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https://doi.org/10.1177/07399863241292243
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences
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DOI: 10.1177/07399863241292243
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Original Research Article
Social Comparison,
Belongingness, Self-
Doubt, and Stress:
The Case of Hispanic
Students at Hispanic
Majority Institutions
Ho Phi Huynh1, Jasmyne Thomas2,
Isabella Castellanos2, Dawn R. Weatherford2,
and Malin K. Lilley3
Abstract
Social comparison processes can affect academic and interpersonal
outcomes for minoritized college students. However, the literature has not
addressed how these processes play out for Hispanic students who attend
Hispanic Majority Institutions, in which Hispanic students comprise more
than 50% of the population. In this study, such students (N = 191) completed
online assessments for social comparison orientation (SCO), belongingness,
academic self-concept, and perceived stress. Results showed that, regarding
belongingness, SCO was positively correlated to rejection/exclusion, but not
acceptance/inclusion. Regarding academic self-concept, SCO was positively
correlated to self-doubt, but not self-confidence. Mediation analyses
showed that perceived stress fully mediated the relationship between SCO
and rejection/exclusion, and partially mediated the relationship between
SCO and academic self-doubt. In other words, SCO was associated with
1Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
2Texas A&M University-San Antonio, USA
3Texas A&M University-Central Texas, Killeen, USA
Corresponding Author:
Ho Phi Huynh, School of Medicine and Psychology, Australian National University, Building 39,
Psychology, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
Email: ho.huynh@anu.edu.au
1292243HJBXXX10.1177/07399863241292243Hispanic Journal of Behavioral SciencesHuynh et al.
research-article2024
2 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
increased stress, which was then associated with increased feelings of
rejection/exclusion and self-doubt about academic abilities. These findings
offer additional insight into Hispanic college students’ experience.
Keywords
social comparison, social comparison orientation, Hispanic college students,
belonging, academic self-concept, stress
Social comparison (Festinger, 1954) guides how people determine their own
social value relative to a target (e.g., relevant peer, a family member, a celeb-
rity). Social comparison within an educational context has been connected to
outcomes such as academic self-concept (Bong & Skaalvik, 2002; Wang &
Zhao, 2020), academic performance (Herrmann et al., 2016), and career aspi-
rations (Rudman & Phelan, 2010). Importantly, people are mostly likely to
compare themselves to others in their immediate environment (Kesici &
Erdogan, 2010). As such, studying this relationship with Hispanic students
may be particularly important given the growing demographic and changing
landscape of education with Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs) and, more
specifically, Hispanic Majority Institutions.
There are more than three million Hispanic undergraduate students, mak-
ing up approximately 22% of all undergraduate enrollment in the United
States. Over 60% of Hispanic students are enrolled at one of 600 Hispanic
Serving Institutions (i.e., at least 25% of enrolled students are Hispanic) in
the U.S (Santiago et al., 2024). As Garcia (2019) illustrates, enrollment alone
does not indicate if an institution is adequately serving its Hispanic students.
For example, some institutions may have programs specifically celebrating
Hispanic culture and heritage or involvement in the local Hispanic commu-
nity, while other institutions may not.
Hispanic Majority Institutions (HMIs), a special case of HSIs in which
50% of the full-time enrolled student population identify as Hispanic, offer a
unique context to investigate these phenomena (e.g., Huynh et al., 2024).
Unlike typical investigations of Hispanic student experiences in which they
represent the minority on campus (e.g., N. M. Garcia et al., 2021), we focused
specifically on Hispanic students who belong to the numerical majority on
campus. Social identity theory explains how students derive a sense of identity
and self-worth based on their membership in social groups (Tajfel & Turner,
1979, 2004). Students categorize themselves and others into various social
groups (e.g., Hispanic or not) to make sense of the world. These categories
Huynh et al. 3
help define in-groups (groups they belong to) and out-groups (groups they do
not belong to). Once students categorize themselves, they adopt the identity of
the group they belong to. This process influences their self-concept and behav-
ior, as they internalize the group’s norms, values, and characteristics. As such,
social identity theory suggests that comparison processes may affect Hispanic
students in unexplored ways within this context (Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 2004).
In particular, the changed status from minority to majority marks a social
recategorization for these students, which may change their social identifica-
tion and affect their social comparison processes.
