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Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge from Ethiopia’s Ancient Cultural Heritages

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Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to reclaim and unlock heritage knowledge related to the secular value of time and labor from a sample Ethiopian ancient Ge’ez parchment manuscript. We claim that Ethiopia’s ancient Ge’ez parchment manuscripts could be a source of heritage knowledge if systematically studied. We conducted an extensive and intensive survey to identify and select relevant ancient Ge’ez parchment manuscripts from ancient churches and monasteries in Tigray, Ethiopia. We selected one Ge’ez parchment manuscript for content analysis related to secular value time and another Ge’ez parchment manuscript for the secular value of labor and work ethics. Content analysis and interpretation including language translation from Ge’ez to Tigrinya and English was used as a method of heritage knowledge extraction, as were unlocking approaches from the selected sample Ge’ez parchment manuscripts. Digital content was also produced in order to have access to the digital content, which facilitates further content analysis. A critical evaluation of the physical condition of the sample manuscripts including their palaeography, folios, marginalia, and provenance was made in order to establish their relative age and credibility. From our content analysis, we extract and unlock valuable information and heritage knowledge domains related to the secular value of time and labor. The striking aspect in this study is that the sources of such heritage knowledge are the ancient Ge’ez manuscripts preserved for centuries in religious institutions like ancient churches and monasteries. These sources of heritage knowledge could be easily accepted by Christian farmers to address and solve their earthly problems. We, therefore, assert that the analysis of manuscripts democratizes access to knowledge, making historical collections accessible to a broader audience. Therefore, this current research paper extends the scope of previous studies from merely identifying preservation challenges and making ancient manuscripts accessible through digitization to conducting content analysis, unlocking relevant heritage knowledge domains, and disseminating the knowledge as well as preventing the loss of valuable heritage knowledge. Finally, we suggest making a paradigm shift from preserving heritage for its own sake to focusing on heritage knowledge transfer and education. This is mainly because we currently stand at a crossroads, facing a dilemma between valuing and utilizing heritage on one hand and ensuring its sustainable preservation on the other.
Gezae Haile*
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage
Knowledge from Ethiopias Ancient Cultural
Heritages
https://doi.org/10.1515/libri-2024-0047
Received April 13, 2024; accepted August 12, 2024;
published online October 31, 2024
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to reclaim and unlock
heritage knowledge related to the secular value of time and
labor from a sample Ethiopian ancient Geez parchment
manuscript. We claim that Ethiopias ancient Geez parch-
ment manuscripts could be a source of heritage knowledge if
systematically studied. We conducted an extensive and
intensive survey to identify and select relevant ancient Geez
parchment manuscripts from ancient churches and mon-
asteries in Tigray, Ethiopia. We selected one Geez parch-
ment manuscript for content analysis related to secular
value time and another Geez parchment manuscript for the
secular value of labor and work ethics. Content analysis and
interpretation including language translation from Geez to
Tigrinya and English was used as a method of heritage
knowledge extraction, as were unlocking approaches from
the selected sample Geez parchment manuscripts. Digital
content was also produced in order to have access to the
digital content, which facilitates further content analysis. A
critical evaluation of the physical condition of the sample
manuscripts including their palaeography, folios, margi-
nalia, and provenance was made in order to establish their
relative age and credibility. From our content analysis, we
extract and unlock valuable information and heritage
knowledge domains related to the secular value of time and
labor. The striking aspect in this study is that the sources of
such heritage knowledge are the ancient Geez manuscripts
preserved for centuries in religious institutions like ancient
churches and monasteries. These sources of heritage knowl-
edge could be easily accepted by Christian farmers to address
and solve their earthly problems. We, therefore, assert that
the analysis of manuscripts democratizes access to knowl-
edge, making historical collections accessible to a broader
audience. Therefore, this current research paper extends
the scope of previous studies from merely identifying
preservation challenges and making ancient manuscripts
accessible through digitization to conducting content
analysis, unlocking relevant heritage knowledge domains,
and disseminating the knowledge as well as preventing the
loss of valuable heritage knowledge. Finally, we suggest
making a paradigm shift from preserving heritage for its
own sake to focusing on heritage knowledge transfer and
education. This is mainly because we currently stand at a
crossroads, facing a dilemma between valuing and utilizing
heritage on one hand and ensuring its sustainable preser-
vation on the other.
Keywords: unlocking; heritage knowledge; Geez parchment
manuscript; content analysis; Tigray; Ethiopia
1 Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to unlock heritage knowledge
related to the secular value of time and labor from a sample
Ethiopian ancient Geez parchment manuscript. In this
introductory section, we provide a global context rst and
then narrow down to the specic local context of Ethiopia in
order to give our readers a comprehensive understanding of
the value of cultural heritage, specically to two rare Geez
parchment manuscripts that we used in this paper as sour-
ces of heritage knowledge related to the secular value of time
and labor.
Cultural heritage knowledge is a broad concept. It en-
compasses a group of resources inherited from the past
which people identify as a reection and expression of their
constantly evolving values, beliefs, knowledge, and tradi-
tions, regardless of ownership (Cornelia and Mikhail 2013).
When it comes to the value of heritage, two dominant types
are identied among others: intrinsic and instrumental. The
intrinsic value of heritage deals with the collective memory
of society while the instrumental value relates to its social
and economic implications. Cultural heritage mirrors a
communitys history, traditions, and shared experiences. It
provides a sense of identity and continuity. By preserving
heritage sites, artifacts, and practices, societies honor their
past and pass on knowledge to future generations. Heritage
knowledge fosters a sense of belonging, social cohesion, and
inclusion. It unites people and transcending dierences. For
*Corresponding author: Gezae Haile, History and Heritage Management,
Mekelle University, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia,
E-mail: gezae1996@yahoo.com
LIBRI 2024; 74(4): 349367
Open Access. © 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
instance, cultural events, festivals, and rituals create op-
portunities for social interaction, promoting unity and
understanding (Anderson 2009). Heritage also has a positive
economic impact. Well-preserved heritage sites attract
tourists, generating revenue and creating jobs. It also pre-
serves ancient knowledge and skills in craftsmanship that
spark further innovation in technologies. Traditional crafts
and artisanal skills contribute to local economies. Museums,
archives, and libraries preserve cultural artifacts. Cultural
heritage sites serve as educational resources for schools and
researchers. Heritage education instills a sense of pride and
curiosity, encouraging lifelong learning (Saraswati 2013).
The knowledge embedded in cultural heritage often includes
sustainable practices. Protecting natural heritage contrib-
utes to ecological balance and resilience, thereby promoting
environmental stewardship. Cultural heritage bridges gen-
erations, reinforcing community bonds and ensuring conti-
nuity. Therefore, cultural heritage knowledge is not just
about the past; it shapes our present and future (Byrne 2008).
By recognizing its value, societies can safeguard their unique
legacies and promote well-being for all. Many heritage
sources emphasize that the generation of knowledge is an
indispensable feature of the heritage sector (Cornelia and
Mikhail 2013).
So far, I have aimed to introduce readers to the general
and global context of the value of cultural heritage. Now, let
me introduce the local and specic heritage wealth and
value of Ethiopia. Alessandro (2005) chronologically catego-
rizes the earliest evidence of Ethiopias literary cultural
heritage into inscriptions, coin legends, and texts inscribed
on parchment manuscripts. Ethiopia has its own writing
system which is known as Geez Fidel.
1
It is perhaps one of the
most signicant indigenous intellectual endeavors under-
taken in Africa south of the Sahara (Ayele 1997). Among the
cultural heritage of Ethiopia, parchment manuscript heri-
tage is arguably one of the greatest heritage assets of the
country. This is partly because manuscripts are the ancient
relics considered as tangible results of the written evidence
of the history of record keeping that still exists in Ethiopia.
The use of the codex, a type of book made of folded parch-
ment leaves, seems to have been a signicant part of
Ethiopias manuscript culture. It is fascinating to learn that
these codices were written in Geez, an ancient language also
known as Ethiopic. In terms of their age, the Garima man-
uscripts, named after the Abba Garima Monastery in Adua,
Tigray, are particularly noteworthy. As per radiocarbon
dating, Garima I is believed to date back to AD 530660, while
Garima III is even older, dating back to AD 330650 (Jacopo
2017). These manuscripts are not only valuable for their age
but also for the wealth of heritage knowledge they contain in
various elds, which highlights the rich and diverse heritage
of Ethiopia and the importance of preserving these ancient
manuscripts for future generations. They provide a unique
insight into the countrys historical, cultural, and intellectual
traditions. The production of ancient manuscripts tran-
scends mere transcription; it is an act of preservation,
communication, and enlightenment (Ayele 1997).
When communities feel a sense of ownership, they
actively care for their cultural heritage and the knowledge it
contains. Local communities are at the heart of heritage
value. Their active engagement ensures that cultural leg-
acies thrive and continue to enrich their lives. However, it
has been observed that there is a clear knowledge gap
regarding the relevance of heritage as a source of knowledge
that contributes to solving current societal problems. For
instance, Haile (2024) identies a clear knowledge gap in the
secular value of time and labor among the Christian farmers
of Tigray, Ethiopia. The impact of this knowledge gap on their
economic activities is immense. Arguably, such a knowledge
gap could be addressed by reclaiming and deciphering heri-
tage knowledge from ancient cultural heritages, as ancient
knowledge sparks new ideas that are applicable to present
situations. Considering the time and situations under which
they were produced, it can be deduced that Ethiopia ancient
Geez manuscripts are rich sources of cultural, social, polit-
ical, and economic information in addition to their artistic
and religious signicance. For instance, churches and mon-
asteries played dual roles in the production and preservation
of parchment manuscripts, serving both as knowledge car-
riers and custodians of heritage. These manuscripts contained
a wealth of information, both religious and secular, written by
scribes. Sources also indicate that ancient manuscripts are a
source of knowledge that can support our eorts in studying,
knowing, understanding, and then presenting the develop-
ment of the nations culture (Clark 2008; Harrison 2010a, 2012).
