessibility can cost between US$20,000
to US$80,000, depending on the required
modications.
54 Allu et al. (2017) Accessible personal transportation for
people with disabilities using
autonomous vehicles
United States Perspectives on AVs from PwDs,
Challenges for Implementation of
Accessible AVs, Accessible Autonomous
Vehicle (AAV) Design
Recommendations
- A ramp allowing wheelchair users to
board and disembark without transferring
is a recommended approach for accessible
vehicles.
55 Shaee et al. (2020) Deep neural network perception
models and robust autonomous driving
systems
N/A Benets of AVs for PwDs - Accessible Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)
offer individuals with disabilities (PwDs)
greater access to transportation and an
enhanced driving experience.
56 Asha et al. (2021) Co-Designing Interactions between
Pedestrians in Wheelchairs and
Autonomous Vehicles
N/A Accessible Autonomous Vehicle (AAV)
Design Recommendations
- Co-design principles in vehicle
development, prototyping, and testing,
guided by direct input from PwDs, ensure
equitable access.
57 World Health
Organization (2011)
World report on disability N/A Needs for PwDs from a Transport Design
Perspective
- People with Disabilities (PwDs) and
older individuals often face social
exclusion due to transport-related
challenges, such as inaccessibility or
unaffordability.
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with a ramp or lift system integrated into the structure of the vehicle or
with aftermarket modications in mind to reduce the cost of installing
these features (Claypool et al., 2017;Dicianno et al., 2021). Strickfaden
and Langdon (2018) provided considerations beyond vehicle design,
proposing that designers and manufacturers consider ways to address
practical challenges around user pick-up and drop-off. For example,
some passengers need assistance loading and unloading groceries and
luggage. There are also issues in stowing or securing a wheelchair during
transit. In addition, sufcient time should be considered within the
programming of autonomous systems to allow for the loading and
unloading of essential equipment such as walkers.
3.1.4. Intellectual and developmental disability community
Members of the Intellectual and Developmental Disability Commu-
nity have several unique requirements which may be challenging to
accommodate with AV technologies, further limiting their access to
transport in the future. This community currently relies on a combina-
tion of public transport, family, and private services to accommodate
most of their travel needs (Kassens-noor et al., 2021). Furthermore,
members of this community often require mobility and orientation
training to overcome current barriers to transport and can become more
reliant on external support to navigate the challenges and barriers in
accessing transport (Claypool et al., 2017). The needs of this community
often require interfaces that are easy to understand with a preference for
low-complexity interfaces (Dicianno et al., 2021). This approach may
also benet older adults who have lower rates of technological literacy.
Claypool et al. (2017) proposed that smartphones could be used to
provide passengers from this community with remote support in
accessing and using the vehicle. This approach could be facilitated with
video cameras integrated into the GPS tracking systems allowing care-
givers to better support these individuals through more detailed and
contextually relevant assistance. These supporting systems could help
ensure that individuals are not lost or in danger, which may ultimately
provide greater independence.
3.1.5. Older people and aging community
Many countries worldwide are currently facing the issue of an aging
population (World Health Organization, 2022). Older People and the
Aging Community can often suffer from a series of mobility, vision,
hearing loss and mental acuity issues. These needs should be considered
within the implementation of AV technology, as access to transport is
one of the most crucial requirements for this community (Lyons, 2021).
Declining physical capabilities and mental acuity often lead members of
this community to cease driving, placing them at risk for social exclusion
due to mobility challenges. AV technologies present a great potential to
ll mobility gaps for older people (Lyons, 2021;Wiggers, 2020).
Furthermore, advancements in in-vehicle technologies that utilise some
form of automation have been shown to provide several benets,
including improvements in travel comfort and safety for members of this
community (Sterkenburg, 2020).
3.2. Perspectives on AVs from PwDs
This section of the paper encompasses research that looks to un-
derstand perspectives from PwDs on AVs across six different sub-
categories including acceptance of AVs, improved mobility access,
supporting infrastructure, job loss, transport safety, and technology
improvements.
3.2.1. Acceptance of AVs
By reviewing the studies that investigated the mobility behaviour of
PwDs, a deciency in the assumptions identied can be observed. In
general, only 10 % of survey studies on public acceptance of AVs include
people with disabilities and racial minorities (Janatabadi &Ermagun,
2022). Cordts et al. (2021) and Hwang et al. (2020) found that PwDs had
a positive attitude towards AVs overall. Furthermore, they reported a
willingness to pay an equivalent or higher price for the use of AVs
compared to current transport systems, provided that these vehicles
incorporated appropriate accessibility and safety features (Hwang et al.,
2020). In another study, Hwang and Kim (2023) mentioned that in-
dividuals with disabilities who exhibit a negative perception of the
current public transit services and the built environments in their
neighbourhoods are more inclined to select autonomous vehicle ser-
vices. In a study conducted in Serbia, researchers found that individuals
with disabilities (PwDs) who do not operate vehicles express a stronger
preference for utilizing autonomous vehicles (AVs) compared to drivers,
especially among those residing in urban regions (Petrovi´
c et al., 2022).
Their willingness to use AVs primarily hinges on their perception of AVs
rather than their specic physical limitations or mobility patterns.
