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ISSN 1831-9424
EUR 40054
Arias-Navarro C., Baritz R., Jones A. (Eds)
2024
Fully evidenced, spatially organised assessment
of the pressures driving soil degradation.
This document is a publication by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s science and
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or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Contact information
Name: Arwyn Jones
Address: European Commission Joint Research Centre, Sustainable Resources Directorate – Land Resources and
Supply Chain Assessments Unit (D3) Unit, Via Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy
Email: Arwyn.JONES@ec.europa.eu
Tel.: +390332 78 9162
EU Science Hub
https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu
European Environment Agency
https://eea.europa.eu
JRC137600
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How to cite this report: Arias-Navarro, C., Baritz, R. and Jones, A. editor(s), 2024. The state of soils in Europe.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 01
Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................... 05
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................ 06
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... 07
Executive summary ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................... 12
01 Regional overview ........................................................................................................... 15
02 The role of soils as providers of vital ecosystem services ......................................... 18
03 Drivers of changes in soil health ................................................................................... 21
3.1 Climate change ................................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Land use and land cover change ...................................................................................... 21
3.3 Socioeconomic drivers ....................................................................................................... 22
3.4 Soil water ............................................................................................................................. 22
..................................................... 24
04 Regional status and trend of soil degradation .......................................................... 26
......................................................................... 26
4.1.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................. 26
4.1.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 29
4.1.3 Impacts ..................................................................................................................................... 30
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202402
.................................................................................................................. 31
4.2.1 Status and trends ............................................................................................................ 31
4.2.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 32
4.2.3 Impacts ..................................................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Soil carbon change (in mineral soils, organic soils and inorganic carbon) ................. 34
4.3.1 Mineral soils ............................................................................................................................ 34
4.3.2 Organic soils ........................................................................................................................... 37
4.3.3 Inorganic carbon .................................................................................................................... 41
4.4 Soil erosion .......................................................................................................................... 43
4.4.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................. 44
4.4.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 49
4.4.3 Impacts ..................................................................................................................................... 51
4.5 Soil compaction .................................................................................................................. 53
4.5.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................. 53
4.5.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 55
4.5.3 Impacts .................................................................................................................................... 55
4.6 Soil pollution ........................................................................................................................ 56
4.6.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................. 57
4.6.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 60
...................................................................................... 63
4.7.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................. 64
4.7.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 66
4.7.3 Impacts ..................................................................................................................................... 67
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 03
4.8 Soil biodiversity change ..................................................................................................... 68
4.8.1 Status and trends .................................................................................................................. 69
4.8.2 Drivers ...................................................................................................................................... 70
4.8.3 Impacts ..................................................................................................................................... 70
4.9 Soil sealing and land take ................................................................................................. 71
4.9.1 Soil sealing ............................................................................................................................... 72
4.9.2 Land take ................................................................................................................................. 73
4.9.3 Landscape fragmentation ................................................................................................... 75
4.9.4 Land recycling rate ................................................................................................................ 76
4.9.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 76
05 Convergence of evidence for soil degradation in Europe ........................................ 78
5.1 Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 78
5.1.1 National Soil Monitoring programs ................................................................................... 79
5.1.2 International co-operative programme on assessment and monitoring of air
................................................................................................. 81
5.2 EU Soil Observatory Soil Degradation Dashboard ......................................................... 85
06 Understanding the interplay between drivers and impacts of soil degradation ... 88
6.1 Interconnections between soil degradation factors: Understanding complexities in
European soil health .......................................................................................................... 88
6.2 Assessing the impacts of soil degradation on Ecosystems, Agriculture, and Society
in Europe .............................................................................................................................. 89
07 The role of citizen science in assessing soil conditions ............................................ 92
7.1 Current citizen science activities ...................................................................................... 93
7.2 Outlook ................................................................................................................................ 94
The State of Soils in Europe - 202404
08 Towards sustainable soil governance: Policy pathways for preserving
soil health in Europe ...................................................................................................... 96
8.1 From the soil thematic strategy to the Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law:
Advancing soil protection policies in the EU ....................................................................96
......................................................................97
09 Ensuring soil health and ecosystem resilience amid diverse land use demands
in Europe ........................................................................................................................... 99
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................................... 101
References ....................................................................................................................................................102
......................................................................................................141
Glossary .........................................................................................................................................................142
List of boxes .................................................................................................................................................. 146
................................................................................................................................................146
List of tables .................................................................................................................................................. 147
...................................................................................................148
Getting in touch with the EU .....................................................................................................................154
Finding information about the EU ...........................................................................................................154
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 05
Abstract
This report investigates the intricate interplay
between drivers of changes in soil health
and pressures and impacts on soil in the
countries, along with six cooperating countries
from the West Balkans, Ukraine and UK, shedding
light on the multifaceted challenges facing soil
complex interactions among various factors,
both anthropogenic and natural, shaping soil
degradation processes and their subsequent
agriculture, ecosystem resilience, water quality,
biodiversity, and human health, underscoring the
urgent need for comprehensive soil management
strategies. Moreover, our examination of citizen
science initiatives underlines the importance
of engaging the public in soil monitoring and
policy relevance of promoting sustainable soil
governance frameworks, supported by research,
innovation, and robust soil monitoring schemes,
to safeguard soil health and ensure the long-term
resilience of ecosystems.