In this paper, an attempt is made to decipher heritage
knowledge from two of Ethiopias ancient Geez parchment
manuscripts, namely, Bahire Hasab and Gadala Ahaw. Below
we introduce the background information and physical
description of these two manuscripts as follows.
1.1 Gadala Ahaw: Background Information
The Geez term Gadala Ahawliterally translates to the
acts of brothers,referring to individuals with similar
ideologies and doctrines. The Gadala Ahawmanuscript
1Until the eighteenth century Geez was the ocial language in the
northern highland of Ethiopia and was also known as the language of a
book. Today, Geez is not a spoken language but it continues to be the
language of liturgy.
350 G. Haile
details the actions of a group known as the Stephanites who
emerged in the monasteries of Tigray, Ethiopia, in the f-
teenth century AD (Kaplan 1984, 4144). The movement was
named after a monk, Abba Estifanos, who initiated this
reformation within the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, pri-
marily in Tigray. The primary objective of the Stephanite
movement was to instigate transformation within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian state. Abba
Estifanos organized his teachings into a doctrine and his
followers into a distinct sect. The Gadala Ahawmanu-
script, written in Geez, provides various accounts, from
Abba Estifanoss childhood and his reformation movement
to the persecutions faced by the Stephanites in the fteenth
century. However, this paper focuses solely on the content
analysis of Abba EstifanossReformation Ideasand their
relevance to the secular values of labor and work ethics.
1.2 A Brief Biography of Abba Estifanos, the
Reformist
Our primary objective in studying the Gadala Ahaw Geez
manuscript is to glean insights from the legacy of Abba
Estifanos, to whom the manuscript is dedicated. We thus
believe it is essential to provide readers with a brief
biography of Abba Estifanos which was obtained directly
from the Gadala Ahaw manuscript itself. Abba (Father)
Estifanos was an Ethiopian monk renowned for his refor-
mation movement within the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian
Church in the fteenth century. Born in 1380 in Tigray,
Ethiopia, his given name was Hedge Anbesawhich trans-
lates to reminiscent of a lion.This moniker was a tribute to
his father, a well-known combatant soldier nicknamed the
lion.While studying at church, Estifanos was sanctied as a
deacon by Abune Bartalomiwos at the age of 18. He subse-
quently joined the Qoyetsa Monastery of Abba Samuel in the
Shire region of Tigray. It was here that he became a priest
and then a monk at the age of 30. Following this, his name
was changed from Hedge Anbesa to Abba Estifanos.
Abba Estifanos continued his service to the church by
transitioning from one monastery to another. Despite his
eorts he found neither satisfaction nor peace of mind. This
led Abba Estifanos to reect on the teachings of Lord Jesus
Christ concerning salvation for all humanity. He began to
instruct on the Scriptures and the enigma of salvation,
ceasing to practice the centuries-old rituals and worship
methods adopted by the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian
Church. He started to transcribe his teachings into a doctrine
and to replicate the Scriptures, distributing them to various
monasteries to address the scarcity of Bible manuscripts. He
assembled a group of individuals to aid in the propagation of
his new ideology on the nature of God as depicted in the
Bible, which came to be known as the Stephanite Movement,
a name derived from the movements leader, Abba Estifanos.
In his new doctrine, Abba Estifanos expressed opposition to
the worldly ways of the monks and priests. He criticized the
act of bowing down to the king and other high-ranking
ocials. He rejected the assertion of Ethiopian rulers being
descendants of King Solomon of Israel and their association
with the Solomonic Dynasty. He ceased the worship of
images of Saints, angels, and rulers.
Abba Estifanosteachings and doctrine garnered a
signicant following. However, his new doctrine also incited
strong opposition from other monks in the Orthodox Church
and from King Zara Yaqob (r.14341468). Abba Estifanos and
his followers were accused of heresy for deviating from the
Orthodox Christian Churchs norms. State rulers also leveled
many accusations against him for his refusal to bow before
the king. Additional sources suggest that Abba Estifanos
new doctrine and lifestyle were the causes of his persecution
and ultimately his death (Kaplan 1984, 4144; Teweldebirhan
2019). Interestingly, a story told by the local people describes
an event said to have occurred during Abba Estifanosdeath.
The story, which is said to have been written in the Orthodox
Church devotional book called Teamere Mariam (The Mir-
acles of Mary) by the order of King Zara Yaqob, states that
after Abba Estifanos was killed for his actions, St. Mary and
God sent down a glowing light expressing their contentment.
This light was said to have shone on a mountain, which was
subsequently named Debra Birhan (the mount of light).
The followers of Abba Estifanos were subjected to
frequent beatings and persecutions. It is widely believed that
these followers, known as Daqiqe Estifanos (children or
followers of Estifanos), relocated to the present-day Gunda
Gundo Monastery to evade the regular harassment from the
kings of medieval Ethiopia. The Gunda Gundo Monastery is
commonly believed to have been established by the Daqiqe
Estifanos. Since its inception, the monastery has served as a
sanctuary for both people and cultural heritages. It is likely
due to this protective role that we discovered the Gadala
Ahaw manuscript within the connes of the Gunda Gundo
Monastery.
1.3 Bahire Hssab: Background Information
This manuscript is recognized by two alternative names,
Bahire Hasaband Abushakir.In Ethiopia it is a common
tradition to name an object to show respect or to express
curiosity about the object or the meaning it carries. The
rst name of the manuscript is dedicated to John Abush-
akir. According to local informants, John Abushakir was a
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 351
prominent mathematics teacher in the Ethiopian Orthodox
Christian Church (information provided by Yared Kassa, a
distinguished scholar in the church education of Tigray,
Ethiopia). John Abushakir arrived in Ethiopia with a group of
Christian missionaries from the Coptic Church in Alexan-
dria, Egypt, at some point in ancient times. The manuscript is
believed to have been written by Ethiopian church scholars,
and upon its completion they dedicated it to the well-known
teacher, John Abushakir. Other sources also suggest that Abu
Shakir was a deacon of the Mu Allaqa Church in Cairo during
the mid-thirteenth century A.D (Pingree and Shakers 1991,
166). Pingree (ibid.) also noted that the Ethiopic text, the
Abushakir manuscript,which consists of 59 chapters, was
studied by Neugebauer under the title Abushakir Chro-
nographyin Ethiopic (Geez) sources. Pingree and Shakers
(1991, 166) further suggested that the translation of this
Chronographyinto Geez might have been completed in
1318/19 A.D. Conversely, its second name, Bahire Hasab,is
linked to the concept of in-depth thought.In both Geez and
Tigriyna,thewordBahiretranslates to Oceanand Hasab
refers to thought. Therefore, Bahire Hasabsymbolizes a
thought as deep and vast as an ocean. This suggests that the
creation of a calendar and the mathematics involved require
profound and extensive thought.
2 Problem Statement and
Theoretical Setting
In this current study, we argue that there are deep-seated
social problems in Tigray that can only be understood by the
free ow of and access to relevant information and can only
be solved by the use of relevant local heritage knowledge
that relates to the true nature of the social problems at local
level. It is well known that more than 80 per cent of the
Ethiopian population lives in rural areas with agriculture as
their main economic occupation. Their economy is based on
subsistence rain fed farming that requires extensive labor
and a substantial amount of time. Not only is the subsistence
agriculture dependent on seasonal rainfall but the farmers
are also dependent on seasonal food aid from charity orga-
nizations from Western world. However, it is observed that
farmers, for instance, invest little time in their agricultural
activities because they observe many religious holidays,
meaning their allocation time negates economic activities. At
this juncture, it can be argued that the people lack knowl-
edge on the secular value of time and labor. In this regard,
Selamawit and Hoot (2006, 8185) articulate that if human
beings do not know what they need and do not strive to get it,
the reason is in the social or institutional environment, not
in human nature.
In spite of the recent eorts of the Ethiopian govern-
ment to reduce poverty in Ethiopia, the country faces
widespread poverty (Annys et al. 2021). This circumstance
indicates that there is still much to work on to eradicate
poverty and ultimately uplift the life standards of Ethiopian
society. It is generally known that we live in a globalized
world where physical realities and the material world have
gained high value and importance in the daily life of human
beings (Cladellas 2009). These physical realities and the ma-
terial world work under the rule of survival of the ttest,in
other words, the globalized world opens a competitive market
where knowledge and time become the main tools for sur-
vival and economic growth. For instance, recent literature
stresses that knowledge is by far the most important tool to
mitigate the challenges of poverty and illiteracy (Dutton
2004). In this case, sucient knowledge is needed on the
nature of secular life in general and the secular value of time
and work in particular.
If knowledge is the answer for the societal problem in
the twenty-rst century, then what is the problem?
We argue that the problem lies in the lack of quality
information and relevant knowledge.
In the twenty-rst century, the rapid advancement of
technology has led to an information and knowledge
explosion. However, not all information and knowledge are
created equal; the problem lies in the lack of quality infor-
mation and knowledge. Quality information and knowledge
should be directly relevant to the situation at hand, should
provide value in decision-making or problem-solving, and
should be presented in a format that is easy to understand
and use. It should be accessible to those who need it and be
pertinent to the local context (Haile 2024). Finally, informa-
tion and knowledge should be credible and trustworthy. The
lack of such quality information can lead to a range of so-
cietal problems, including poor decision-making, increased
vulnerability to misinformation, and a lack of empowerment
in individuals and communities. Therefore, eorts should be
made to improve the quality of information available to
people, taking into account their local contexts and needs.
This could involve improving education systems, promoting
media literacy, and enhancing the accessibility and reli-
ability of information sources. In this way, knowledge or
more specically, quality information can indeed be a
solution to many societal problems in the twenty-rst
century.