These ndings contradict the research conducted by Kassens-noor
et al. (2021) and Bennett et al. (2019), where they discovered that in-
dividuals with disabilities do not exhibit enthusiasm towards autono-
mous vehicles (AVs). Kassens-noor et al. (2021) showed that 56 % of
PwDs perceived AVs negatively with only 27 % having positive per-
ceptions, and the remaining 21 % being neutral. It is difcult to deter-
mine the cause of this discrepancy because it could be due to several
factors such as the experimental setup, the lower participant numbers
Hwang et al. (2020) having 222 compared to 1861 for Kassens-noor
et al. (2021), or the different regions in which the research was con-
ducted with Hwang et al. (2020) taking their sample from the US state of
Texas and Kassens-noor et al. (2021) from the state of Michigan.
PwDs surveyed by Hwang et al. (2020) proposed that different ser-
vice types should be made available, with exible vehicle sizes, vehicle
designs, and communication modalities. Similarly, AVs should utilise
universal design principles to ensure independent access and usability.
Finally, Golbabaei et al. (2022),Golbabaei et al. (2023), and Dennis
et al. (2021) identied differences within the population based on age
and gender. For example, males reported lower resistance to AVs than
females, people with higher levels of education were more open to AVs,
and younger people tended to be more accepting than older people.
3.2.2. Improved mobility access
Hwang et al. (2020) showed that PwDs had several expectations
regarding the ability of AV technologies to provide greater mobility.
These include exibility of travel, the expanded capacity of transport
service and greater operating hours and service areas. Furthermore, they
argued that this expansion would require lower labour costs due to high
levels of automation. This nding is noteworthy as travel cost was
identied as a primary factor for PwDs when considering transport op-
tions. Some participants with disabilities and transit service experts
expected AV technologies to provide a more efcient route and faster
service than current paratransit systems. However, others believed that
AVs would only mitigate congestion and reduce operating costs if they
were available as a shared service. It should also be noted that while
paratransit is permitted within the US, this type of service is unlawful
within some countries; for instance, this type of service is not permitted
within Australia under the Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 (DDA)
(Disability Discrimination Act, 1992).
3.2.3. Supporting infrastructure
Most participants with disabilities were concerned about the acces-
sibility of supporting infrastructures such as platforms, terminals,
transport hubs, and curbside pick-up and drop-off areas (Hwang et al.,
2020). In addition, a common theme identied within the research was
the participants' desire for improved built environments that consider
their mobility needs and facilitates access to transport (Patel et al.,
2021).
3.2.4. Job loss
Individuals with disabilities (PwDs) have expressed general concerns
about the potential impact of autonomous vehicles (AVs) on job op-
portunities within the transportation sector. For example, participants
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12
from one study reported emotional and moral concerns about using AVs
if this leads to job loss for paratransit service and public transport op-
erators (Hwang et al., 2020;Kassens-noor et al., 2021). These concerns
reect the broader implications of AV implementation and the need to
carefully consider the social and economic consequences for individuals
whose livelihoods are tied to traditional transportation services.
3.2.5. Transport safety
PwDs have reported several concerns regarding AV safety (Kassens-
noor et al., 2021). The safety risks for PwDs can be discussed under these
broad categories: improper equipment or procedures, sudden changes in
the passengers' physical condition, and emergencies due to trafc in-
cidents (Allu et al., 2017). Findings from a study by Hwang et al. (2020)
showed that PwDs have doubts about the ability of the AV technology to
maintain safe conditions during emergencies, such as incidents where
the vehicle stops operating or if the passenger required rst aid. Some
reported a fundamental “fear”of machines and were concerned about
their ability to communicate effectively with AVs in these situations.
However, when asked about the AVs' ability to perform in normal con-
ditions, PwDs perceived them as safer than drivers and were less con-
cerned about being hit by AVs than by conventional vehicles. However,
it should be noted that this paper has a limited population sample and
ndings may not be generalizable to the broader PwD population.
The same study found that PwDs prefer an onboard vehicle attendant
capable of assisting in boarding, disembarking, and managing emer-
gency situations. Boarding an AV would be more convenient for PwDs if
an attendant was present to aid them, as boarding and disembarking are
associated with high injury rates (Patel et al., 2021). Hwang and Kim
(2023) mentioned that individuals with disabilities who exhibit a
negative perception of the current public transit services and the built
environments in their neighbourhoods are more inclined to select
autonomous vehicle services. Furthermore, the presence of a human
attendant onboard increases the probability of choosing autonomous
vehicles. Individuals with disabilities valued a human assistant more
when choosing shared-ride AVs compared to single-ride AVs. This sug-
gests their concern about traveling with strangers or an unknown pas-
senger in a situation where there is no one controlling the situation in
the vehicle (Hwang et al., 2020;Hwang &Kim, 2023).
3.2.6. Technology improvements
PwDs have reported numerous issues and challenges interfacing with
rideshare technologies. Understanding these issues and challenges could
guide the design of AV interactions, interfaces, and smartphone appli-
cations (Golbabaei et al., 2023). For instance, interfaces should be
modiable to the individual user's needs and provide information in an
appropriate sensory modality depending on preferences (Carvalho et al.,
2021). A survey of PwDs conducted by Patel et al. (2021) produced
several recommendations, including service applications that commu-
nicate relevant information about the passengers' disability to the AV,
assisting them in selected routes and stops based on their specic needs.
In addition, participants expected AV applications to provide riders with
the exact pick-up location, which is not a feature provided by all
application-based transport services. Participants also stated that service
dogs (e.g., seeing-eye dogs) need to be considered within AV design,
which would require appropriate restraint options and adequate surface
materials to prevent the animal from sliding.
3.3. Benets of AVs for PwDs
Opportunity areas identied from the literature include improved
access to medical care and employment, greater social inclusion, and
improved safety. These identied opportunity areas highlight the
transformative potential of autonomous vehicles in improving various
aspects of individuals' lives.