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202406
The sustainable management of soils is a
formidable challenge, but crucial if we are
to truly meet the aspirations and objectives
of a European green transition. Healthy soils, and
the diverse lifeforms that live within them, provide
us with food, biomass and raw materials, while
regulating climate, water and nutrient cycles. Soil
is a unique habitat in its own right, hosting almost
60% of all biodiversity on terrestrial land; it also
underpins aboveground ecosystems.
Unfortunately, Europe’s soils are deteriorating.
Taking centuries or millennia to form, they can
be destroyed or damaged in minutes. According
to the analysis of the Joint Research Centre’s EU
least 63% of soils in the European Union.
Together with the European Environment Agency,
the Joint Research Centre has assembled a rich
and communicate the need to protect soils to the
wider society. This is in line with the vision and
objectives of the European Union’s Soil Strategy
2030 and Horizon Europe’s Mission “A Soil Deal
for Europe” to enhance soil literacy.
Building on a previous JRC and EEA assessment
on the state of soils from 2012, this updated
report provides new insights and highlights a
in the report, it is worth mentioning that many
soils are experiencing carbon loss – this could
pose a threat to the EU's climate targets if left
unaddressed. About 1 billion tonnes of soil are
washed away by erosion every year with
concerns of increasing losses of erosion as a
result of more extreme weather events. Between
2012 and 2018, more than 400km² of land was
lost per year to soil sealing in the European
land in the EU+UK faces excessive nitrogen
inputs, while extensive areas exhibit phosphorus
surpluses. Moreover, pesticide residues and
other pollutants are prevalent in agricultural soils,
further exacerbating environmental concerns.
However, many countries still lack comprehensive
The proposed Soil Monitoring Law, supported by
research and innovation initiatives such as the
Horizon Europe mission, ‘A soil deal for Europe’,
aims to address this gap while supporting
the transition towards a more sustainable
future. Future versions of this report will be
data from the Law in order to provide a more
comprehensive picture of the state of soils.
This publication marks an important milestone
towards a better understanding of the role of soil
in Europe and beyond. We encourage readers to
share and promote this rich knowledge base.
Foreword
Leena Ylä-Mononen
Executive Director
European Environment Agency
Bernard Magenhann
Director General
Joint Research Centre
European Commission
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 07
This report was made possible by the com-
mitment and voluntary work of Europe’s
leading soil scientists and the institutions
from the European Environment Information and
-
We would like to express our gratitude to all the
lead authors and contributing authors.
The Joint Research Centre and European Environ-
with assisting in the production of the report,
along with reviewers Carolina Puerta Pinero and
Hakki Erdogan. The report’s production was
facilitated by PUBSY, the corporate management
system for the centre’s outputs.
Acknowledgements
he State of Soils
in Europe
Soil assessments in the EU are made possible
gratitude to all involved in its implementation.
The coordination of LUCAS is facilitated by Unit
addition, soil sample collection and laboratory
analyses are supported by the Directorate-Gen-
eral for Environment, the Directorate-General
for Agriculture and Rural Development and the
Directorate-General for Climate Action.