Despite rapid innovation in Information and Commu-
nication Technologies (ICTs) providing faster and more
versatile access to an abundance of information, access to
352 G. Haile
quality information remains a fundamental issue in todays
global information market. ICTs are not producers of infor-
mation; they are tools that facilitate the exchange of infor-
mation for various purposes. As Ballantyne (2002) argues,
the ease of access to globalized knowledge is quickly turning
us into consumersof distant and potentially irrelevant
information. Consequently, local societies in developing
countries, such as Ethiopia, are being inundated with foreign
ideas and values. These are often irrelevant to addressing
local issues and they risk destabilizing local cultural heri-
tages and indigenous knowledge. One of the key strengths of
new ICTs, like the Internet, is their ability to unlock distant
expertise, knowledge, and markets (Dutton 2004). However,
this access, usually linked with a foreign perspective, has its
limitations in addressing specic local issues (Haile 2024).
In other words, information should not be imposed from
above, whether from the church or the state. Mennasemay
(2009, 64) characterizes the lack of relevant information in a
society as a knowledge crisis.Mennasemay argues that the
crisis of modernization in Ethiopia stems from this knowl-
edge crisis and the concept of modernization, and that
modernization in Ethiopiarefers to the imported model of
modernization that has been imposed on a society without
its active involvement and commitment. In contrast, the
modernization of Ethiopiarefers to a type of modernization
that evolves within the existing context of Ethiopian society
and can only be achieved through the active involvement of
its citizens. To overcome this crisis, a shift from the current
pursuit of modernization in Ethiopiato the moderniza-
tion of Ethiopiais necessary. However, modernizing
Ethiopia from within, essentially from its own capacity and
existing situation, requires the construction of an informa-
tion and knowledge society. Therefore, to help society
become conscious and questioning, access to valid local
information and local heritage knowledge is indispensable.
In this regard, reclaiming and unlocking heritage knowledge
is essential.
In this study, we argue that the deep-seated social
problems in Tigray can only be understood and solved
through the free ow of and access to relevant information
and the use of local heritage knowledge that aligns with the
true nature of social problems at the local level. It is widely
recognized that local sources can serve as catalysts for the
revival of knowledge and the development of cultural
industries. Furthermore, Ethiopian history provides the
intellectual resources necessary for cultivating a self-
questioning society. This could lead to the development of
an Ethiopian critique, capable of guiding a liberation-driven
modernization of Ethiopia (Mennasemay 2009). We also
maintain that Ethiopias ancient Geez manuscripts contain
local knowledge that is relevant for enhancing peoples un-
derstanding of secular life in general and the secular value of
time and work in particular.
Considering the time and situations under which they
were produced, it can be deduced that Ethiopian ancient
Geez manuscripts are rich sources of cultural, social, political,
and economic information in addition to their artistic and
religioussignicance. For instance, churches andmonasteries
played dual roles in the production and preservation of
parchment manuscripts, serving both as knowledge carriers
and custodians of heritage. These manuscripts contained a
wealth of information, both religious and secular, written by
scribes. Rulers and kings often relied on these scribes to
document their stories, deeds, and achievements. The
scribes were creators of knowledge, bridging the gap
between the masses and the rulers. They wrote about both
secular and religious matters, demonstrating that the
objective of manuscript production was not solely religious.
From the beginning there was an intention to introduce
secular knowledge alongside religious teachings for various
reasons. Furthermore, the church was a center for secular
education. Children were taught to read and write and the
calendar was used as a tool for teaching. This further argues
against the idea that the sole purpose of manuscript pro-
duction and the information they contained was religious. In
fact, these manuscripts were a rich source of secular infor-
mation and knowledge. In this regard, Elias (1991, 31), in his
symbol of theory book, states that,
The mode of intergenerational transmission of experiences is no
mystery. Ancestral experiences can be deposited in the concepts of
language and can thus be handed on through a line of generations
of considerable length. The sequential order of generational ex-
periences itself can have considerable signicance for the pattern
of experience transmitted from generation to generation.
To further substantiate our argument, we have adopted
two theories: heritagizationand present-centeredness.
The heritagizationprocess underscores an analysis of
how contemporary societies use the past, what they forget,
remember, memorize, and fake, and who is considered as
an heir (Graham, Ashworth, and Tunbridge 2000; Howard
2003; Silverman 2014; Smith 2006; Thouki 2008). The theory
of heritagization posits that the concept of heritage is not
static but rather a process. This processual understanding of
heritage making, ltered through collection, interpretation,
institutionalization, commodication, and protection, is
central to the theory. In essence, the theory of Heritagiza-
tionprovides a framework for understanding how heritage
functions in societies, the relationship between heritage and
power, and how heritage is used and interpreted in the
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 353
present. On the other hand, the theory of present-
centeredness elaborates that heritage, in whatever form it
manifests, is intrinsically related to present circumstances
(Hardy 1988; Harrison 2012; Harvey 2001). The relationship
with the past is understood in relation to our current
temporal and spatial experiences. Drawing from these
theoretical frameworks, we assert that heritage has always
been a part of our lives and we can generate heritage
knowledge that aligns with our contemporary concerns
and experiences.
While various literatures describe the presence of a
large number of ancient manuscript collections scattered
across numerous ancient monasteries and churches in
Tigray, Ethiopia (Ayele 1997; Haile 2018; Uhlig 1990; Ullen-
dor1960), there is very little information on how relevant
knowledge can be unlocked through translation and inter-
pretation endeavors. Regarding accessibility to the physical
manuscripts, Haile (2024) has attempted to develop a local-
ized digital solution to make accessible the digital content of
the ancient Geez manuscripts. However, research focused
on unlocking relevant knowledge from these ancient Geez
manuscript collections through translation and interpreta-
tion endeavors is hard to nd.
The worst-case scenario regarding the ancient Geez
manuscript collections scattered across ancient churches
and monasteries is their poor state of physical preservation.
Given the manuscriptsrelevance to society, their preser-
vation and survival are at stake as they are exposed to nat-
ural and cultural agents of change (Haile 2018). The lack of
systematic documentation and knowledge archiving of these
ancient Geez manuscripts contributes to the loss of histor-
ical records and texts, disrupting the education and knowl-
edge system. This situation makes it harder to preserve and
maintain the comprehensive transfer of knowledge through
centuries and across generations.
Therefore, this current research paper extends the
scope of previous studies which have primarily focused on
preservation challenges (Haile 2018) and bridging the digital
gap by digitizing content and making it accessible through
localized digital solutions (Haile 2024). This research aims to
reclaim and unlock the knowledge contained in ancient
Geez manuscripts, preventing the loss of valuable knowl-
edge domains.
We conclude our problem statement by further elabo-
rating on our concerns, assumptions, and considerations
regarding the existing knowledge gap as well as emphasizing
the importance of cultural heritage as a source of heritage
knowledge that is applicable to the local context. Our
concern has been the existence of a knowledge gap con-
cerning the value of secular time and labor, as their
understanding is often conned to the religious value of time.
We also assume that this religious use of time and the
resulting knowledge gap can negatively impact the farmers
economic activities and living conditions. We argue that the
locally developed knowledge, reected in literary heritages,
could be used to improve farmersattitude towards the
secular value of time.This knowledge can serve as a resource,
with the striking aspect that the sources of such knowledge
are the religious manuscripts preserved for centuries in
religious institutions like churches and monasteries (Haile
2018, 2024). These could be easily accepted by Christian
farmers to address and solve their earthly problems.
Considering the vast collection of manuscript heritages and
the circumstances underwhich they have been preserved and
passed down to the present day, we believe that such a heri-
tage collection could serve as a source of knowledge appli-
cable to the present day. Practically, these manuscripts could
also be used to improve peoples attitudes towards the secular
value of time and labor. Therefore, reclaiming and unlocking
the knowledge contained in these manuscript heritages is a
timely and important research agenda.
In this study, we conducted a content analysis of two of
Ethiopias ancient Geez parchment manuscripts, with our
aim to develop heritage knowledge on the secular value of
time and labor. The manuscripts we analyzed were:
(1) Gaddla Ahaw Geez parchment manuscript
(2) Bahire Hasab Geez parchment manuscript
The techniques and processes we used for content analysis,
as well as the knowledge domain that we developed, will be
presented in the following sections.
3 Objectives
The general objective of this paper is to unlock heritage
knowledge from Ethiopias ancient Geez parchment man-
uscripts and improve the level of diusion of digital cultural
heritage knowledge/knowledge transfer among the Chris-
tian farmers of Tigray, Ethiopia.
The specic objectives of this paper are to:
conduct content analysis and decipher heritage knowl-
edge related to the secular value of time and labor,
improve public access to digital heritage knowledge that
is applicable to the present social situations,
draw the attention of the public to value, valorize, and
preserve its cultural heritage, and
encourage memory institutions to make a paradigm
shift from preservation heritage for heritage for its own
sake to knowledge transfer and education purpose.
354 G. Haile
4 Methods of the Study
4.1 Heritage Content Selection
Our content selection for heritage knowledge extraction
stems from the problem that we identied earlier, that there
has been a clear knowledge gap in the secular value of time
and labor among the Christian farmers of Tigray, Ethiopia
(Haile 2024). From the extensive and intensive survey we
searched for heritage contents that can be seen as a source of
knowledge for the problem identied and claim that Ethio-
pias ancient Geez parchment manuscripts could be sources
of heritage knowledge if systematically studied. We selected
one Geez parchment manuscript for content analysis
related to secular value time, and another Geez parchment
manuscript for the secular value of labor and work ethics.
Accordingly, we identied these two manuscripts for our
purpose:
(1) Bahire Hassab Geez parchment manuscript
(2) Gaddla Ahaw Geez parchment manuscript
However, during our survey period we found that there are
several manuscripts that are similar to what we selected for
content analysis. Since our objective is to undertake content
analysis from the most ancient manuscripts in the relevant
genres, we used several techniques to choose the oldest and
ancient genres from among those available:
subject matter and provenance
chronological and geographical context
relative age and credibility
palaeographic and linguistic development
marginalia and colophon
In this study we do not establish dates with absolute preci-
sion as this work requires carbon dating. Instead, we used
relative dating to place each manuscript in the appropriate
time period in the history of manuscript production in
Ethiopia. Relative dating works based on how information
ows from older times and texts to newer ones, and how
information from more recent times can be incorporated
into older texts (Davis-Hale 2007, 2327). It also takes into
account paleographic and linguistic developments. In this
context, it is necessary to dene and illustrate a principle on
how more recent information can be incorporated into older
texts. For instance, when a culture has a very old document,
a more modern reader might nd certain aspects of the old
document dicult to understand. Therefore, certain modi-
cations to the oldest text may be made to help the more
modern reader understand it. Also, if the old text references
geography unknown to a modern audience, the copier might
update these geographic references. Similarly, in an old text
the grammar might be archaic, so a more modern copier
might update the grammar. Other steps might also be taken
to update an older text to ensure that a modern audience can
understand it. Moreover, modern issues and concerns, un-
known in the time of the ancient document, might be added
while copying or omitting some phrases or paragraphs.