3.3.1. Transport access
Kassens-noor et al. (2021) found that 3–5 % of the urban population
cannot drive due to disability or age and rely on public transport. This
group stands to benet signicantly from the introduction of AVs and
may see the greatest increase in distance travelled compared to other
groups, with a predicted increase of over 14 % (Harper et al., 2016).
Kassens-noor et al. (2021) found that PwDs were willing to pay a higher
price for AV technology compared to other groups due to current
mobility restrictions placed on these communities. However, this needs
to be balanced against the fact that they are more likely to be within a
low-income bracket. In another study, Wang et al. (2020) mentioned
that shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs) have the capacity to improve
the mobility and accessibility of vulnerable groups such as the elderly
and disabled individuals. These individuals can experience advantages
from the efcient door-to-door service provided by self-driving vehicles.
Moreover, according to Lee and Kockelman (2022), accessibility tends to
improve as the level of vulnerability increases across different types of
vulnerabilities. Notably, individuals with disabilities experience even
greater access benets when vulnerability is high. They noted that SAVs
combine the characteristics of private vehicles (offering door-to-door
service) and public transportation (providing shared rides), enabling
them to effectively enhance the accessibility and mobility of urban
residents.
3.3.2. Medical care &employment
Impaired mobility is one of the most serious obstacles for PwDs,
limiting their access to healthcare services and job opportunities
(Australia &New Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative, 2020;Rojas,
2020). In emergency situations, autonomous vehicles have the ability to
directly contact emergency services or drive to the closest healthcare
facilities if the passengers consent to sharing their information (Gluck
et al., 2020;Lim et al., 2021). Hwang et al. (2020) found that PwDs
seeking work were twice as likely to be unemployed compared to their
counterparts. The Australia and New Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initia-
tive (2020) proposes that well-designed accessible AVs would help
connect PwDs to medical services while improving employment op-
portunities. This outcome would be signicant as increased employment
for PwDs can improve their quality of life and physical and mental
health. Furthermore, organisations would also see benets through
greater access to the knowledge, skills and contributions of PwDs.
Claypool et al. (2017) suggested that the implementation of AV tech-
nology would lead to a US$19 billion reduction in healthcare expendi-
tures within the United States (US) due to higher attendance of medical
appointments through the provision of transportation services.
Furthermore, AVs would allow around 2 million individuals with dis-
abilities in the US to access new employment opportunities.
3.3.3. Social inclusion and support
PwDs and older people are more likely to experience various forms of
social exclusion. Furthermore, these communities are more likely to
experience transport-related exclusion (Sterkenburg, 2020;Tabattanon
et al., 2019). There is a strong link between social isolation and higher
rates of mental health issues, with a lack of access to reliable trans-
portation identied as a major contributor (Holt-Lunstad, 2020). For
example, a study from 2014 showed that 44 % of those with a disability
reported experiencing depression at least once in their life compared to
11 % of their counterparts, which was seen to correlate to lack of
transport access (Australia &New Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative,
2020). One of the potential benets of AVs for PwDs is increased op-
portunities to participate in social activities in their communities (Darcy
&Burke, 2018;Hwang et al., 2020). Bricout et al. (2021) argued that to
promote societal participation for people with disabilities (PwDs) and
older individuals, autonomous vehicles (AVs) must be designed with
inclusivity in mind and should prioritize accessibility and usability for
the individual. This would ensure that access to AVs is equitable and that
these vehicles can be used by people with a wide range of abilities.
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3.3.4. Improved transport safety
It is expected that highly automated vehicles operating at SAE level 4
or 5 have safety benets with the potential to reduce or eliminate trafc
accidents. As a result, in the US, the National Highway Trafc Safety
Administration put forward policy recommendations that no specic
licenses or trained operators should be required to use “highly auto-
mated vehicles”which would allow a large number of PwDs, currently
unable to obtain a license, greater access to transport (Claypool et al.,
2017).
3.4. Challenges to AVs implementation
3.4.1. Diverse needs
The diverse needs across communities are an obstacle to accessible
AVs. Each individual will have unique impairments, and a single-vehicle
design may not be adequate to meet the needs of such a diverse popu-
lation (Claypool et al., 2017). Furthermore, Bricout et al. (2021) argued
that enabling technologies to improve performance across a wide range
of product categories tends to evolve more rapidly than user adaptations
or device usability. This trend is encapsulated in the digital divide or
digital inequality for PwDs, which describes the issue of restricted access
to emerging technologies for specic groups (Aissaoui, 2021;Bricout
et al., 2021;Teece, 2016).
3.4.2. Personal nances
As previously highlighted, PwDs, on average, have lower employ-
ment rates and lower income than their counterparts (Australia &New
Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative, 2020). In the US, two-thirds of all
PwDs have an income below US$35,000, with transport access issues
seen to strongly correlate with low income (Rojas, 2020). PwDs also
have the additional burden of medical expenses and extra vehicle costs,
either in accessing transport or aftermarket modications for personal-
ized mobility (Claypool et al., 2017). These additional costs limit PwDs'
access to medical care and employment, which is ultimately detrimental
to their societal inclusion while lower socio-economic status may ulti-
mately limit their access to AV technologies further perpetuating these
issues (Darcy &Burke, 2018). According to Lee and Kockelman (2022)
study on shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs), it is crucial to consider the
exploration of subsidizing SAV fares through transit providers, food
assistance programs, or other alternative approaches to support in-
dividuals in vulnerable situations. SAV eets provide the benet of cost-
efcient door-to-door service and customizable mobility options,
allowing transit agencies to redirect subsidies towards SAV usage. This
can assist not only the general public but also those who are highly
vulnerable.