While the related work is currently in the very
early stages, we hope that future revisions of this
report will be underpinned by the EU soil moni-
toring and resilience directive and the advances
in understanding and monitoring techniques
brought about by the Horizon Europe mission
‘A soil deal for Europe’.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202408
Chapter Lead author(s) Co-author(s)
Abstract Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Executive summary Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Introduction Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Chapter 1 Regional overview Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira
Chapter 2
The role of soils as
providers of vital
ecosystem services
Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira
Stefano Salata; Ottone Scammacca;
Michele Munafo; Silvia Ronchi; Andrea
Arcidiacono
Chapter 3
Drivers of changes
in soil health
Rainer Baritz; Diana Vieira;
Cristina Arias-Navarro; Elise Van Eynde; Arwyn Jones
Chapter 4
Regional status
of and trends in
soil degradation
4.1 Soil nutrients
excess and
Elise Van Eynde
Philippe Hinsinger; Dalila Serpa;
Frederik Bøe; Gerard Ros; Eduardo
Moreno Jimenez; Felipe Yunta
Felipe Yunta; Elise Van Eynde
Philippe Hinsinger; Dalila Serpa;
Frederik Bøe; Gerard Ros; Eduardo
Moreno Jimenez
4.3 Soil carbon
soils, organic soils,
and inorganic
Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Daniele De Rosa; Iñigo Virto
Christopher Poeplau; Gabriele
Buttafuoco; Panos Panagos; Arwyn
Jones; Cristiano Ballabio; Emanuele
Lugato; Stefan Frank; Tiphaine
Chevallier; Rosa M Poch
4.4 Soil erosion Panos Panagos
Pasquale Borrelli; Francis Matthews;
Diana Vieira; Matthias Vanmaercke;
Jean Poesen; Gunay Erpul; Velibor
Spalevic; Snezana Dragovic; Yuriy
Dmytruk; Anita Bernatek-Jakiel; Philipp
Saggau; Leonidas Liakos; Christine
Alewell
4.5 Soil compaction Panos Panagos; Felipe Yunta Cristina Arias-Navarro; Mathieu
Lamandé; Cristiano Ballabio
4.6 Soil pollution Diana Vieira
Felipe Yunta; Diego Baragaño; Olivier
Vera Silva; Ana De La Torre;
Chaosheng Zhang; Panos Panagos;
Arwyn Jones; Piort Wojda
4.7 Soil salinisation
Calogero Schillaci; Felipe Yunta
Chiara Piccini; Claudia Cagnarini; Zoka
Melpomeni; Fuat Kaya;
Kitti Balog; Noelia García Franco;
Simone Scarpa
4.8 Soil biodiversity
change Alberto Orgiazzi
Timo Breure; Maria J.I. Briones;
Julia Köninger; Marcel Van Der Heijden;
Nikolaos Monokrousos;
Maëva Labouyrie;
Davorka K. Hackenberger
4.9 Soil sealing and
land take Stefano Salata
Ottone Scammacca;
Michele Munafò; Silvia Ronchi;
Andrea Arcidiacono
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 09
Chapter 5
Convergence of
evidence on soil
degradation in
Europe
Cristina Arias-Navarro Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira;
Nils Broothaerst
Chapter 6
Understanding the
interplay between
drivers and impacts
of soil degradation
Cristina Arias-Navarro Elise Van Eynde; Diana Vieira
Chapter 7
The Role of Citizen
Science in Soil
Health Assessment
Taru Sandén
Eloise Mason; Timo Breure;
Chantal Gascuel; Apolline Auclerc;
Erlisiana Anzalone;
Victoria J Burton; Froukje Rienks; Sara
Di Lonardo; Alba Peiro; Francisco Sanz;
Ulrike Aldrian;
Tanja Mimmo
Chapter 8
Towards
sustainable soil
governance: Policy
pathways for
preserving Soil
Health in Europe
Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Diana Vieira; Elise Van Eynde Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz
Chapter 9
Ensuring Soil
Health and
ecosystem
resilience amidst
diverse land use
demands in Europe
Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Diana Vieira; Elise Van Eynde Arwyn Jones; Rainer Baritz
Conclusions Cristina Arias-Navarro;
Transversal
contribution Western Balkans
Snezana Dragovic; Vesna Zupanc
Ukraine Yuriy Dmytruk; Vasyl Cherlinka;
Svitlana Romanova
Türkiye
Sevinc Madenoglu; Bulent Sonmez;
Philipp Maurischat; Fuat Kaya;
Sait Gezgin; Ibrahin Ortas;
Erhan Akca; Taskin Oztas;
Hasan Sabri Ozturk;
Koksal Aydinsakir; Hesna Ozcan; Atilla
Polat
Geographic
Information
System,
mapping, graphic
formulation, data
curation
Leonidas Liakos; Daniela De Medici;
Simone Scarpa;
Juan Martin Jimenez;
Christopher Havenga;
Daniele Beltrandi;
Marc Van-Liedekerke
The State of Soils in Europe - 202410
Policy context
Healthy soils need to be at the heart of the
European Green Deal. In this respect, this
report is aligned with several key EU policy
initiatives, such as the EU’s soil strategy for 2030,
part of the EU biodiversity strategy for 2030; the
zero pollution action plan; and the European
insights on the topic of soil degradation in Europe.