Therefore, the current study examines social comparison orientation
(SCO) and its relationships with students’ belongingness (exclusion/inclu-
sion) and academic self-concept (self-doubt/self-confidence). Additionally,
we explored stress as a potential mechanism to explain these associations.
Below, we define and briefly review literature on these constructs.
Social Comparison Theory and Social Comparison Orientation
(SCO)
Social comparisons are bi-directional; people can evaluate themselves against
someone who is more successful (i.e., upward comparison) or less successful
(i.e., downward comparison). Moreover, people can direct their attention to
the differences (i.e., contrast comparison) or the similarities (i.e., identifica-
tion comparison; alternatively referred to as assimilation) between them-
selves and the target. Consequently, people may adopt one of four approaches
arising from these combinations: upward identification, upward contrast,
downward identification, and downward contrast (Buunk et al., 2005;
Dijkstra et al., 2008; Smith, 2000).
In addition to differences among types of targets for social comparison,
people also differ in how often they engage in social comparison more gener-
ally. Social Comparison Orientation (SCO; Gibbons & Buunk, 1999)
describes a person’s inherent tendency to actively compare themself to oth-
ers, using these comparisons as a standard for self-evaluation. SCO may
affect multiple categories of goals such as self-evaluation, self-improvement,
or self-enhancement (Vogel et al., 2015; Wood, 1989; Yang, 2016). This pro-
pensity to compare exists on a spectrum, with people exhibiting varying
degrees of comparison frequency and emotional sensitivity to the results.
People high in SCO are more likely to experience heightened sensitivity to
the outcomes of their comparisons as they may be motivated by the need to
reduce uncertainty (Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1954). Although certain types
of social comparisons can bolster self-confidence, some research suggests
more frequent comparisons driven by high SCO are linked to higher stress
4 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
levels (McCarthy & Morina, 2020). These comparisons can highlight short-
comings that fuel feelings of inadequacy, envy, and anxiety, especially when
the gap between oneself and the comparison target feels large. Another poten-
tial consequence of high SCO is a decreased sense of belonging.
Belongingness
Belongingness refers to the fundamental human need to feel accepted, con-
nected, and valued by others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). An individual may
feel motivated to be accepted by, involved with, and fit alongside others in
order to achieve a heightened sense of belongingness (Hagerty & Patusky,
1995). This fundamental need applies across a range of different scales (e.g.,
contact with one-to-one pairs, affiliation with small groups, and connected-
ness to a grander social context; R. M. Lee & Robbins, 1995) and modalities
(e.g., online and offline interactions; Ahn & Davis, 2020). Although the
strength of relationships may vary by context, belongingness plays a crucial
role in well-being and mental health (Malone et al., 2012). It is associated
with a range of both positive outcomes including increased self-esteem,
improved emotional regulation, and enhanced resilience to stress (Kaur,
2023; Rehman et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2020) and negative outcomes includ-
ing social anxiety, loneliness, and even depression (Arslan, 2019; Moeller
et al., 2020). Sense of belonging is an important component of nonacademic
outcomes for students attending HSIs (Garcia, 2019), as Hispanic student
enrollment alone does not demonstrate that an institution is serving its stu-
dents to the best of its ability.
Nevertheless, belongingness is not a static state; it can be fostered or chal-
lenged by various factors such as stress (Lingat et al., 2017). Stress may
reduce a sense of belongingness by exacerbating feelings of isolation and
hindering the ability to establish and maintain meaningful social connections
(Samadieh & Tanhaye Reshvanloo, 2023). For example, membership in
social or community organizations and discussing course content with class-
mates outside of class can be associated with Hispanic students’ sense of
belonging (Hurtado & Carter, 1997). Additionally, Hispanic college students
may experience changes in how they conceptualize their identities depending
on specific contexts (Torres et al., 2023). Although previous research has
focused on the documented inequities in sense of belonging experienced by
minority groups (e.g., Hispanic students) in higher education (Gopalan &
Brady, 2020), additional investigation is needed to explore how belonging-
ness is affected when this population belongs to the majority instead of the
minority, especially regarding academic self-concept.
Huynh et al. 5
Academic Self-Concept
Academic self-concept refers to an individual’s perception of their ability and
effectiveness in academic settings within a larger theoretical framework of
self-concept (Marsh, 2014; Shavelson et al., 1976). It encompasses beliefs
about one’s intellectual competence, academic skills, and overall potential
for academic success. Reynolds (1988) created a measurement (Academic
Self-Concept Scale; ASCS) of this construct to assess students’ confidence in
their academic capabilities and perceptions of their academic achievement
compared to peers. Students with high academic self-concept also had higher
grade point average (GPA), general self-concept, and internal locus of control
(Choi, 2005; Reynolds, 1988).