Equally important is to dene how information can ow
forward in time. If a culture has an old document available,
newer texts can and will draw information from the old
document. This forward information ow is especially heavy
when the text is central to a cultures history, religion, and
legal background. But it is noteworthy that although almost
all the information in an old document has the potential to
ow into newer documents, in practice only a limited
amount of information will do this. Paleographic develop-
ment over time, such as changes in language, writing style,
size of letters, etc., are also important issues to consider
while making a relative date assessment.
Below we present the methods and techniques we used
to select one Bahire Hasab manuscript from among similar
genres and one Gadala Ahaw manuscript from among
similar genres.
(1) Bahire Hassab Geez Parchment Manuscript and its
Selection Processes
Regarding provenance and genre, we have discovered three
Geez manuscripts titled Bahire Hasab from two monasteries
in Tigray, Ethiopia. Two manuscripts, referred to as MS G1
and MS G2, are from the Gunda Gundo Monastery, and the
third manuscript, referred to as MS M1, is from the Medhine
Alem (Saviour of the World) monastery. Manuscripts are
handwritten texts that can be easily altered or modied
during copying. Therefore, it is essential for a researcher to
have accessto more than one manuscript for various reasons,
such as determining the relative age of a specic manuscript,
supplementing missing, omitted, or altered content, and
observing the trends inthe change and continuity of the ideas
within the manuscript.
4.2 Physical Description
The Abushakir Geez manuscript is a handwritten document
in the form of a codex. The manuscript was written in the
Geez language. Some descriptions in the marginalia are in
the Amharic language but these were added later. Parch-
ment, a well-treated and rened animal skin, was used as the
writing material. Both the parchment and the ink used for
writing are locally sourced and prepared. The inks
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 355
commonly observed are red and black. The red ink was
primarily used for the names of God and saints and for
special notes in the tables and footnotes (marginalia). In
contrast, black ink was used to write the entire contents of
the manuscript.
The original parchment manuscripts appear to have
been covered by a wooden board and leather. However,
these covers are now in a poor state of preservation. The
dimensions of the manuscripts are as follows: MS G1 mea-
sures 21.8 ×16.3 cm, MS G2 measures 16.8 ×15.9 cm, and MS
M1 measures 22 ×16.6 cm. MS G1 contains 74 folios, MS G2
contains 35 folios, and MS M1 contains 51 folios. MS G1 fea-
tures 34 illustrated tables decorated in red and black ink and
ve illuminations, while MS M1 has 26 illustrated tables and
six illuminated pages. Due to missing and torn out folios, the
total number of pages and illustrations may not be complete.
For instance, in MS G1, four folios are missing and half of the
16 folios are torn out. Both manuscripts exhibit damage on
the cover page, binding, leaves, and words.
The page layout and style of writing are additional
physical features of the manuscripts. The pages are not
numbered with Geez numerals, but there are page
numerals written in Arabic numerals, which are dierent
from Geez and appear to be later additions. All the manu-
scripts feature decorations and tables. For instance, MS G1
and MS M1 include a depiction of a solar system, represented
as a circle with a cross-like gure. In MS M1, there is an
image of a man (possibly Jesus?) depicted from the neck up,
with his hands stretched out from within the circle, possibly
symbolizing the solar system or time calculation. The mans
nailed legs are shown at the bottom of the picture. Regarding
the writing style, MS G1 was written with relatively large
letters, while MS G2 and MS M1 were written with medium-
sized letters. All manuscripts have spaces between the lines
and the pages were written in two columns. There are also
word dividers represented by two dots. The penmanship of
the manuscript is generally clear, with some exceptions.
4.3 Palaeography, Folios, and Marginalia
Paleography serves as one of the measures for determining
the age of a manuscript, encompassing both the physical
material and the text. The evaluation criteria employed are
those established by Uhlig (1990) and Bausi, Gori, and Lusini
(2014). The paleography of the manuscripts appears to be
quite ancient, likely dating from the fteenth to the seven-
teenth century. However, each manuscript varies in age. The
paleography of MS G1 and MS G2 appears older than that of
MS M1. Similarly, MS G1 seems older than MS G2. A single
manuscript could exhibit paleographic dierences due to
the writer or the age which implies that if a manuscript is
written by two or more individuals there will inevitably be
some degree of paleographic variation. Another possibility is
that dierent sections of the manuscript could have been
written at dierent times. For example, if a person began
writing a manuscript and stopped midway for various rea-
sons, the remaining part might be completed years later.
Regardless of the reason, the physical material is older than
the text of the manuscripts. Therefore, the text could not be
older than the physical material.
Folios are the leaves of the manuscripts, consisting of a
front page (recto) and a back page (verso). Each manuscript
contains a dierent number of folios. For example, Manu-
script MS G1 has more folios than the other two manuscripts.
Some folios in the manuscripts are left blank which is a
common practice in Ethiopian manuscript production,
especially at the beginning and end of the manuscripts. For
instance, Verso 24 of manuscript MS M1 is entirely a table
with no written information. Verso 48 is also blank. Verso 59
of MS G1 and Verso 64 have no writing at all. Verso 22 and
Recto 39 of MS G2 are also left blank. These unwritten spaces
are primarily used for marginalia and a colophon, typically
added as soon as the writing is nished but sometimes at
later times. They are used to describe ideas about the name
of sponsors to the manuscript production, land issues, taxes,
names of kings, and general history of the time, etc. Regarding
the column structure of the manuscripts, all three are written
in two columns. The table below provides detailed informa-
tion about the folios and their features.
As indicated in the above Table 1, the manuscripts vary
in the number of folios they contain, ranging from a mini-
mum of 35 to a maximum of 74. A single folio consists of two
pages (recto and verso). For example, MS G1 comprises 74
folios and 140 pages. However, since manuscripts are un-
paged documents, we typically refer to the number of folios
and their recto and verso pages. This method provides a
more accurate representation of the manuscripts length
and structure.
Marginal and colophon notes are frequently used and
can be found in the left, right, top, and bottom margins of the
manuscripts. The top and bottom margins are used more
often than the others. In total, there are more than 39 mar-
ginal notes across the three manuscripts. MS G1 contains
more than eight marginal notes, MS M contains 23, and MS
G2 contains more than seven. The marginalia, found on both
the recto and verso of each manuscript, serve specic pur-
poses, being primarily used for clarication and announce-
ments. If one or more ideas are omitted in the main text the
writer uses marginalia to include the omitted ideas and to
clarify the idea explained in the text for the reader. An-
nouncements are often related to religious matters. Even
356 G. Haile
though they are not always at the beginning or the end of the
manuscripts, some of the marginalia are related to the
colophon. For example, verso 37 of MS G1 has a marginal
note similar to a colophon which describes the producer and
the person who donated the manuscript to the monastery.
We present one marginalia note in its Geez version and its
English translation below.
ዛቲ ዘአባ ተወልደ መድህነ ዘወሃባ ለቤተክርስቲያን ንዳንዲ ከመ
መድሓኒተ ዘሰረዎ ወዘረሓም ይኩን በቃለ ጴጥሮስ ውሎስ
This book belongs to Abba/Father Tewelde Medhin and
was given to the church of Gunda Gundo. Anyone who steals
it and departs from it, like the medicine of his soul, shall be
condemned by the words of Peter and Paul. This indicates
that Abba Tewelde Medhin either wrote this book or
commissioned others to write it as a gift to the church in
order to receive grace through it. Generally, the manuscripts
are endowed with marginalia.
4.4 Establishing Relative Age and Credibility
of Abushakir Manuscript
Establishing the relative age and credibility of the Abushakir
manuscript is a complex process. The overall condition of the
manuscript does not conclusively determine its age. Even a
relatively recent manuscript could show signs of deteriora-
tion due to poor handling or inadequate conservation
eorts. More reliable indicators of the manuscripts relative
age are its content and paleography which can provide clues
about the period in which it was actually written. However,
to determine the absolute age of the manuscript, carbon
dating would be required. This scientic method can provide
a more precise estimate of the manuscripts age. It is
important to note that the credibility of the manuscript is
also determined by other factors such as its provenance, the
reputation of its author(s), and its consistency with other
known historical facts. Moreover, factors like parchment or
paper type, ink, and layout give insights into the manu-
scripts origin and purpose.
4.5 Why Do We Need to Date a Manuscript?
Manuscripts are indeed historical objects and their correct
interpretation relies heavilyontheirplacementwithin
the appropriate chronological and geographical context.
Furthermore, as archaeological objects, manuscripts carry
information about the environment that produced them, an
environment that can be partially dened by its position in
space and time. There are two types of dating systems used
in this context: absolute and relative. An absolute dating
system assigns a precise age to an object in numerical terms.
On the other hand, relative dating determines the order in
which events occurred based on whether an object is
younger or older than another similar object (Davis-Hale
2007). When it comes to reconstructing a family tree
(Stemma Codicum) of manuscripts, several criteria are used.
One such criterion is the codex optimum (the best codex/
manuscript), a very old criterion where a manuscript that
appears to have the most accurate and smoothest text is
chosen and printed in all editions. Another method is the
codices plurimi (the most codices/majority manuscripts)
where the reading found in the majority of the manuscripts
is preferred. The third method, accepted by most modern
scholars, is the Lachmnian method. This method emphasizes
two important points: recentiores non-deteriores (the more
recent manuscripts are not the worst) and lectio dicilor
(the most dicult reading is most probably of an older
time). These principles guide the interpretation and un-
derstanding of manuscripts, contributing to our knowledge
of history and culture. In the following, we present our
attempt to make a relative date assessment on two Geez
manuscripts.