degradation processes, the stakes are high, with
impacts on food security, ecosystem services
and human health. This report synthesises
current research and highlights the issues that
need to be addressed through sustainable soil
and recommendations, the report aims to increase
understanding of this crucial area. Its relevance is
critical amid ongoing debates on environmental
sustainability and agricultural policies. Moreover,
climate change mitigation and land use planning,
and stressing the need for multistakeholder
cooperation to ensure environmental, social and
economic sustainability in Europe.
Key conclusions
degradation in Europe and highlights the
challenges arising from the impact of warfare on
as Ukraine. New policy measures may need to be
considered to address these emerging issues and
ensure the resilience of European soils.
the social impacts of soil degradation and the
gaps will require further research and greater
public engagement to raise awareness and foster
collective action.
several key policy-relevant consequences of
soil degradation and recommendations for
addressing this issue in Europe. Firstly, it is
evident that existing policy frameworks need
mitigate soil degradation processes. This will
involve, for example, implementing legislative
mechanisms such as the proposed soil monitoring
and resilience directive, which would provide
a framework for comprehensive soil health
assessments that could in turn support
targeted interventions.
In addition, there is a clear need for cross-
sectoral coordination and collaboration to
tackle soil degradation comprehensively. Policy
measures already in place could be strengthened
to incentivise farmers to adopt soil-friendly
land management practices through support
schemes and capacity-building initiatives.
urgency of addressing soil degradation in Europe
through targeted policy interventions, collaborative
approaches and continued investment in research
and innovation.
Main ndings
examination of soil degradation in the 32
European Environment Agency member countries
and in 6 collaborating nations in the western
Balkans, Ukraine and the United Kingdom. With
contributions from over 90 authors, the report
draws on the latest research, case studies and soil
monitoring data, providing a thorough analysis of
soil threats and their implications.
Executive summary
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 11
Europe’s soils serve as the foundation for a
multitude of ecosystem services that are crucial
for human well-being and environmental
sustainability. However, nutrient imbalances,
degradation, erosion, compaction, pollution
and salinisation jeopardise their essential
functions. Addressing these challenges requires
management strategies.
Soil monitoring programmes, such as the Land
to the EU Soil Observatory’s Soil Degradation
Dashboard play pivotal roles in making it possible
to assess soil condition, guiding policy formulation
and promoting sustainable land management
practices. In addition, they provide valuable
insights into trends in soil condition and help in
identifying areas in which intervention is needed.
There is a lack of comprehensive soil data in the
need for international collaboration and data-
sharing initiatives.
policy frameworks need to be strengthened,
neighbouring countries need to be supported
in transitioning to sustainable practices and
incentives for soil-friendly agriculture need to be
provided. Furthermore, improving soil restoration
techniques and making soil more resilient to
climate change will require investment in research
and innovation and in cross-sectoral cooperation.
By implementing these recommendations and
prioritising soil health, policymakers can safeguard
the long-term productivity and sustainability of
Europe’s soils, ensuring their ability to continue
providing essential ecosystem services for
generations to come.
Related and future JRC work
support to the European Commission in the
development and implementation of policies
aimed at protecting soil resources. Future
the implementation of the soil monitoring and
and recommendations for soil health assessments.
The Joint Research Centre remains dedicated
to incorporating soil-related considerations into
wider environmental policies and partnerships,
in line with the objectives of the ‘Science for
the Global Gateway and International Green
Deal’ initiative.
Quick guide
of soil degradation across Europe, focusing on key
challenges and policy recommendations.