Academic self-concept has significant implications for student outcomes
beyond academic performance. Whereas students with a strong academic
self-concept exhibit positive behaviors like goal setting and perseverance,
those with a negative perspective may lack motivation and engagement
(Omolade & Adeleye, 2021; Prince & Nurius, 2014). This cycle can be exac-
erbated by stress and social comparison (Huh, 2015). Understanding how
factors like social comparison orientation and sense of belonging may influ-
ence academic self-concept can provide valuable insights into supporting
student success. This knowledge can then inform strategies to mitigate the
negative impacts of stress on students’ academic performance and overall
well-being.
Stress
Although college can be a time of growth and success for many students, the
college environment brings unique challenges that are often sources of stress
for college students (e.g., pressure to perform, increased time restraints, high
workloads, and changes in self-perception regarding academics; Bedewy &
Gabriel, 2015). Additionally, college students, like most adults, experience
interpersonal and environmental stressors, such as changes in romantic rela-
tionships and difficulties with transportation (Ross et al., 1999). Stress levels
of college students are not trivial, as almost half of students surveyed reported
that they experience more than a “normal” amount of stress (Beiter et al.,
2015). This frequency indicates that the students believe themselves to be
stressed to higher levels than is optimal, and their perception of this stress as
detrimental is well supported with research. For example, stress levels of col-
lege students are associated with incidence of depression and anxiety, lack of
sleep, poor diet, and lower student satisfaction (Beiter et al., 2015; Britz &
Pappas, 2010; J. Lee & Jang, 2015).
6 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
Although stress is a pervasive part of every college student’s experience,
college students from underrepresented backgrounds often face additional
obstacles while trying to complete their degree, which can lead to increased
stress levels. Students from lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds
experience higher levels of stress (Karimshah et al., 2013) and are often
required to work more, which directly impacts their sleep and mental well-
being (Peltz et al., 2021). Students from historically underrepresented ethnic
or racial groups may also experience additional stressors (i.e., Minority Stress
Model, Frost & Meyer, 2023; Meyer, 2003), such as acculturative stress
(Castillo et al., 2008), perception of low public regard for their ethnic identity
(Chee et al., 2019), racial discrimination and work conflict (Le & Iwamoto,
2022), and chronic role strain (Myers & Harrell, 2024). Examining one or
more of the factors predicting student stress can lead to an informative, albeit
sometimes complicated, discussion of intersectionality. For example, being a
Latina woman from a low-SES background (Sy, 2006) brings challenges that
are in some ways similar but in other ways different to a Black man from a
low-SES background (Strayhorn, 2010).
Even though stress varies for different demographics and the intersection-
ality of identities, quantifying predictors can support arguments for compensa-
tory resources (e.g., increased funding, implementation of culturally-informed
practices). For example, research shows that first-generation college students
(FGCS), students whose parents have not earned a 4-year college degree,
often experience more stress than their counterparts (Amirkhan et al., 2023).
For students who attend an HMI, Hispanic identity and SES predicted levels
of stress, but first-generation college student status did not (Huynh et al.,
2023). This relationship could be due in part to the robust programming for
first-generation students at the university. Studies have suggested that in addi-
tion to mentorship programs (Everett, 2023; Laiduc et al., 2021), other factors
associated with lower levels of stress for college students include social sup-
port (Alvan et al., 1996; Goodwill et al., 2022; Roche & Kuperminc, 2012),
expressing or embracing one’s identity (Clayton et al., 2019), and introductory
courses that address the hidden curriculum and important academic skills
(Frankel & Smith, 2022). As such, documenting helpful interventions, such as
mentorship programs for FGCS (Everett, 2023), could result in benefits that
are far-reaching. Knowing if and where there are gaps in support services is
essential to closing gaps in achievement and success. Therefore, the literature
could benefit from investigations into the relationships between social com-
parison processes, belongingness, academic self-concept, and stress, particu-
larly for Hispanic students at HMIs, who have not been well-represented in
prior work as it is important to avoid assumptions that the relationships
between variables is the same across contexts (Núñez et al., 2015).