3.4.3. Ridesharing models
Ridesharing has been proposed as a means of providing affordable
transport to PwDs. However, their needs are often not considered within
the early implementation of these technologies or services with acces-
sible features often included as an “afterthought”delaying PwD's access
to these services (Darcy &Burke, 2018). By proactively integrating
accessibility features into the development process, ridesharing plat-
forms can better cater to the needs of individuals with disabilities and
promote inclusivity in transportation services.
3.4.4. Data security
When looking at the digital security of AVs, very little work has been
done to outline how they should store and protect the data collected
from the users. Furthermore, if these vehicles become fully automated,
there are concerns regarding ‘hackers’accessing personal information or
remotely controlling the vehicle (Allu et al., 2017). Addressing these
concerns and implementing robust security measures is crucial to safe-
guard user data and ensure the safe and reliable operation of AVs,
especially for PwDs, who are a particularly vulnerable user group. It is
imperative for researchers, manufacturers, and policymakers to
collaborate in developing comprehensive security frameworks that
mitigate the risks associated with data storage and unauthorized access,
ensuring user privacy and maintaining public trust in autonomous
vehicle technology (Petrovi´
c et al., 2022).
3.4.5. Barriers to existing transport systems
PwDs face many barriers to accessing public/private transport due to
a lack of appropriate vehicle and facility design (Rojas, 2020). Looking
at existing accessible transport can be useful for the design of AV tech-
nologies; this includes limitations and inadequacies in current systems.
Several issues have been identied (Dicianno et al., 2021;D'Souza,
2013;Rojas, 2020). These include:
•Inadequate onboard circulation space for wheeled mobility devices
to manoeuvre into securement spaces.
•Insufcient space for assistive devices such as canes or walkers.
•Inaccessibility caused by crowding from other passengers.
•Inadequate legroom and non-standardised seating congurations.
•Seating locations were confusing to individuals who are blind or who
have visual impairments.
•Inoperable lifts and ramps or overly steep ramp slopes.
•Failure to provide stop announcements in appropriate sensory
modalities.
•Failure to provide necessary route information.
Dicianno et al. (2021) showed that inaccessibility occurs even when
vehicle interiors are compliant with US federal accessibility standards.
This has direct implications for physical effort, occupant and passenger
safety, and the time is taken to board and disembark the vehicle
(Dicianno et al., 2021;Tabattanon et al., 2019). In addition, users of
wheeled mobility devices have a higher risk of injury during boarding,
disembarking, and maneuvering within the vehicle (D'Souza, 2013). It
should also be highlighted that many of the onboard issues for people
with sensory and cognitive impairments can be addressed with help
from a vehicle operator or attendant. However, these services may not
be available for SAE level 4–5 vehicles. Therefore, future AVs must
manage a range of community needs and potential trade-offs when
trying to meet a broad range of physical, sensory and cognitive abilities
(Tabattanon et al., 2019).
3.4.6. Technological literacy and access
Many older adults have difculties with current tech-related ser-
vices, which are analogous to issues faced when utilizing AV technolo-
gies. For example, on average, older people tend to have lower
smartphone ownership (Dicianno et al., 2021). Furthermore, frequent
smartphone application updates are seen as barriers to utilizing this
technology. This failure has led to unequal access and lower quality of
service from developments such as the internet and smartphones for
PwDs (Kuzio, 2021). Addressing these accessibility and usability con-
cerns is crucial to ensure that AV technologies are designed to be in-
clusive and user-friendly for older adults and individuals with
disabilities, allowing them to fully benet from these advancements in
transportation. Collaborative efforts between technology developers
and policymakers are essential to bridge the digital divide and create
accessible AV solutions that cater to the diverse needs of all individuals.
3.4.7. Cost of vehicles
While PwDs may be the group to see the greatest benet from AV
technologies, there are many barriers to broad adoption. Looking at the
resources required to modify vehicles can give insight into the potential
costs required to ensure AVs are accessible to PwDs. In the US, the cost of
modifying a vehicle for accessibility can range from US$20,000 on the
low end to US$80,000, depending on the type of modications required
(Rojas, 2020). However, Allu et al. (2017) suggested that if vehicle
manufacturers set out to develop vehicles with accessibility in mind,
modication costs could be reduced to an estimated US$5000–$10,000.
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14
3.4.8. Infrastructure and built environment
Built environment issues are one of the biggest challenges to effective
transport provision for PwDs and these challenges may be further
exacerbated by the introduction of AV technologies (Kuzio, 2021). For
future AVs to be accessible, automation of operations needs to consider
how the vehicles are dispatched, how they park or dock at loading areas
and how they handle users entering and exiting the vehicle (Australia &
New Zealand Driverless Vehicle Initiative, 2020). The basic actions of
boarding and disembarking from a vehicle may present challenges for
numerous individuals with disabilities, extending beyond those who use
wheelchairs (Riggs &Pande, 2022).
3.4.9. Autonomous passenger assistance
Operators of transport systems are usually responsible for ensuring
wheelchair users are correctly secured. As previously discussed, fully
automated systems may not provide trained staff that can assist pas-
sengers in securing the wheelchair, boarding or disembarking, or with
faults and emergencies that may arise on route (Bayless &Davidson,
2019). Furthermore, certain passengers currently require vehicle oper-
ators to shepherd and escort them beyond the vehicle. The Alliance of
Automobile Manufacturers notes that there is currently no securement
standard compatible with all wheelchairs that can be engaged entirely
by wheelchair users (Dicianno et al., 2021). For future driverless vehi-
cles to be accessible to all communities, designers and manufacturers
must consider how automated systems can be used to effectively secure
passengers (Bayless &Davidson, 2019).