MS G1 and MS G2 form one group, and manuscript MS M
forms another group. MS G1 and MS G2 share several com-
mon points. Both manuscripts are found in the same area.
Both manuscripts begin directly with a table rather than
with prose. Their decorations, mainly circles (about the solar
system), are very similar. Paleographically, the two manu-
scripts are more similar. Both of them have bottom
Table :Folios and their features.
Ms No. of folios No. of columns Parchment (Length ×Width in cm) Front and back cover
Written Unwritten Total
FMB
G½½×  .×.Wood
G½½ .×.Leather
M½½×  .×.Wood
Key: F stands for front, M for middle, B for back pages.
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 357
marginalia. Based on this it can be concluded that the two
manuscripts belong to the same group: one is the archetype
(older) and the other is the sub-archetype (younger). The
manuscript of MS G1 appears slightly older and MS G2 is
clearer and more legible than MS G1. Thus, based on the two
points of the Lachmannian method, manuscript G1 appears
to be the Vorlage of G2.
4.6 Gaddla Ahaw Geez Parchment
Manuscript
For this content analysis we gathered two versions of a single
manuscript: Gadala Ahaw (hereafter referred to as MS G)
from the Gunda Gundo Monastery in Tigray and Gadala
Abaw-wa-Ahaw (hereafter referred to as MS I-EMML) from
the library of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia. These manuscripts share similarities and
dierences. Both manuscripts provide an account of the
Stephanite movements, marking their similarity. However,
they dier in their emphasis. MS I-EMML focuses more on
the actions of the Fathers who supported and occasionally
led the Stephanite movement. In contrast, MS G highlights
the deeds of Abba Estifanos, the founder of the reforma-
tionmovement. Another point of dierence between these
two manuscripts is their age. After assessing their physical
(binding, cover page, size) and paleographic (writing style,
letter size, etc.) conditions, we concluded that MS G is older
than MS I-EMML. The geographical locations where they
were found also provide clues for comparing their ages.
Therefore, we have selected MS G for the content analysis in
this study. This recent work places greater emphasis on the
legacy of Abba Estifanos, particularly his secular value of
labor and work ethics, and his inspirational actions that led
to reformation.
4.7 Physical Description of Gadala Ahaw
The manuscript is composed of parchment and inscribed in
Geez. It is encased in wood and leather. The manuscript
measures 21.8 ×16.3 cm. It consists of 87 folios which equates
to 174 pages when considering both the recto and verso of a
folio. However, it is an unpaged manuscript. Compared to
MS I-EMML, MS G is written with larger letters. The manu-
script is structured in two columns. Black and red inks were
utilized for writing. Typically, red ink is used to inscribe the
names of God, Angels, and Saints. In MS G, a red pen is also
employed to write numerals indicating a period. A period is
denoted by ve dots arranged in a cross shape and two dots
are used as a word divider. A new chapter commences with a
decoration locally referred to as Harag (ሐረ). According to
Liqe Liqawunt Yared Kassa, Harag is a crucial indicator for
the start of a chapter as there are no chapter headings in the
tradition of Geez manuscript production. Each decorated
Harag is succeeded by the phrase The Father, The Son, and
The Holy Ghost.
The manuscripts cover page is severely damaged and
numerous pages have holes, notably from folio 5 to folio 14.
The front folios are absent. During our analysis, we endeav-
ored to supplement the missing concepts from the front-page
folios of MS I-EMML. Given its physical condition, it can be
concludedthat the manuscript is poorly preserved.Therefore,
unless immediate measures are taken, this crucial document,
which sheds light on the history of Medieval Ethiopia, is at risk
of being lost.
4.8 Digitizing and Translating of Sample
Geez Parchment Manuscripts
We digitized and translated the Geez scripts into English in
order to undertake content analysis. We used Gaddla Ahaw
Geez parchment manuscripts in order to develop heritage
knowledge on the secular value of labor and work ethics
whereas we used the Bahire Hasab (also known as Abush-
akir) Geez parchment manuscript in order to develop her-
itage knowledge on the secular value of time.
4.8.1 Selection and Digitization of Sample Manuscripts
Digitization is essential for accessing manuscript collec-
tions in remote and inaccessible areas. It converts physical
materials into digital formats, facilitating further digital
processing and providing new ways to access previously
marginalized literary heritages. However, digitizing old
manuscripts in remote areas presents numerous chal-
lenges, which we describe below.
4.8.2 Infrastructure Challenges
The rst challenge was the lack of infrastructure. Most of the
monasteries we visited are in remote areas without roads
connecting them to regional highways. We traveled long
hours, navigating dicult terrain, which limited the equip-
ment we could carry for digitization. Additionally, there was
no electricity to charge our digital cameras and laptops. We
had to rely on ample reserves of dry cells and memory cards
for the cameras. However, further document processing on
laptops was not possible after a few hours due to the lack of
power.
358 G. Haile
4.8.3 Physical Condition of Manuscripts
The second challenge of digitization is the poor physical
condition of the manuscripts. Many are shrunk, cracked
along the binding lines, faded, and have holes and damaged
leaves. Signicant pages are missing from some manu-
scripts. Recognizing all letters, words, and phrases within
each folio was a very challenging task during the digitization
process.
4.8.4 Accessibility and Value of Manuscripts
The third challenge of digitization is related to the accessi-
bility and value of the manuscripts. Ancient Geez parch-
ment manuscripts, considered sacred, are kept in churches
and monasteries in Tigray and cannot be moved for digiti-
zation. These manuscripts are often stored in dark areas,
requiring researchers to digitize them in places with
sucient sunlight to enhance visibility and avoid using
ashlights, which can damage the documents and result in
poor-quality images. Achieving good lighting is dicult. To
ensure quality images and further processing we saved
images in RAW and TIFF formats which serve as master
images for creating JPG les. The nal printed documents
are clear and readable without needing advanced technol-
ogy like Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software.
4.8.5 Translating Digitized Geez Documents into
Tigrinya and English
Geez is no longer a spoken language in Ethiopia but remains
the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
Most Ethiopians cannot read Geez except for a few church
educators. The translation from Geez to Tigrinya was done
by the staof Firmenatos Abba Selama Kessatie Birhan
Theology College in Mekelle, Tigray. This college is renowned
for its Geezacademic programsand skilled stain translating
ancient texts. Although the original manuscripts lacked page
numbers, we added them to the translated texts, each
comprising about 200 pages. After receiving the Tigrinya
translations we translated them into English. These translated
texts were then used for content analysis and extracting
heritage knowledge relevant to society.
4.8.6 Content Analysis, Interpretation, and Knowledge
Extraction Manually
In the digital spheres there are various knowledge extrac-
tion models from cultural heritages assisted by software. For
instance, the cultural context knowledge extraction model
(Silvia et al. 2018) uses methodology to analyze the model for
data acquisition, processing, modeling, and implementation
of knowledge on culture and social context through ontol-
ogies where the standard development language for ontol-
ogies is OWL of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
However, in this paper, we attempt to extract heritage
knowledge manually. Knowledge extraction through con-
tent analysis and interpretation from ancient manuscripts
manually is a fascinating endeavor that allows us to unlock
the secrets of the past. It is about exploring, questioning,
extracting, and appreciating the rich heritage value of our
past. We adopted content analysis techniques from litera-
ture (for example, see Fathollah, Saeedeh, and Afsaneh 2010;
Tripathi and Mishra 2010) and we also consider multiple
perspectives from our experiences. These are:
(1) source evaluation in terms of historical context,
(2) critical understanding of the content,
(3) interpretations of heritage that require discernment
(interpretation also tries to actively involve audiences by
relating the content to their personal knowledge, in-
terests, feelings, and values and by encouraging dis-
covery, engaging senses, and reection),
(4) causal relationships: cause and eect: heritage sheds
light on historical causality. Critical thinkers trace
chains of events, identifying patterns and consequences,
(5) creative problem-solving: adaptive reuse: critical
thinkers explore innovative ways to re-purpose heritage
value,
(6) ethical considerations: how do we illuminate cultural
practices or societal norms.
5 Discussion of Results
5.1 Reclaiming and Unlocking Heritage
Knowledge from Gaddla Ahaw and Bahire
Hassab Geez Parchment Manuscripts
One of the most signicant legacies of Abba Estifanos, as
reected in the Gadala Ahaw Geez manuscript, is his
concept of labor. In his teachings and reformation themes,
Abba Estifanos drew a clear distinction between the
commonly held concept of work and the type of work that
people should undertake on earth. As a result, he instructed
his students to engage in irrigation agriculture during the
day and pursue their education at night, thereby introducing
the concept of part-time workers. He also sought to introduce
a reform that would free peasants from paying multiple
taxes to the government, the church, and their father
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 359
confessors. This reform was rst unveiled in an area known
as Qoyetsa, leading to the reform being named Netsa Kem
Qoyetsa, which translates to Free as the free people of
Qoyetsa.Another distinguishing feature of his reformation
agenda was his emphasis on building the authority of the
mind within society. This was aimed at enabling Christian
followers to develop self-consciousness and understand the
true nature of God and the Bible. He envisioned creating
awareness within monastic society about the true nature of
the Bible and helping society distinguish between noise
and a signal,i.e., the dierence between the stories of
miracles inscribed in the old sacred Scriptures and the Bible.
His doctrine on the purpose of human life on earth and its
relation to the idea of Gods glorication was another inno-
vative contribution of Abba Estifanos.
In the following sections, we present the contributions
of Abba Estifanoss teachings in Geez, as directly quoted
from the Gadala Ahaw Geez manuscript, and provide an
English translation of the same text. Subsequently, we
discuss the implications of his teachings and doctrine in
relation to his concept of the secular value of labor and work
ethics.