Huynh et al. 7
Summary of Frameworks and Hypotheses
Social comparison theory suggests that people tend to derive their sense of
self from comparing themselves to others, particularly to others in their
immediate environment. In this case, Hispanic students attending a Hispanic
Majority Institution may be more likely to compare themselves to other
Hispanic students and identify with being in the ingroup. Furthermore, social
comparison orientation represents people’s general inclination to compare
themselves to others. Therefore, students who are higher in social compari-
son orientation tend to compare themselves to others more frequently than
students who are lower in social comparison orientation. Based on this frame-
work, we proposed that Hispanic students who often engage in social com-
parison would be more frequently reminded of their place at the university, as
such they would report increased feelings of rejection and exclusion, and
decreased feelings of acceptance/inclusion. Additionally, increased frequency
of social comparison would create more opportunities to question one’s self-
worth which may bring about increased self-doubt and decreased self-confi-
dence. As such, in Hypothesis 1, we predicted that social comparison
orientation would be related to belongingness (negatively to acceptance/
inclusion, and positively to rejection/exclusion) and academic self-concept
(negatively to self-confidence, positively to self-doubt).
Similarly, students’ increased frequency in self-evaluation (i.e., higher social
comparison orientation) could result in more thorough reviews and frequent
reminders of their stressors. As such, in Hypothesis 2, we predicted that social
comparison orientation would be positively related to stress. Furthermore, stu-
dents’ increased stress levels and assessment of whether they can adequately
manage the stress could prompt thoughts about whether they belong and are
equipped to succeed in the college environment. As such, in Hypothesis 3, we
predicted that stress would be related to belongingness (positively with rejec-
tion/exclusion) and academic self-concept (positively with self-doubt). Finally,
our framework suggests that the frequency in which students compare them-
selves to others may give rise to increased stress, and this stress is ultimately the
reason why students negatively feel like they do not belong in college and doubt
their academic abilities. As such, in Hypothesis 4, we predicted that stress would
mediate the association between social comparison orientation with belonging-
ness (rejection/exclusion) and academic self-concept (self-doubt).
Method
Participants
Undergraduate students received a recruitment email via their university
address. Students (N = 405) opened the survey link, 32 did not proceed beyond
8 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
the consent page, and 102 answered some questions but failed to complete at
least 67% (2/3) of the survey. A final sample of 261 complete responses was
considered for analysis. Of the complete responses from these participants,
191 self-identified as Hispanic (138 as Hispanic singularly, 41 as Hispanic
and White/Caucasian, and 12 as Hispanic and Black/Asian/Native American).
Remaining participants were not included in further analyses. Of participants
who self-identified as Hispanic, 37 self-identified as male, 145 as female, 7
as non-binary/third, and 2 selected “prefer not to say.” There were 68 students
who identified as Hispanic and low SES (selected 1–4 on the subjective SES
scale; see more information about the scale in Demographic Information sec-
tion below). The average age was 26.32 years (SD = 9.37; range = 18–65).
Participants reported majors in Psychology (47), Business/Marketing (23),
Biology (23), Education (17), Criminology (14), and other (67). All partici-
pants were recruited from Texas A&M University-San Antonio to which all
authors were affiliated at the time of data collection. This arrangement made
the research ethics approval process more streamlined and increased feasibil-
ity of data collection.
Materials
We describe the assessments and questionnaires pertinent to this manuscript
below. The study variables were assessed with peer-reviewed, published, and
validated scales. We would like to note that the variables reported in this
report are part of a larger data collection effort. All measures for that effort
are posted on the Open Science Framework (OSF).
Social Comparison Orientation. Participants rated their agreement with items
on the Scale of Social Comparison Orientation (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999) on
a 5-point Likert scale (1 = I disagree strongly, 5 = I agree strongly). The origi-
nal published scale had two subscales distinguishing abilities and opinions.
However, Gibbons and Buunk suggested that researchers use the scale as a
singular measure of SCO. The original scale had 11 items, but Qualtrics input
errors reduced the scale to only 8 items (items 5, 10, and 11 from the original
scale were excluded due to our error setting up the survey). Item 5 displayed
the word “reverse” at the end of the item, which was supposed to be internal
as a reminder to reverse code the item after data collection. Items 10 and 11
were inadvertently merged into one item. The 8-item measure nevertheless
had good reliability (α = .86). Sample items include: “I always pay a lot of
attention to how I do things compared with how others do things”; “I am not
the type of person who compares often with others” (reverse scored). Higher
scores indicate higher social comparison orientation.