3.4.10. User perceptions of AV technology
The perceptions of AV technologies by PwDs may also be a barrier to
their adoption. Kassens-noor et al. (2021) indicated that PwDs on
average have a negative perception of AVs and were more likely to
distrust them, although this particular nding has been contradicted by
other studies by Hwang et al. (2020). Furthermore, PwDs were found to
experience higher levels of anxiety around AV safety-related issues.
They also reported less willingness to ride in AVs compared to their
counterparts (Kassens-noor et al., 2021). In the early stages or transition
period of AVs, users' concerns may discourage service usage. Service
providers can address these worries by implementing security measures,
conducting public campaigns, and offering education and training pro-
grams (Hwang et al., 2020;Bennett et al., 2019, 2020;Axsen &Sova-
cool, 2019). As reliable information about technological advancements
spreads, anxieties and concerns, particularly about safety and mechan-
ical errors, are likely to diminish (Hwang &Kim, 2023). Education,
training programs, and inclusive pilot projects can help alleviate these
anxieties.
3.4.11. Rural communities
Prioleau et al. (2020) and Lee and Kockelman (2022) found that rural
communities in the US had a greater concentration of older adults and
PwDs than that observed within urban areas. In addition, the challenges
in providing accessible public transport within rural communities are
substantial, as public transportation within these areas is often inade-
quate, and rural communities tend to receive less funding for transport-
related services. The limited availability of transportation options in
rural communities can lead to restricted access to vital services,
employment prospects, and social engagement for older adults and in-
dividuals with disabilities. To address these challenges, a comprehensive
approach is essential, involving improved rural public transportation,
increased funding for transportation initiatives, and innovative solu-
tions like shared autonomous vehicles (SAVs) to enhance accessibility
and mobility for all residents, regardless of location.
3.5. Accessible autonomous vehicle (AAV) design recommendations
This section of the paper will outline recommendations for the design
of accessible AVs using available literature. These recommendations
include physical, interior, interaction, supporting infrastructure, and
design strategies and approaches. The articles used in this section
include research on universal and accessible AV design, modied vehi-
cles for PwDs, and accessible public transport. While modied vehicles
and public transport systems are distinct from AV technologies, there is
relevant material within these resources that benets the research aim
more broadly. When it comes to meeting accessibility needs, the uni-
versal design of AVs should take into account various features involved
in trip stages. These stages can be classied into three categories (VTA,
2019): (1) Pre-trip Concierge (Information System Design) which in-
volves trip planning and booking, (2) Waynding and Navigation
(Accessible Infrastructure Design) including nding the AAV pick-up
point, waiting at the pick-up point, and navigating from the drop-off
point to the destination, and (3) Robotics and Automation (Vehicle
Design) encompassing boarding, riding, and disembarking from the
AAV. Riggs and Pande (2022) conducted a study on “On-demand
microtransit and paratransit service”and presented accessibility fea-
tures for various types of autonomous vehicles. The study demonstrated
the potential abilities of these vehicles in the absence of a driver or
operator. Table 3 displays a subset of Riggs and Pande (2022) study,
featuring two autonomous vehicles selected from microtransit and
paratransit cases. These vehicles are notable for their range of accessi-
bility features. It is worth noting that the Olli 2.0 autonomous vehicle is
one of the vehicles that fulll most of the abilities listed in the table. To
access the case studies of all eight autonomous vehicles and their
respective accessible features, refer to Riggs and Pande (2022). In the
following, our study will provide an overview of the essential features
that should fundamentally be included in the design process of auton-
omous vehicles.
3.5.1. Doorways
Bharathy and D'Souza (2018) conducted research to determine the
required dimensions for accessible vehicles to accommodate various
personal mobility devices and user anthropometrics to guide the design
of doorways and interior oor spaces. Their research determined that
vehicle doorways must allow for a width of 870 mm and an access depth
of 1508 mm to accommodate the 95th percentile wheelchair user. With
the wheelchairs occupying 1.31m
2
in overall oor space. Furthermore,
high door openings and wide doors were required to allow easy access
from a broad range of personal mobility devices (Wolfgang &Korydon,
2011). Finally, side entry doorways were a common method identied
within modied vehicles and future AV concepts to allow for ease of
access.
3.5.2. Ramps
A recommended approach for boarding and disembarking from
accessible vehicles is a ramp that allows users to enter the vehicle
without transferring from their wheelchairs (Allu et al., 2017). Steinfeld
et al. (2020) recommended limiting the difference between the oor and
entry surfaces to achieve ramp slopes with a grading less than or equal to
1:8. However, there are also several challenges presented by environ-
mental and contextual conditions, such as weather, curb and road con-
ditions which can adversely affect boarding and disembarking from the
vehicle (Allu et al., 2017). These include:
•Rain or snow can cause the chair to go off one side of the ramp
•Tilting is created by road conditions which result in steeper ramp
angles than those specied above
•Misalignment with the ramp can cause the user to tip or fall from
their chair
•Unguarded edges can cause tipping and passenger falls from ramps
and lifts
3.5.3. Seating
Seating design was identied as an important factor in accessible AV
design. Adjustable seats were recommended, with several
F. Golbabaei et al.
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15
considerations outlined to ensure they accommodate a greater variety of
anthropometric dimensions and different body postures (Ferati et al.,
2018). Wolfgang and Korydon (2011) provided several recommenda-
tions for the design of adjustable seats. These include:
•Seats of an appropriate height to reduce the need to extend legs
•Seats that reduce the need to push up while exiting or bend down
while entering
•Seating systems that allow for ease of entry and exit, such as swivel
seat designs
•Seating controls that allow for ease of understanding and operation
3.5.4. Securement systems
Securement systems have been identied as a considerable factor
contributing to potential injuries and fatalities and should be carefully
considered within any accessible AV design. In the US, it is common
practice for the vehicle operator to assist PwDs in securing themselves
on public transport, with operators in certain regions receiving wheel-
chair securement training (Choi et al., 2020).