5.2 Understanding Labor Ethics in Gaddla
Ahaw Geez Manuscripts: Extracts from
Gaddla Ahaw Geez Manuscript and an
English Translation of the Same Text
ወወነኣባእጢፋኖስ ብረ ተሃድሶ በምሂረ ኣርዳኢሁ እንዘ ይብል ድቅስ
ይትረከብ ፀጋ ዚአብሔር በኣሚን ወበምሕረቱ ለመስቀለ ኢየሱስ ወኣኮ በሰ
ለቅዱሳን ወኢ ለስእላት ዘሃይማኖት(MS G, f. 38v).
Abba Estifanos initiated his reformation eorts by
instructing his followers that salvation is achieved through
the grace of God, by faith in the redemptive act of Jesus
crucixion, rather than through the reverence of saints and
religious icons.
ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ምህሮሙ ለኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይትሃኑበልወ
ይትቀሩ በበይናቲሆሙ ከመ ይንበሩ ምስለ ዚአብሔር ዘለዓለምውእቱ
ኣስተራትዓ ዘንተ ኢይነብር መኑሂ ለትእዛዛት ኣው ለመላእክት ኣው ለቅዱሳን ኣው
ለመነኮሳት እመኒ ሃለወ ወእመኒ ሞተ መኑመሂ ዘእዚአብሔር ውእቱ(MS G,
f. 39r).
Abba Estifanos instructed his followers to deepen their
understanding of the gospel and to cultivate love for one
another, with the aim of living eternally with God. He
asserted that ones life is not lived for rulers, saints, angels,
or monks. Whether one lives or dies, one ultimately belongs
to God.
ወዘልይሜህር እንዘ ይብል ድቅሰ ይትረከብ ፀጋ ባህቲቱ በኣሚን ወኣኮ
ብር(MS G, f. 40v).
Abba Estifanos consistently preached that salvation is
attained solely through grace and faith, not through church
activities.
ውእቱ ይቤ ሰናይ ብር (ኣክብሮ በዓላት፣ፀውዖ ማኅበር ስህ በዘቦቱ ይሴሰዩ
ብዙሃ መባልዕትውሂብ ዘሃሎ ለዘኣልቦሙ ምንተኒተቀንዮ ለነሥት ወለመነኮሳት
ዘእንበለ እሴት)ኢኮነ መቅድመ ርለድቅ ኣላ ድቅ ውእቱ(MS G, f.
44v).
Abba Estifanos stated that religious practices such as
observing lengthy holidays, organizing social gatherings
where available food is consumed, sharing what one has
with those who do not, and oering free service to rulers and
monks are not prerequisites for salvation. Instead, he taught
that these are the fruits of salvation.
ኣእምሮ ዘሃይማኖት ዘትተሉ በበ ሰማይ እምነ ኣእምሮ ምድራዊት
ዘትተሉ ሃይለ ዘተፈጥ(MS G, f. 41r).
Abba Estifanos distinguished between religious knowl-
edge, which utilizes the wisdom of the heavens, and terres-
trial knowledge, which employs the forces of nature.
ኣምነ ዘንተ ተራክቦ ማእከለ ሰብእ ወተፈጥ ሃለዎ ይኩን በኣመክንዮ ወኣኮ
በተኣምራት(MS G, f. 30r).
Abba Estifanos held the belief that the relationship be-
tween human beings and nature should be grounded in
reason, rather than being inuenced by miracles.
ወኣንቅሃ ህዝብ ከመ ይትበሩ ወይሴ ለዘይሴኒ ህይወት ምድራዊ(MS
G, f. 10r)
Abba Estifanos encouraged people to work and aspire
for a better life through earthly possibilities.
ውእቱ ኣምነ ብሮ በት ይበቁዕ ለረኪበ ሲሳይ እምራህተ ማህረስ
ወውሂብ ለምንዱባንወተብሮ ውስተ ካልኣን ኣም ሃብታት ይረብህ ከመ
ያስተቄ ዓለማዊ ህይወት(MS G, f. 80r).
Abba Estifanos taught that labor is necessary for pro-
ducing food in agricultural elds, assisting the disabled, and
engaging in other economic activities to sustain secular life.
ወምህሮሙ ለኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይስርዑ ሰዓቶሙ እምነ መዓልት ብረ
ማህረስ ከመ ይሴሰዩ ብረ እደዊሆሙ ወከመ ይሲእክሎሙ ለቅሩባን መካናት
እምነ ነቢር በስኢል(MS G, f. 36v).
Abba Estifanos instructed his students to dedicate their
daytime hours to agricultural activities as a means of self-
support. He encouraged them to distribute their produce to
the nearby village, promoting self-suciency over a life of
begging.
ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ይቤ ሰብእ ሃለዎ ይትሉ ዘሃለየ በህሊናሁ ወይትደል እስከ
ይረክብ ዘሃለየ(MS G, f. 50).
Abba Estifanos asserted that an individual should heed
their own mind and persist in their struggle until they ach-
ieve their goal.
ወወብረ ተሃድሶ እምውስተ ዳም ዘይትቀነይ ቦቱውእቱ ኣዘዘ
ኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይትበሩ ብረ ማህረስ ወይርድኡ ለዘኢይትከሃሎሙ ይትበሩ
(MS G, f. 38v).
Abba Estifanos initiated his reforms within the monas-
tery where he was serving. He rst instructed his followers
360 G. Haile
to participate in agricultural activities and to provide sup-
port for those who were unable to work for themselves.
ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ኣቀመ ሰባክያን ውስተ ኵሉ በሓውርት ከመ ይሃቡ ለኵሉ
ቲሁ ወመ ቅዱስ ፍ። እንዘ ይዌ ዘዚኣሁ ሃዲስ ትምህርት
ሰሓበ አርድእተ ዘተሰምዩ ደቂቀ እስጢፋኖስ ዘኊልቆሙ ይዌስክ እምእለት ዕለተ
(MS G, f. 44v).
Abba Estifanos established a network of evangelists for
the purpose of distributing his literature and Bible manu-
scripts as part of their missionary work. His innovative
doctrine initially attracted a group of followers, known as
Stephanites or Deqiqa Estifanos, which translates to stu-
dents or followers of Estifanos.
ወኣዘዞሙ ለኣርዳኢሁ ከመ ይምሃሩ ለህዝብ ቅዱሳት ከመ
ይዌልህይወቶሙ በሰሪዐ ሰዓት ብረ ማህረስ ለተሴስዮ ዘእንበለ ርዓት
ወኢያማስኑ ዜሆሙ ቢር ድቅ(MS G, f. 46r).
Abba Estifanos instructed his followers to educate society
about the Holy Scripture, with the aim of transforming their
lifestyle. He emphasized the importance of dedicating time to
agricultural activities for food security, rather than spending
their time solely on pursuits of salvation.
በሃዊር እምነ መካነ ውስተ መካን ውእቱ ኣዘዞሙ ለሕዝብ ከመ ይስርዑ
ሰዓቶሙ ብረ ማህረስ ወበዘተርሰዓት ይርድኡ ምንዱባን ወኣረውያን(MS
G, f. 49r).
As he traveled from one location to another, Abba Esti-
fanos advised people to dedicate a portion of their time to
agricultural activities. He further suggested that they should
use their remaining time to assist the disabled and elderly.
ኣኮኑ ዘሰበከ ወመሃረ ዘእንቲኣሁ ሃዲሳት ሃሳባት ኣላ ሰርዐ ከመ መነኮሳት
ይትልዉ ዘንተ ትምህርተ ቅድመ ወእምዝ ይትወሃብ ውስተ ኵሉ ህዝብ(MS G, f.
50r).
Not only did he preach and teach his innovative ideas, he
also proclaimed a doctrine that was to be adhered to initially
by monks, and subsequently by the general public.
ኣባ እስጢፋኖስ ወደቂቁ ተዓሱኵሎቅታተ ዘእንበለ ርሃትእምኣመ
ይትታህ እሞቅህ ይዌስክ ኣስተምህሮ ብዙሃ ኣህዛበ ወእምድህረ ፈፀ ምሂረ ውእቱ
ኣቀመ ወስርዓተ ውስተ ዳማተ ደቂቀ እስጢፋኖስ(MS G, f. 51v).
Abba Estifanos withstood all forms of persecution
alongside his followers, never wavering in his fervor. Each
time he was released from prison, he resumed his mission of
educating numerous individuals. Ultimately, he established
an administrative structure within the monasteries of the
Stephanites.
ደቀ እስጢፋኖስ ይቤ ኢታቁም ኣሪውስተ ደብር እስከ ትበ ውስተ
ፍፃሜታ(MS G, f. 53v).
Abba Estifanos proclaimed, Do not cease to climb the
mountain until you reach its peak.
Below is an executive summary on the nature and
relevance of the heritage knowledge related to labor ethics
from the Gaddla Ahaw Geez manuscript:
From his actions, it is clear that Abba Estifanos was
concerned with the contemporary understanding of the
nature of labor. Labor was commonly perceived as a pun-
ishment for humanity, originating from the disobedience of
the rst human couple in the Garden of Eden. This disobe-
dience led to Gods decree that Adam and Eve would eat their
food by the sweat of their browuntil they died. From then
on, labor was also viewed as a degrading and humiliating
experience that humanity had to endure on earth as a
consequence of its sin. In Abba Estifanosview, this attitude
towards work led humans to see themselves as inferior
creatures whose purpose on earth was to erase the sin they
inherited from Adam and Eve. This assumption, in turn,
fostered a negative attitude towards the self and the true
nature of labor. People began to believe that the only way to
rid themselves of human sin and achieve salvation was to
serve God and His Church. As a result, the work of the church
was considered superior to other forms of secular work. This
concept of labor also had a negative impact on the concept of
wealth. In relation to this notion there is a proverb that says,
It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle
than for a rich man to enter Heaven.
Contrary to the traditional scripture, Abba Estifanos
interpreted the Biblical notion of work, specically the idea
of eating food by the sweat of ones brow,as an armative
attitude towards labor. In his doctrinal teachings, Abba
Estifanos suggested that humans could fulll Gods will and
attain salvation by working diligently to sustain life on earth.