Huynh et al. 9
General Belongingness Scale. The General Belongingness Scale (Malone et al.,
2012) included 12 items in which participants answered on a 5-point Likert
scale (1 = I disagree strongly, 5 = I agree strongly). Six items assessed the
acceptance/inclusion subscale (α = .88). Examples include: “When I am with
other people, I feel included”; “I feel accepted by others”; “I have a sense of
belonging.” Higher scores indicate a greater sense of belongingness (i.e.,
higher feelings of being accepted and included). Additionally, six items
assessed the rejection/exclusion subscale (α = .89). Examples include: “I feel
as if people do not care about me”; “When I am with other people, I feel like
a stranger”). Higher scores indicate a weaker sense of belongingness (i.e.,
higher feelings of being rejected/excluded).
Academic Self-Concept. Two subscales of academic self-concept (Reynolds,
1988) assessed self-confidence and self-doubt in academic ability. Partici-
pants rated their agreement on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree,
5 = strongly agree) for each of the 11 relevant items. The self-confidence sub-
scale (α = .68) has three items (i.e., “Most courses are very easy for me.”;
“Most exams are easy for me.”; “Most of the time while taking a test I feel
confident.”). Higher scores indicate more self-confidence. The self-doubt
subscale (α = .88) has eight items (e.g., “I feel that I do not have the necessary
abilities for certain courses in my major.”; “I have doubts that I will do well
in my major.”). Higher scores indicate more self-doubt.
Perceived Stress Scale. Participants rated their stress on a 5-point Likert scale
(0 = never, 4 = very often) using 14 items (α = .75) of the Perceived Stress
Scale (Cohen et al., 1983). The scale contains eight items that were scored
normally (e.g., “In the last month, how often have you felt that you were
unable to control the important things in your life?”; “In the last month, how
have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to
do?”). Additionally, six items were reversed scored (e.g., “In the last month,
how often have you been able to control irritations in your life?”; “In the last
month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things?”). Higher
scores indicate more stress.
Demographic Information. Participants self-reported information about their
age, sex, levels of education, major, and race/ethnicity. In addition to these
sample characteristics, participants also reported their first-generation col-
lege student and socioeconomic status (SES). For first generation college
student status, participants indicated their status with the following defini-
tion, “You are considered a first-generation college student if neither of your
parents completed a bachelor’s degree. If your parent(s) and/or guardian(s)
10 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
attended college but do not have a bachelor’s degree (i.e., did not graduate),
you are considered to be first-generation.”
For SES, participants completed the single-item version of the MacArthur
Scale of Subjective Social Status-Adult Version (Singh-Manoux et al.,
2005). Alongside a drawing of a ladder with 10 numbered rungs, partici-
pants read, “Imagine a ladder that shows how your society is set up. At the
top of the ladder are the people who are the best off--they have the most
money, the highest amount of schooling, and the jobs that bring the most
respect. At the bottom are people who are the worst off--they have the least
money, little or no education, no jobs or jobs that no one wants or respects.
Now think of your family. Please tell us where you think your family would
be on this ladder by selecting the corresponding number below.” Responses
range from 1 to 10, with higher values indicating higher subjective SES.
Procedure
Participants completed all procedures online using Qualtrics. After reading
the information page and providing their consent, participants answered the
various questionnaires, which were presented in random order to minimize
order effects. Then, participants provided demographic information and read
a debriefing statement. Participants could skip questions, as all questions
were optional. After completing the survey, participants could use a separate
link to type their email address to enter a drawing for one of eighteen $50 gift
cards. All study materials and procedures were approved by Texas A&M
University-San Antonio’s Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Data Analysis Plan
We used bivariate correlations to test the first three hypotheses, then used
PROCESS Macro in SPSS to test Hypothesis 4 (mediation). PROCESS is an
observed variable ordinary least squares (OLS) and logistic regression path
analysis modeling tool (processmacro.org). This modeling tool is widely
used throughout the social and behavioral sciences for estimating direct and
indirect effects in single and multiple mediator models. As such, it is well
suited to handle the proposed multivariate analyses necessary to test our
hypotheses (Hayes, 2017). Using Model 4 of the PROCESS Macro, we tested
two separate models, one with academic self-doubt as the main outcome and
another with exclusion/rejection. In both models, we had social comparison
as the primary predictor, with participant SES, sex, and first-generation col-
lege student status as covariates.