This is important as Allu et al. (2017) advise that improperly
restrained wheelchairs have been known to cause tipping and falling due
to sudden acceleration, deceleration, or sharp turns, which, as shown by
Shaw (2000), can lead to injuries and even fatalities due to improperly
or inadequately restrained wheelchairs.
Choi et al. (2020) explored user preferences for two common
wheelchair securement systems for accessible vehicles and tested them
with participants to determine their suitability for application within
accessible vehicles and participant preferences. The three different
groups of wheelchair users include manual wheelchairs (MWC), power
wheelchairs (PWC), and scooters (SC). The two securement mechanisms
explored were a 3-point forward-facing (3P-FF) securement system and
a semi-automated rear-facing (SA-RF) securement system. They also
found that the SA-RF system was preferred to the 3P-FF by MWC and
PWC participants. However, SC participants found both securement
systems difcult to use. It should also be noted that both these methods
involved interactions with the vehicle operator. One potential solution
to this challenge is fully automated securement systems, which must be
located and designed with high visibility to accommodate the physical
limitations of people with limited upper limb mobility and not favour
one side of the body (Wolfgang &Korydon, 2011). However, these
automated solutions present their challenges and may not be suitable for
all wheelchair types.
3.5.5. Interior layout
The interior layout of the vehicle was seen to be a factor inuencing
vehicle accessibility for boarding, disembarking and movement
throughout the vehicle. The three key areas within the vehicle interior
covered across the research are clear oor space, handholds, and oor-
to-ceiling height.
AVs should allow enough interior space to use and manipulate per-
sonal mobility devices while inside the vehicle (Ferati et al., 2018).
Across numerous studies, a lowered oor was seen as a crucial design
element, with the potential for raised ceilings to allow for extra head-
room (Allu et al., 2017;D'Souza, 2013;Jayaprakash &D'Souza, 2012;
Kostyniuk &D'Souza, 2020;Wolfgang &Korydon, 2011). Allu et al.
(2017) advised that the ideal useable interior height must be a minimum
of 1.42 m. Wolfgang and Korydon (2011) stressed the importance of
providing adequate handholds that are easily identiable and visually
clear.
Bharathy and D'Souza (2018) provided detailed metrics for acces-
sible vehicle design, including appropriate clear oor space and access
ways. Powered wheelchair users represent the “limiting user”with the
largest wheelchair with 95th percentile users from this category
requiring adequate clear oor space to manoeuvre a wheelchair 870 mm
wide, 1508 mm long (1.31m
2
) inside the vehicle.
3.5.6. Suspension systems
Rojas (2020), looked at the importance of integrated suspension
systems for user comfort, specically for people with spinal injuries.
They also noted that there were adverse effects from the performance of
aftermarket modications on modied accessible vehicles. This research
showed that aftermarket suspension systems tended to increase fatigue
and discomfort due to oor vibration. Rojas recommends tuning sus-
pension systems to accommodate a wide range of different user weights.
3.5.7. Interfaces and interactions
The ndings of Tabattanon et al. (2019), demonstrated the impor-
tance of vehicle interior design on accessibility and usability for PwDs
and highlighted the inadequacy of existing accessibility standards when
designing beyond minimum requirements. Several studies have also
Table 3
Accessibility features of recent autonomous vehicles (extracted from Riggs &
Pande, 2022).
Accessibility features Microtransit case
studies
Paratransit case study
Wheelchair-
accessible AV (
Etherington, 2019)
Olli 2.0 of Jacksonville
Transportation Authority
(JTA) (Perrero, 2020)
Staff manually adjusts
vehicle to curb height and
curb gap at stop and adjusts
suspension to match if
possible
N Y
Exterior Button to deploy
ramp
Y Y1
Interior Button to deploy
ramp
Y Y1
Steward Screen to deploy
ramp
P Y
Ample lighting in the interior
when boarding
Y Y
Audio announce door
opening
Y Y
Vehicle opens door Y Y
Vehicle deploys ramp
manually
N Y
Safety attendant manually
assists passengers with
wheelchair securement
P Y
Audio announce to wear
seatbelts for all
Y Y
Ramp interlocked with door
position (only deploy ramp
if door open)
Y Y
Ramp interlocked with
vehicle drive system
(vehicle moves only if
ramp is stowed)
Y Y
Audio announce door closing Y Y
Ample lighting in the interior
when riding
Y Y
Ability to store video for
more than 30 days to
evaluate incidents
Y Y
Audio announce next stop
when vehicle starts moving
at current stop
Y Y
Audio announce next stop 35
m before vehicle arrives
there
Y Y
Audio announce stop when
vehicle arrives there
Y Y
Audio announce in different
languages
Y N
Video display information in
different languages
P Y2
Y=has feature N =does not have feature P =feature possible.
1 Ensure access to the button for persons using mobility device.
2 Multilingual (English and Spanish).
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
16
identied the importance of using multimodal outputs to communicate
information to the user (Ferati et al., 2018;Fogli et al., 2020;Wolfgang
&Korydon, 2011).