Abba Estifanos educated people about the connection
between the self,God, and the Holy Spirit. He stated, God
is with you while the Holy Spirit is within you,thus implying
that the self(the human body) is the Temple of the Holy
Spirit. He believed that allowing the body to suer was akin
to letting the Temple of the Holy Spirit deteriorate. In this
context, Abba Estifanos proposed that people could serve
and glorify God through serving the self(the body). He
introduced the concept of work in which spiritual work,
referring to love and faithfulness, does not require much
time as it is the work of the spirit. On the other hand, sus-
taining the selfon earth refers to labor that requires a
signicant amount of human time to earn a living. Abba
Estifanos argued that secular work to make a living on earth
does not prevent people from being faithful Christians. He
further contended that secular work helps the Temple that
houses the Holy Spirit to survive sustainably and promotes
the spiritual work of Christian followers.
In fact, this new concept of work extends beyond the
simple explanation of the value of work to sustain the body
as a Temple that harbors the Holy Spirit. Abba Estifanos
stated that labor is not an end in itself and not solely for
material gain. Instead, it is for human development, enabling
individuals to exercise their potential on earth as Gods
creatures. Therefore, Abba Estifanos initiated a paradigm
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 361
shift in his attitude towards labor. He suggested that labor
should be viewed in terms of reasonable faith. From this
perspective, work is a means to empower people to live a
meaningful life, fostering peaceful coexistence with neigh-
bors and the surrounding environment. If people develop a
reasonable faith in labor, they can move away from greed
and corruption, thus achieving salvation in love and peace.
Abba Estifanosprimary aim was to liberate society
from the oppressive tools of the time. As a Christian, he
understood that people sought salvation through demon-
strating loyalty and devoting much of their time to church
services and providing free services to their masters. To
liberate them, he planned to promote their self-awareness
about the self and God. By building the authority of their
mind, he planned to teach people how they could obtain
salvation and live a better life on earth. To accomplish all his
reforms, Abba Estifanos began teaching the true nature of
God, the Bible, and the path to salvation. He sought to ach-
ieve this goal by organizing his teachings into a doctrine and
forming his followers into a sect. He then established a
network through his followers across wider areas in Tigray
and other parts of the country. Using these networks, he
disseminated his reformation ideas. Recognizing the power
of information in promoting his doctrines across a wide
range of areas, he compiled his teachings into a book and
established various networks to disseminate his teachings,
thereby changing societal attitudes towards the self and
beyond. Abba Estifanos and his growing number of fol-
lowers devised a plan to evangelize the entire region of
Tigray by setting up nine major and 15 subordinate associ-
ations. Within these associations, he established a team
under one leader in each area. The team members dedicated
themselves to studying the Holy Scriptures and rst chang-
ing their own lifestyles, then the lifestyle of the community.
The objective of another team was to engage every healthy
member in some form of agricultural work and to assist
those unable to work within society. Consequently, such
experiences would be shared with the local community,
encouraging them to support themselves through agricul-
tural activities instead of remaining idle. Lastly, he traveled
from place to place to persuade fellow monks to join him in
his reforms.
Indeed, from our content analysis and description, it is
clear that Abba Estifanos placed a strong emphasis on self-
suciency, particularly through agriculture, and on the
principle of aiding those who are unable to support them-
selves. This approach could indeed have numerous benets.
It could ensure food security within the community, pro-
mote a robust work ethic, and foster a sense of solidarity and
mutual support among its members. His teachings seem to
have had a profound impact on the community, shaping
their attitudes towards work, self-sustainability, and mutual
support. If we use them properly for the present situation,
Abba Estifanosteachings can have a signicant impact on
societal attitude towards the secular value of labor and work
ethics, self-sustainability and mutual support.
5.3 Understanding Secular Time in Bahire
Hasab Geez Manuscripts: Extraction of
Heritage Knowledge from Bahire Hasab/
Abushakir Geez Parchment Manuscript
As we highlighted in previous sections, Bahire Hasab
suggests that the manuscript contains thoughtsand cal-
culationsas deep and vast as an ocean. Upon delving deeper
into it, one discovers that the manuscript is a repository for a
variety of elds such as philosophy, astronomy, mathe-
matics, history, law, and the genealogy of royal families. By
analyzing its content, we have identied four distinguishing
features of the Bahire Hasab Geez manuscript (this analysis
result is from pages 4 to 36 in the English translated version
or MS G1, .4v36v in the original Abushakir manuscripts):
(1) It provides a comprehensive description of the move-
ment of the stars, sun, and moon, and the calculations
based on the apparent movement of the sun and the
moon.
(2) It establishes an intriguing link between the four evan-
gelists (i.e., Matthew, Luke, John, and Mark) and the four
seasons of Ethiopia (summer, autumn, winter, and
spring).
(3) It presents a description of the absolute and relative
measurements of time units (calendar) that are crucial
to determine days, weeks, months, and years.
(4) It contains rich content that brings together the religious
and civil calendar.
Indeed, while the mathematical calculation of calendars in
the solar or lunar calendar is an important aspect, it falls
outside the scope of this current study. Our focus is on the
analysis of the concept of time and its secular value as re-
ected in this manuscript. We have indicated the page
number where these concepts can be found in both the
translated English version and the original Geez manu-
script. This approach allows us to delve into the nuances of
time perception and its implications in a historical and cul-
tural context.
362 G. Haile
5.4 Concept and the Secular Value of Time as
Reected in Abushakir Geez Manuscript
5.4.1 The Concept of Time Through the Seven Cycles
(Translated Version of Bahire Hasab,48/MS G1, .
4v8r)
The Bahire Hasab Geez manuscript presents a calendar
system that is based on cycles. The manuscript uses the
metaphor of an ocean to symbolize the depth and breadth of
calculation or thought involved in its creation. It states, this
ocean is large and wider to calculate with one formula or
cycle,indicating the complexity and vastness of the calcula-
tions involved. To accommodate this complexity, the manu-
script employs seven cycles to construct a comprehensive
calendar. This approach reects the intricate nature of time-
keeping and the nuanced understanding of time in historical
and cultural contexts.
The seven cycles mentioned in the manuscripts are as
follows:
(1) Cycle of Day (ʕawdä ʕilät): this refers to the seven days in
a week and 30 days in a month. The days in a month are
counted starting from 1 and ending at 30. It never goes
beyond 30 since all 12 months have an equal number of
days, 30.
(2) Cycle of the Moon (ʕawdəwərhi): based on the lunar
cycle one month has 29 days.
(3) Cycle of the Sun (ʕawdəSəƫay): based on the solar cycle;
it has 30 equal days in a month throughout the year.
(4) Cycle of the Year (ʕawdəʕamət): on the basis of the solar
cycle there are 365 days, 6 h, 15 min, and 46 s in a year.
On the basis of the lunar cycle there are 354 days and
22 min in a year.
(5) Cycle of the Seal (ʕawdəMahitəm): this refers to the
seven years from the era of Matthew that began on
Wednesday.
(6) Cycle of AbəkTe: this refers to the remainder of a moon
from a year.
(7) Mətkiʔ: this is the day when the moon and the sun meet
together. These cycles provide a comprehensive under-
standing of time as perceived in the Bahire Hasab Geez
manuscript.
5.4.2 The Concept of the Luni-Solar Calendar (Translated
Version of Abushakir, 914/MS G1, .9r14r)
The manuscript describes a unique cosmological model
where the sun and the moon have six windowsin the east,
through which they rise, and six other windowsin the
west, through which they set. The sun rotates through these
windows for six months and three days then returns
southward. These three days appear only once every fourth
year. The sun completes its rotation in 12 months and ve
days through six windows. The sun passes through every
window and there is 30 Kentros for each window. The suns
passage through the windows corresponds with the Ethio-
pian months as follows: rst window (southward): Tahisas
(December) and Tir (January); second window: Yekatit
(February) and Hidar (November); third window: Megabit
and Tikmt (October); fourth window: Miyaza (April) and
Meskerem (September); fth window: Gunbot (May) and
Nehase (August); and sixth window (northward): Sene (June)
and Hamle (July). This rotation is described as stagnant and
everlasting, however, the moon does not directly pass
through the windows; instead, it passes nearby (side to side)
to the six windows within a month. The rotation of the sun
(in days and nights) is 4 min faster than the rotation of the
moon. The sun is described as a sphere like the sky, and its
body is ring and lighting like re. It has its own wagon used
to move through the center of the sky.
5.4.3 The Concept of Months and Seasons (Translated
Version of Abushakir, 1416/(MS G1, . 14v16r)
The Bahire Hasab Geez manuscript presents a unique cal-
endar system with the following features: 1. Months: the
calendar consists of 13 months, with 12 months having
30 days each and the thirteenth month having ve days (or
six days in a leap year); 2. Evangelists: there are ve days in
each of the rst three evangelists (Mark, Matthew, and Luke)
and six days in the fourth evangelist (John); 3. Stars and Sun:
the sun controls 365 days per year and there are four leading
stars, namely Milʔel, Hilmelmelek, Narʔel, and Sirɂel. These
stars divide the year into four periods following the sun. A
share for one star is 91 days, 15 min, 46 s, and 30 μs. Sub-
tracting 3 min from each stars time adds up to 60 min, which
adds one day to the year, making it 365 days; 4. Leap Year: if
15 min are subtracted from one evangelist the remainder
will be 6 s. When you add 15 min from each evangelist, there
will be one additional day. Thus, the fourth year will be
366 days, marking a leap year; 5. Seasons and Evangelists: the
four seasons, marked by the leading stars, are also associ-
ated with the four evangelists, namely Matthew, Luke, John,
and Mark; 6. Era of Evangelists: to determine the era of any
evangelist you divide the number of the year (from the very
beginning) by four. If the remainder is one then it is Mat-
thews era. If the remainder is two then it is Marks era. If the
remainder is three then it is Lukes era. But if there is no
remainder (remainder is zero) it is the era of John. When the
remainder is zero the number of days in the thirteenth
month (Pagumen) is always six. This intricate system
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 363
reects a deep understanding of time and celestial move-
ments as well as their signicance in religious and cultural
contexts.