Huynh et al. 11
Results
Bivariate Correlations
Regarding belongingness, bivariate correlations revealed that social compari-
son orientation was positively related to rejection/exclusion, r = .24, p < .001,
but was unrelated to acceptance/inclusion, r = −.02, p = .75. Regarding aca-
demic self-concept, social comparison orientation was positively related to
self-doubt, r = .31, p < .001, but was not related to self-confidence, r = .01,
p = .87. Additionally, analyses showed that social comparison orientation was
positively related to stress, r = .30, p < .001, which was also associated with
belongingness, negatively with acceptance/inclusion, r = −.44, p < .001, and
positively with rejection/exclusion, r = .54, p < .001. Stress was also associ-
ated with academic self-concept, negatively with self-confidence, r = −.20,
p = .002, and positively with self-doubt, r = .53, p < .001. See Table 1 for cor-
relations between study measures.
Mediation Analyses
Bivariate correlations demonstrated that social comparison orientation was
not related to self-confidence and acceptance/inclusion, but was related to
rejection/exclusion and self-doubt. As such, we proceeded with our media-
tion analyses using only rejection/exclusion and self-doubt as outcomes.
Below, we organize each analysis by outcome.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Study Variables.
Variable n M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Social comparison
orientation
191 3.35 (0.87) —
2. General
belongingness
acceptance/inclusion
190 3.58 (0.88) −.02 —
3. General
belongingness
rejection/exclusion
189 2.75 (1.12) .24** −.73** —
4. Academic self-
concept self-doubt
187 2.84 (1.07) .31** −.40** .58** —
5. Academic self-
concept self-
confidence
190 2.99 (0.90) .01 .24** −.15* −.43** —
6. Perceived stress 184 3.12 (0.48) .30** −.44** .54** .53** −.20* —
*p < .05. **p < .001.
12 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
Rejection/Exclusion. Multiple regression analyses assessed each component of
the mediation model (see Figure 1). The results supported a significant asso-
ciation between the variables of interest, F(5,176) = 19.73, p < .001, R2 = .36.
Controlling for students’ SES, b = −0.15, t(182) = −3.93, p < .001, and first-
generation college student status, b = 0.38, t(182) = 2.42, p = .02, we found
that students’ social comparison orientation was positively correlated with
rejection/exclusion, b = 0.23, t(182) = 2.60, p = .01. We also found that social
comparison orientation was positively correlated with stress, b = 0.15,
t(182) = 3.93, p < .001. Additionally, we found that stress was positively cor-
related with rejection/exclusion, b = 1.15, t(182) = 7.51, p < .001.
Results from the mediation analyses confirmed the mediating role of
stress in the relation between social comparison orientation and rejection/
exclusion, b = 0.17, 95% CI [0.08, 0.26]. Moreover, results indicated that the
direct effect of social comparison orientation on rejection/exclusion became
insignificant, b = 0.06, t(182) = 0.74, p = .45, when controlling for stress, thus
suggesting full mediation.
Figure 1. Mediation analysis of associations between social comparison
orientation, stress, and rejection/exclusion.
Note. Model represents multiple regression analyses used to assess each component.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Huynh et al. 13
Academic Self-Doubt. Similar analyses were conducted with academic self-
concept–self-doubt (see Figure 2). The results supported a significant asso-
ciation between the variables of interest, F(5,176) = 15.36, p < .001, R2 = .31.
We found that students’ social comparison orientation was positively corre-
lated with academic self-doubt, b = 0.38, t(178) = 4.19, p < .0001. We also
found that social comparison orientation was positively correlated with
stress, b = 0.16, t(178) = 3.98, p < .001. Additionally, we found that stress was
positive correlated with academic self-doubt, b = 1.08, t(178) = 6.96, p < .001.
Results from the mediation analyses confirmed the mediating role of
stress in the relation between social comparison orientation and academic
self-doubt, b = 0.17, 95% CI [0.09, 0.26]. Moreover, results indicated that the
direct effect of social comparison orientation was reduced, b = 0.21,
t(178) = 2.52, p = .01, when controlling for stress, thus suggesting partial
mediation.
Figure 2. Mediation analysis of associations between social comparison
orientation, stress, and academic self-doubt.