•Multimodal Interfaces: For accessible AVs, multimodal interfaces
are ideal. However, designers and manufacturers should also be
conscious of users being overloaded with information from too many
sources or too many user input requests (Wolfgang &Korydon,
2011). Furthermore, Wolfgang and Korydon (2011), argue that ac-
tivities and tasks with higher cognitive demands should be permitted
only when the vehicle is stationary. Multimodal information should
be provided for all interaction points. Interfaces and alert systems
should be designed to accommodate a wide variety of users with
different sensory abilities. All redundant information sources should
be presented in a simple and standardised manner (Wolfgang &
Korydon, 2011). This consideration would include interactions be-
tween the user, vehicle and external environment, which may impact
the passenger's ability to approach the vehicle and could impact
boarding and disembarking (Steinfeld et al., 2020). One example of
this is the use of payment systems built into the vehicle, which may
impact the users' ability to board or depart the vehicle safely and
efciently. For tactile interfaces, controls should be situated in
visible and easy-to-reach locations whenever possible. Shi et al.
(2020), demonstrated the effectiveness of “tactile maps”for visually
impaired users in accessible transport design.
•Visual Interfaces: For visually based interfaces, the text should be
large, provided in an easy-to-read font and have high contrast with
the background. The design should consider the time required for
users to respond to alerts (Ferati et al., 2018). In research on hand-
over processes between the car and the driver, participants took, on
average, 6.9 s to become aware of visual alerts (Ferati et al., 2018).
Internationally recognised symbols should be used wherever
possible, and the system should allow for use in multiple languages
(Wolfgang &Korydon, 2011). For higher-level accessibility, the
design should allow users to select any option or feature using just
eye gaze wherever possible (Costa et al., 2018).
•Vocal and Auditory Interfaces: For vocal and auditory interfaces,
the user should be able to select any option or feature within the
vehicle using voice commands (Costa et al., 2018). Furthermore, the
design should provide redundant information in a form accessible to
users with hearing impairments whenever possible (Wolfgang &
Korydon, 2011). For voice-based communication, a female voice was
preferred in both English and non-English speaking countries (Ferati
et al., 2018).
•Interface Personalisation: To address the issue of overloading the
user with information, Ferati et al. (2018), proposed that the vehicle
design should allow users to personalise or customise their experi-
ence. This approach would allow users to select the interface mo-
dality that is most convenient or accessible to them. The
implementation of user proles has been suggested to avoid users
having to provide interface preferences each time they access the
vehicle. Instead, these systems could utilise devices such as the users'
smartphones, wearables, or Internet of Things (IoT) technologies to
store interface preferences. These types of systems could automati-
cally adapt the vehicle interface to specic users' needs. However,
safety should be considered over user preferences for information
modality. Ferati et al. (2018), argues that if a particular modality or
human sensory system works best in a given safety-critical situation,
then the information should be provided in that modality. This mo-
dality would depend on a given user's available sensory abilities.
Epting (2021), has argued that AV technologies should not be fully
automated, as vulnerable populations often require additional care
from vehicle operators to mitigate risks while using the vehicle and
during emergency situations. Epting employed care ethics advo-
cating for some human operators to be retained even within fully
autonomous vehicles to serve in care positions for PwDs.
3.5.8. Infrastructure
Another area of AV technology that impacts users' ability to access
this technology is the surrounding infrastructure. This area includes
transport hubs, terminals, vehicle platforms, roadside devices and toll-
booths, which should be designed to accommodate users with limited
reach and upper limb mobility (Wolfgang &Korydon, 2011). Wolfgang
and Korydon (2011), have provided recommendations to ensure a high
level of accessibility to surrounding infrastructure. Such as providing
mechanical loading systems when level changes cannot be removed and
eliminating the horizontal gap between platform and vehicle through
integral design or mechanical means.
3.5.9. Design strategies
Strickfaden and Langdon (2018), argue that an initial strategy for
more inclusive AV implementation is to design specialized vehicles for
different purposes or contexts. This approach would mean developing
designs around the needs of specic user groups, including working
persons, leisure drives, children, and PwDs. However, this presents an
issue if there is a class of vehicles specically designed for disabled users
as this may lead to limited AV access and fewer AVs available to these
users.
Dennis et al. (2021), suggest that any group trying to introduce AV
technologies into an environment should consider a trial period before
committing to large-scale deployment. Dennis et al. (2021), citing the
City of Las Vegas as a case study that successfully utilized this approach
found it helped alleviate negative and uncertain feelings towards AVs as
people could experience the capabilities of the technology and establish
trust before more substantial investment is made.
Petrovi´
c et al. (2022) argues that the attitudes, accessibility, and
trust of PwDs are crucial for successfully introducing AVs. Improving
transportation access and equity for people with disabilities is a key
challenge. AVs have potential, especially for non-drivers with disabil-
ities, but appropriate solutions are needed. This includes integrating AVs
into public transport with a focus on accessibility, reliability, and safety.
These aspects encompass the ease of vehicle utilization, effortless entry
and exit, the development of appropriate infrastructure, secure and
comfortable journeys, and the minimization of the likelihood of
encountering rare mechanical failures, hacking attacks, computer mal-
functions, and similar issues. To promote the principle of inclusion,
transportation stakeholders, vehicle manufacturers, and representative
associations of individuals with disabilities should collaborate closely.