Chapter 1 provides a regional overview,
highlighting the diversity of Europe's soils and
Chapter 2 discusses the vital role soils play in
providing ecosystem services, such as climate
support. Chapter 3
of soil degradation, including climate change,
land use practices, and pollution. The core of the
report, Chapter 4, presents the status and trends
of soil degradation across Europe, with detailed
insights at regional and national levels. Chapter 5
synthesises evidence from national soil monitoring
programs and the EU Soil Observatory to provide
a comprehensive view of soil degradation
across Europe. Chapter 6 explores the interplay
health, emphasising the complex nature of soil
degradation processes. Chapter 7 highlights
the role of citizen science in soil monitoring,
showcasing how public participation can
Chapter 8 reviews
current soil policies and suggests pathways for
strengthening soil governance and protection.
Chapter 9 addresses the challenge of balancing
land use demands with the need to protect soil
health and ensure ecosystem resilience.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202412
Soil health is the continued capacity of soil
to function as a vital living ecosystem that
sustains plants, animals and humans. While
traditional assessments of soil have primarily
focused on crop productivity, contemporary
perspectives on soil health encompass its impact
on water quality, contributions to climate change
dynamics and implications for human health
et al.
The health of soil ecosystems, covering their
physical, chemical and biological condition,
determines their capacity to function as vital living
systems and provide essential ecosystem services.
In recent years, concerns about the status of soil
health in Europe have escalated due to various
of agriculture, urbanisation, industrial activities
and climate change. Recognising the urgency of
addressing these challenges, policymakers have
increasingly turned their attention to understanding
the current state of soils and implementing
measures to ensure their long-term viability.
The primary purpose of this report is to assess the
state of soil in Europe, by examining key indicators,
trends and drivers of change. The geographical
scope of the assessment covers the 32 European
1
Ukraine and the United Kingdom. Drawing on
existing and recent evidence from research, case
studies and soil monitoring, the report discusses
various soil threats in its core chapters.
By synthesising existing research and data, the
report aims to provide policymakers, stakeholders
and the public with a comprehensive overview
of the current state of soil degradation in the
region. In addition, it seeks to identify gaps in
knowledge and propose recommendations for
1
Switzerland and Türkiye. The six cooperating countries are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo*, Montenegro,
North Macedonia and Serbia.
enhancing soil management practices and on
policy interventions.
The central policy problem addressed in this
report is soil degradation in Europe, which
has implications for agricultural productivity,
environmental sustainability and human
well- being. As soil degradation continues to
accelerate due to human activities, policymakers
are confronted with the challenge of developing
ecosystems. The overarching issue is determining
how to reconcile competing demands for land use
while safeguarding soil health and ensuring the
long-term resilience of European agriculture and
ecosystems.
The importance of prioritising soil health cannot
be overstated. Healthy soils are fundamental to
sustaining agricultural productivity, supporting
biodiversity, regulating water resources, mitigating
and adapting to climate change, and preserving
cultural heritage. Furthermore, soil degradation
reduced crop yields, increased input costs and
the loss of ecosystem services. By prioritising soil
health, policymakers can promote sustainable
land management practices, enhance resilience to
environmental stresses and safeguard the well-
being of current and future generations.
The main objectives of this report are multifaceted.
Firstly, it aims to assess the current state of soils
in Europe, including using key indicators such
as carbon level, pollution, nutrient availability,
compaction, erosion, salinisation and biodiversity.
Secondly, the report seeks to identify the drivers
of soil degradation and pressures on soil health,
ranging from land use changes and agricultural
and climate
variability. Thirdly, the research aims to evaluate
Introduction
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 13
existing policies and initiatives focused on soil
conservation and sustainable land management
practices. Finally, the report aims to propose
evidence-based recommendations on enhancing
soil monitoring and on policy development and
implementation at the European and national
levels. Ultimately, the report is designed to
inform decision-making processes and support
the development of holistic and integrated
approaches to soil management and conservation.
In summary, this report provides a
comprehensive overview of the state of soils
agriculture, the environment and society. By
addressing key policy questions and objectives,
the report aims to inform evidence-based
policymaking and promote sustainable soil
management practices across the region.
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202414
#01
Regional
overview
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 15
01 Regional overview
A
regional overview of soils in Europe
et
al.
characterised by more than 20 soil types,
according to the World Reference Base for Soil
continent, soils exhibit a wide range of features,
including in terms of texture, structure and
by factors such as parent material, climate,
In northern Europe, soils are predominantly
Histosols, which are soils formed from organic
material, and Podzols, which are soils typical of
boreal and temperate zones, with cool summers
and cold winters. Podzols are characterised
Source:
European Commission, 2005.
by an acidic pH, a low level of moisture and a
low nutrient content. These soils are therefore
often found in forested areas and have limited
agricultural potential.