Note. Model represents multiple regression analyses used to assess each component.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
14 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
Discussion
Our study focused on social comparison orientation’s association with
belongingness, as it pertains to perceptions of acceptance/inclusion and rejec-
tion/exclusion, and academic self-concept, as it pertains to self-confidence
and self-doubt. We were particularly interested in the experience of Hispanic
students attending Hispanic Majority Institutions (HMIs; in which Hispanic
students represent the numerical majority on campus). This membership in
the majority group counters the trend for social comparison research, in
which Hispanic students are usually studied as belonging to the minoritized
group. In short, membership in the majority group may affect social compari-
son processes in ways that the literature has yet to explore.
We found mixed support for our hypotheses. Regarding Hypothesis 1 on
belongingness, we found support for the hypothesis that social comparison
orientation would be positively related to rejection/exclusion, but there was
no association between social comparison orientation and acceptance.
Similarly, when it came to academic self-concept, we found that social com-
parison orientation was positively related to self-doubt, but we did not find an
association between social comparison orientation and self-confidence. We
discuss these findings below, which may have implications for researchers
and practitioners who work with students at Hispanic Majority Institutions.
Importantly, social comparison orientation significantly predicted the neg-
atively valanced perceptions (i.e., rejection/exclusion, self-doubt), but was
unrelated to the positively valanced perceptions (i.e., acceptance/inclusion,
self-confidence). These findings held true even when we controlled for stu-
dents’ subjective socioeconomic status, sex, and first-generation college stu-
dent status. This pattern suggests that for Hispanic students at HMIs, the
frequency of social comparison may be associated with feelings of being
rejected or excluded within their academic environment, and to feelings of
self-doubt about their academic abilities. However, the tendency to compare
oneself to others does not necessarily decrease or increase feelings of accep-
tance/inclusion or confidence. These findings corroborate the idea that rejec-
tion/exclusion is not simply opposite of acceptance/inclusion (Malone et al.,
2012). As such, programs and interventions focused on increasing belonging-
ness and academic self-concept based on changing social comparison pro-
cesses need to be mindful of whether the goal is to increase positive feelings
of belonging/inclusion or to decrease feelings of rejection/exclusion. Based
on our data, shifting social comparison orientation may be effective for low-
ering feelings of rejection/exclusion but ineffective for boosting feelings of
inclusion/acceptance. G. A. Garcia (2017) highlighted that institutions classi-
fied as HSI should focus on several components to “serving” Hispanic
Huynh et al. 15
students including a positive campus climate, community engagement, and
support programs, in addition to the numerical outcomes such as enrollment
and graduation rates.
In addition to demonstrating these associations, we examined stress as a
potential mechanism to explain why social comparison orientation was asso-
ciated with feelings of rejection/exclusion and academic self-doubt. First, we
demonstrated that stress was related to both social comparison orientation
and belongingness and academic self-concept, which supported Hypotheses
2 and 3. Then, we showed that stress fully mediated the relationship between
social comparison orientation and rejection/exclusion, and partially mediated
the relationship between social comparison and academic self-doubt, which
supported Hypothesis 4. In other words, we found that higher social compari-
son orientation is associated with more stress, which is then associated with
increased feelings of rejection/exclusion and academic self-doubt. These
findings suggest that Hispanic students who are more prone to comparing
themselves to others may face worse outcomes related to their academic
experience, and this may be driven by stress.
Taken together, these findings may be best explained within the frame-
work of minority stress theory (Frost & Meyer, 2023; Meyer, 2003). When
thinking about what it means to be a Hispanic student attending an HMI,
students may experience mixed sentiments. In one sense, students might find
more comfort in the fact that their typical targets of social comparison are
other Hispanic students. On the other hand, Hispanic students may experi-
ence distal (e.g., discrimination, harassment) and proximal stressors (e.g.,
feelings of stigma, expectation of rejection) that affect their well-being sim-
ply because they belong to a traditionally minoritized group (Frost & Meyer,
2023; Huynh et al., 2023). As such, perhaps sharing a space with many other
Hispanic students can lead to reminders about their Hispanic identity within
the broader societal context, and those students who are more prone to engag-
ing in social comparison may be most likely to remind themselves of this
context and experience the associated negative consequences.
Limitations and Future Directions
The study data were from a survey using previously validated scales with
demonstrated robust reliability in previous studies and with our current study
sample. However, given the cross-sectional nature of our approach, we did
not directly influence participants’ social comparison orientation or other
measures. Without experimental manipulation of one or more of these con-
structs, caution must be used to interpret these results as correlational and not
causal in nature. Future research can aim to influence social comparisons in
16 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)
ways that may lower self-doubt and increase self-confidence, which can then
lead to longitudinal research examining whether these changes can affect stu-
dent success (e.g., persistence, retention, graduation) over time.