4. Conclusion
In this systematic review, a detailed and comprehensive analysis was
conducted on a wide range of studies related to the accessible design of
AVs for people with disabilities (PwDs). Poor accessibility, as well as low
levels of mobility and sociability, amplify transport disadvantages for
PWDs (Golbabaei et al., 2020). Hence, accessible AVs offer a substantial
opportunity to enhance the quality of life for PwDs. This prompts the
inquiry of dening an “accessible AV”and identifying relevant literature
that could contribute to the development and production of such a
vehicle that effectively caters to the diverse needs of PwDs.
In addressing this challenge, a comprehensive systematic review was
conducted to examine the existing research landscape in this area. The
review encompassed a range of sources, including journal articles,
conference papers, white papers, reports, books, and news articles
relevant to informing the design of accessible AVs. The review took a
user-centred research lens in identifying sources to ensure the needs and
perspectives of PwDs as instrumental in informing accessible AV design
recommendations. Through the analysis a noticeable trend was identi-
ed (refer Table 2) with 86 % of paper identied being published within
the last eight years indicating a rising interest in the topic. An upward
trend in publications is expected, reecting the opportunity afforded by
autonomous vehicles for people with disabilities and a growing concern
surrounding accessible design for autonomous vehicles.
F. Golbabaei et al.
Cities 154 (2024) 105333
17
The study highlights key design requirements for PwDs, and outlines
recommendations for designing accessible AVs, emphasizing the
importance of addressing the entire user journey. It underscores the
signicance of user acceptance, accessibility, and trust in AVs, which are
crucial for successful adoption. The study also provides an overview of
PwDs' perspectives on AV technology which must be integrated into the
design process. It has been shown that there are conicting opinions
regarding the acceptance of autonomous vehicles (AVs) by PwDs. Some
research has shown that PwDs are not very interested in AVs, while
other studies have found that PwDs generally have a positive attitude
towards AVs. Additionally, they are willing to pay the same or more for
the use of AVs compared to current transportation options, if the vehi-
cles have the necessary accessibility and safety features. Studies also
have illustrated that accessibility tends to improve as the level of
vulnerability increases across different types of disabilities. It is worth
noting that individuals with disabilities experience even greater access
benets when vulnerability (the degree of disability or vulnerability of
these people when they interact with transportation systems) is high.
The review identies several factors that could affect user accep-
tance, such as the level of automation, passenger compartment design,
and user interface. Additionally, the paper outlines challenges and
barriers to designing and developing accessible AVs, including the
absence of a universally accepted denition of accessibility, the need for
comprehensive legislation, and the lack of standardised testing
procedures.
To overcome these challenges, the paper proposes fostering part-
nerships among academia, industry, and PwD organisations. Overall,
this review provides valuable insights and guidance for the design of
accessible autonomous vehicles catering to the needs of people with
disabilities. The paper emphasizes the importance of a comprehensive
approach that considers various types of PwDs and different levels of trip
stages related to the user journey and the design process, including: (1)
Pre-trip Concierge (Information System Design), (2) Waynding and
Navigation (Accessible Infrastructure Design), and (3) Robotics and
Automation (Vehicle Design). Key design elements include doorways,
ramps, seating, securement systems, interior layout, interfaces and in-
teractions, and infrastructure. Moreover, the study has emphasized the
signicance of employing multimodal outputs in the design of vehicle
interiors. This includes multimodal interfaces, visual interfaces, vocal
and auditory interfaces, and personalized interface systems, all of which
serve to provide users with easily accessible information. In general, it is
essential to consider a trial period before implementing large-scale
autonomous vehicles (AVs) and to explore subsidizing AV fares for
people with disabilities (PwDs). Additionally, designing specialized ve-
hicles for different purposes or contexts is crucial for fostering social
inclusion and ensuring accessibility.
5. Future research
The systematic review indicates that available recommendations for
accessible AV design primarily consist of high-level principles, with only
a few sources providing specic details that could inform the develop-
ment of an accessible AV prototype or its interior features. Moreover,
design elements such as vehicle ooring, interior layout, and seating,
often rely on data from existing private vehicles and public transport
agencies which are becoming outdated. Likewise, the sustainability for
accessible AVs needs to be considered, as most current prototypes are
based on modied platforms of existing vehicles without taking into
account the lifecycle of the assets and their environmental impacts
(Zhang et al., 2023) as well as their interactions with other relevant
systems (Paz et al., 2013). Similarly, considering the broad range of
competing objectives involved in the design and deployment of acces-
sible AVs, exploring the development of a multi-objective optimization
framework to assist (Beeramoole et al., 2024) with decision-making is
recommended.
There is a clear need for more extensive research in this area.
Specically, surveys and prototypes targeting PwDs' needs and co-
design studies involving PwDs and vehicle designers are necessary to
explore design opportunities and constraints. Such research will lay the
foundation for establishing specic parameters that can directly inform
the design of an accessible AV capable of accommodating the diverse
needs of PwDs. This is especially crucial in the context of rapidly aging
populations, such as in Australia.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Fahimeh Golbabaei: Writing –original draft, Investigation, Formal
analysis, Data curation. James Dwyer: Writing –original draft, Inves-
tigation, Data curation. Rafael Gomez: Writing –review &editing,
Supervision, Resources, Investigation, Formal analysis. Andrew Peter-
son: Writing –review &editing, Investigation, Formal analysis,
Conceptualization. Kevin Cocks: Supervision, Funding acquisition,
Conceptualization. Alexander Paz: Writing –review &editing, Re-
sources, Project administration, Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following nancial interests/personal re-
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Alexander Paz reports nancial support was provided by Queensland
Department of Transport and Main Roads.
Data availability
All data is available online through publications
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the “Transport Academic Partnership”
between the Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads and
the Queensland University of Technology.
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