5.4.4 The Concept of Days and Nights (Translated
Version of Abushakir, 2527/MS G1, . 25v27v)
The concept of Kentrosin the Bahire Hasab Geez manu-
script is used to describe the division of time, specically an
hour into 30 parts or a day into 360 parts. This division is
particularly signicant during equinoxes when day and
night are of equal length. Here is a breakdown of how
Kentros varies throughout the year: on the thirtieth of
Meskerem, the day and the night are divided into nine parts
each. From Tikmt 1toTahisas 30, one Kentros decreases each
day and increases each night, resulting in the day having six
parts and the night having 12 parts. From Tir 1toMegabit 30,
one Kentros increases each day and decreases each night. At
this point, the length of the day and night becomes equal
again (equinox), with both being nine parts. After this, the
night becomes shorter and the day longer. Starting from
Miyaza 1, the day increases by one Kentros up to Sene 30,
resulting in the day having 12 parts and the night six parts.
From Hamle 1toMeskerem 30, the day becomes shorter than
the night, with one Kentros increasing per night. However,
on Meskerem 30 they again become equal, with both day and
night being nine parts each. This cycle repeats as the suns
path changes, causing the lengths of day and night to vary
according to the Kentros.
5.4.5 Hours (Translated Version of Abushakir, 3436/MS
G1, . 34r36v)
The manuscript describes a unique method of measuring
time based on the length of ones shadow throughout the
day. Here is a breakdown of this method: stand up and
observe your shadow, then measure its length with your foot
up to 6 p.m. The shadows length increases by 10 feet every
hour from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m, and the measurements for the
other 6 h are dierent as the shadow turns in the opposite
direction, and the hours become equal. The length of the
shadow varies by month. For instance, in the month of
Tahisas, an hour is equivalent to 29 feet; in Tire it is 27 ½ feet;
in Yekatit it is 26 feet; in Megabit it is 24 ½ feet; in Miyaza it is
23 feet; in Gunbot it is 21 ½ feet; and in Sene it is 20 feet. After
Sene, the sun changes its course and the hours become equal
again. The months of Hamle and Gunbot,Nehase and Miyaza,
Meskerem and Megabit,Tikmt and Yekatit, and Hidar and
Tire have equal lengths of hours. However, Tahisas is
dierent in its measure: the length of the day is shorter and
the length of the night is longer. Sene is also dierent in that
the length of the day is longer while the length of the night is
shorter. This method reects a deep understanding of the
suns movement and its eect on the length of shadows
which was used as a natural way to measure time.
5.4.6 The Dierence Between the Innite Gods Time
and the Finite Human Time (Translated Version of
Bahire Hasab,2830/MS G1, . 28r30v)
The Bahire Hasab Geez manuscript indeed provides a pro-
found exploration of the concept of time, distinguishing
between the innite time of God and the nite time of hu-
man beings on earth. According to the manuscript: Gods
Time: Gods time is described as innite. It does not run by
the clock and is not bound by the space-time universe that He
created. This suggests a timeless, eternal dimension that
transcends our usual understanding of time; Human Time:
in contrast, human time is nite. It is limited and can be
measured by a clock. The manuscript emphasizes the
importance of planning our time to ll it with relevant
activities to sustain life on earth; Use of Time: the manuscript
also underlines the consequences of using time randomly
and irrationally. It suggests that such misuse of time is akin
to killing and wasting time, reecting the precious and
limited nature of our time on earth. This exploration of time
in the Bahire Hasab Geez manuscript oers a deep philo-
sophical perspective, intertwining religious, existential, and
practical aspects of time.
5.4.7 The Four Cyclic Seasons and the Corresponding
Human Activities (Translated Version of Bahire
Hasab, 3033/MS G1, . 30v33r)
The Bahire Hasab Geez manuscript presents a unique sys-
tem that connects the eras of the four evangelists (Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John) with the four seasons of Ethiopia.
Each evangelist has their own era that occurs in a cycle every
four years. The thirteenth month, known as Epigumenai,
typically has ve days. However, at the end of Lukes era and
the beginning of Johns era, the number of days in Epi-
gumenai is six. To determine the era of an evangelist, you
divide the year (calendar) by four and then examine the
remainder:
If the remainder is one it is the era of Matthew,
If the remainder is two it is the era of Mark,
If the remainder is three it is the era of Luke, and
If there is no remainder it is the era of John.
This system reects a deep intertwining of religious and
temporal concepts, demonstrating the intricate ways in
which time was understood and measured.
364 G. Haile
In addition to this, we found dierent extracts in the
manuscripts that link seasons to the economic activities of
the people in Tigray, Ethiopia. We extracted this information
from dierent pages of the manuscripts and hence we did
not provide exact page reference to the translated text or
original manuscripts. The following table shows the links
between seasons and corresponding economic activities
(Table 2).
6 Conclusion
In this study we conducted a content analysis of two of
EthiopiasancientGeez parchment manuscripts. Our aim was
to unlock and develop heritage knowledge on the secular
value of time and labor. The manuscripts we analyzed were:
(1) Gaddla Ahaw Geez parchment manuscript
(2) Bahire Hasab Geez parchment manuscript
Our content analysis has revealed that reclaiming and
interpreting ancient heritage knowledge enables us to adapt,
blending old wisdom with contemporary insights and link-
ing the past with the present. From these sample Geez
manuscripts we deciphered valuable information and
knowledge domains related to the importance of inculcating
the secular value of time and labor in a religious dominated
population. We then asserted that the locally developed
knowledge, reected in Geez parchment heritages, could be
used to improve the Christian farmersattitude towards the
secular value of time and labor. Obviously, this improved
attitude of the farmers will have a positive impact on the
allocation of time and working habits in their economic
activities and living condition. The striking aspect in this
study is that the sources of such knowledge are the ancient
Geez manuscripts preserved for centuries in religious in-
stitutions like churches and monasteries, which could be
easily accepted by Christian farmers to address and solve
their earthly problems. Considering the vast collection of
manuscript heritages and the circumstances under which
they have been preserved and passed down to the present
day, we believe that such a heritage collection could serve as
a source of knowledge applicable to the present day.
Therefore, reclaiming and unlocking the knowledge con-
tained in these manuscript heritages is a timely and
important research agenda.
Deciphering ancient knowledge from manuscripts is a
captivating endeavor that allows us to unlock the secrets of
the past. We assert that heritage has always been with us
andwecanproduceheritageknowledgeaccordingtoour
contemporary concerns and experiences. We also assert
that the analysis of manuscripts democratizes access to
knowledge, making historical collections accessible to a
broader audience. Moreover, heritage knowledge enriches
education in that it connects the past, informs the present,
and inspires the future. Farmers will become aware of the
value of heritage as such, and of its value for their own
attitudinal improvement towards the secular value of time
and labor.
We conclude that the use of locally grown knowledge
can signicantly inuence the inward-looking behavior
within the farming community. This is mainly because these
Geez parchment manuscripts possess unique knowledge,
passed down through generations, that may encourage
innovative local solutions to local problems. Relying on
locally grown knowledge fosters self-reliance, as commu-
nities nd solutions to challenges using resources at hand.
Table :Seasons, associated meaning and related economic activities.
Name of
seasons
Duration Meaning associated
with the seasons
Agricultural activities supposed to be accomplished
Kiremt
(Summer)
From Sene  (June) to Meskerem
 (September)
Water This is the rain season and hence agricultural activities such as ploughing,
sowing, weeding, and keeping agricultural elds and animals are to be
conducted.
Metsew
(Autumn)
From Meskerem  (September)
to Tahisas  (December)
Wind This season is when the wind is blowing to bring crops to the level of
maturity; this makes the wet land strong, helping farmers to separate the
crops from weeds (separating the sin from the righteous).
Hagay
(Winter)
Tahisas  (December) to Megabit
 (March)
Fire Marketing, exchange, social gathering, and especially marriage is supposed
to take place; there is also building houses or reinforcing and renovating old
ones. This is the best season for social interaction among families and
communities.
Tuesday
(Spring)
Megabit  (March) to Sene 
(June)
Soil There is preparing of soils (agricultural land) for cultivation; agricultural
equipment, seeds and the necessary human and animal forces needed for
agricultural activities for the rain season that follows are prepared.
Reclaiming and Unlocking Ancient Heritage Knowledge 365
Therefore, an inward-looking approach prioritizes local re-
sources, reducing dependence on external factors. This
approach values local craftsmanship, agriculture, and trade.
However, communities must strike a balance by appreci-
ating local wisdom while remaining open to external
innovations.
At present, we stand at the crossroads of time, facing a
dilemma between valuing and utilizing on the one hand and
ensuring sustainable preservation of heritages on the other.
When we embark on the noble task of preserving and using
cultural heritage we often carry implicit assumptions. We
believe that cultural heritage is valuable simply because it
exists and that preserving heritage ensures continuity.
These assumptions guide our actions in our quest to safe-
guard cultural heritage. By critically examining these as-
sumptions, we ensure that our decisions align with our
values and aspirations. As custodians of ancient knowledge
we honor the past, enrich the present, and shape the future.
Reclaiming ancient knowledge is indeed a bequest. By pre-
serving and understanding these ancient texts we continue
to unravel the mysteries of our shared heritage. By valuing,
utilizing, and preserving this local heritage, communities
can strengthen their cultural identity. Heritage preservation
on the one hand and heritage education on the other seem to
be mutually benecial. While considering preservation, we
should make a paradigm shift from preservation heritage for
heritage purpose to knowledge transfer and education pur-
pose. Finally, we claim that this research paper extends the
scope of previous studies from merely identifying preserva-
tion challenges and making ancient manuscripts accessible
through digitization to conducting content analysis, unlocking
relevant heritage knowledge domains, and disseminating the
knowledge as well as preventing the loss of valuable heritage
knowledge.
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