In order to maximize our sample size, we did not have any controls in
place to limit participation by certain demographic factors. That is, we did
not stratify our recruitment by any specific group (e.g., by sex). As such, we
were not able to control for response bias or other forms of bias that could be
introduced by this type of convenience sampling. For example, in our study,
75% of our participants identified as female, whereas 65% of the student
population of Texas A&M University-San Antonio identifies as female. As
such, future researchers with access to larger participant pools may elect to
stratify their recruitment to ensure that the study sample represents their
intended population to which they want to generalize their findings (e.g., to
match with specific university settings).
Additionally, the data included in this study were from a specific demo-
graphic of mostly Hispanic, first-generation college students. Although find-
ings based on these data can be helpful to institutions with a similar student
population, it may not generalize to other universities such as Historically
Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). The cultural and historical con-
texts of different universities where traditionally minoritized students are in
the majority need to be closely examined alongside the demographic compo-
sition in of itself. As G. A. Garcia (2019) highlights via several case studies,
each educational institution is different and may find different ways to sup-
port its students. Culturally engaging campuses are typically associated with
a higher sense of belonging but understanding how other variables such as
living conditions and employment situation are also important directions for
future research (Museus et al., 2017). Regardless, it is important to conduct
research that centers race (G. A. Garcia, 2019) in order to contribute to the
literature on institutions other than Primarily White Institutions.
Importantly, our framework did not account for Hispanic students’ culture,
identity, or experiences in shaping their mental health, well-being, or stress.
Future works can fill in this gap, for example, by not only asking about
whether students identify as Hispanic or not, but also about the degree to
which they feel that identification and the degree to which they subscribe to
cultural norms and values associated with being Hispanic. Finally, there are
likely additional factors that may contribute to stress and self-doubt that we
did not assess in our data collection. Stress can accumulate from many differ-
ent sources based on both the external environment and interpersonal differ-
ences. Future research should continue exploring various contributors to stress
for college students to better understand how to moderate and alleviate stress
and improve the academic outcomes and overall well-being of students.
Huynh et al. 17
Conclusion
Our study examined associations between social comparison orientation with
belongingness, academic self-concept, and stress in a sample of Hispanic stu-
dents who attend Hispanic Majority Institutions. We found that students’ gen-
eral inclination to compare themselves to others predicted stronger feelings
of rejection/exclusion and self-doubt about their academic abilities, and that
stress likely explains this relationship. These findings offer important insight
on college students’ experiences and their quest for achievement within this
landscape. This research may be particularly poignant for this population of
students, who are underserved and under-studied, yet may continue to grow
in numbers in the years ahead.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank two anonymous reviewers who provided constructive feedback that
has helped to improve this manuscript.
Data Availability
All study materials can be found on the Open Science Framework at https://osf.
io/6ud3f/.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article: This project was supported by funding
from the National Science Foundation Grant: 2222219.
ORCID iDs
Ho Phi Huynh https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9931-7467
Jasmyne Thomas https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9069-8608
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Author Biographies
Dr. Ho Phi Huynh is a Lecturer at the Australian National University. He previously
worked as an Associate Professor at Texas A&M University-San Antonio. He is a
social-health psychologist who is generally interested in college student success and
well-being, particularly for traditionally underserved students. He also studies humil-
ity in different contexts.
Jasmyne Thomas is a Graduate Student in General Psychology at Texas A&M
University – San Antonio. Her research explores social comparison processes and
belongingness among college students, particularly for traditionally underserved
students.
Isabella Castellanos is an Undergraduate Student of the psychology program at
Texas A&M University-San Antonio. She is interested in research topics related to
social psychology such as college student success and student stress.
Dr. Dawn R. Weatherford is a Cognitive Psychologist who works at Texas A&M
University-San Antonio as an Associate Professor. She mentors undergraduate and
graduate students within research topics at the intersection of cognitive psychology
and other fields (e.g., education, law, health).
Dr. Malin K. Lilley is an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Texas A&M University
– Central Texas. Her research explores how students’ personal and professional goals
are impacted by their social identity. Additionally, she studies marine mammal behav-
ior and cognition, including the social development of beluga whales.