Moving towards western Europe, soils vary widely
depending on the local parent material and
climate. The dominant soil types are Cambisols,
Luvisols and Albeluvisols. Luvisols are soils
generally productive soils suitable for a wide range
of agricultural uses. Cambisols are relatively young
soils, often being highly suitable for agricultural
land use.
In southern Europe, typical soils are Calcisols,
Cambisols and Leptosols. The Mediterranean
Figure 1.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202416
climate, with hot and dry summers and mild
winters with short periods of rain, favours the
development of Calcisols, with a high pH and low
organic matter content, and the poorly developed
Cambisols. The steep topography in mountainous
areas gives rise to very shallow Leptosols. Regosols
are typical of the mountain areas in Albania,
Greece, Italy, Spain and Türkiye. These soils are
poorly developed mineral soils, and often occur in
eroded land, for example in mismanaged orchards
and vineyards.
Eastern Europe exhibits a mix of soil types,
climates. Chernozems, Phaeozems, and
Kastanozems are typical soil types in the steppic
region. These soils are characterised by moderate
to high soil organic carbon content and are highly
suitable for arable cropping. The climate varies
from temperate continental in the north to more
continental and semi-arid in the south-east, which
explains the sequence of Phaeozem - Chernozem
– Kastanozem, characterised by the high
mineral horizon, with dark colors, and high base
saturation.
European region, are Fluvisols, Stagnosols and
rivers and lakes, having developed in alluvial
deposits. While Gleysols develop mainly in a low
water at depth, Stagnosols form in areas prone to
surface waterlogging.
Despite the diversity of European soils, they face
common threats, such as erosion, compaction,
et al.
, 2012; FAO and ITPS, 2015; EEA, 2019a; IPCC,
the ongoing changes in soil health and ecosystem
dynamics, it is important to incorporate new
soil conservation and management tailored to
diverse European contexts.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 17
#02
The role of soils
as providers
of vital ecosystem
services
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202418
02 The role of soils as providers
Europe’s diverse landscapes are home to a
rich tapestry of soils, each playing a vital role
in supporting ecosystems and providing a
myriad of essential services. Ecosystem Services
that human societies receive from Natural Capital
2
its ability to support plant growth, maintain
ecosystem biodiversity, regulate nutrient cycles,
and provide other essential ecosystem services.
Healthy soils exhibit attributes such as adequate
nutrient availability, balanced soil structure, diverse
microbial and faunal activity, good water retention
capacity, and resilience to environmental stresses
et al.
,. Nevertheless, it is crucial
to acknowledge that certain soils, such as Podzols
that are characterised by low nutrient availability,
may naturally lack some of these attributes. This
absence, however, does not necessarily imply an
unhealthy soil condition.
biodiversity by providing a habitat for a vast array
of organisms
et al.
, 2022; Labouyrie
et
al.
,. From microorganisms to fauna, soils
2 ‘Soil health’ means the physical, chemical and biological
condition of the soil determining its capacity to function as a
support a complex web of life. The diverse soil
fosters a wide range of plant species
et al.
,. This biodiversity, in turn, supports
ecosystem resilience, making it more adaptable to
environmental changes and disturbances.
Soils play a crucial role in regulating the climate
et al.
European soils store vast amounts of carbon,
helping to mitigate climate change by reducing
unsustainable land use practices, such as
deforestation and intensive agriculture, lead to
soil degradation and the release of stored carbon,
et al.
, 2019;
it passes through them. This process helps to
maintain water quality by removing impurities
and pollutants, reducing the contamination
of groundwater and surface water bodies. In
addition, soils play a vital role in water regulation,
ecosystems. Well-managed soils contribute to
et al.
, 2021; Keesstra
et al.
Soils are key to sustaining life, as they provide the
foundations for food and biomass production,
essential for agriculture and forestry. Europe’s
agricultural success is closely tied to its diverse
Europe’s diverse soils form the bedrock of ecosystems, providing a myriad of essential
services vital for human well-being and environmental sustainability. From supporting
biodiversity and regulating climate to purifying water and sustaining agriculture, soils
play a multifaceted role in maintaining the balance of our planet. Recognising the
intrinsic value of soils, including their cultural heritage, is imperative for safeguarding
these vital resources and fostering a resilient and inclusive society, in alignment with
the UN sustainable development goals.
of vital ecosystem services
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 19
to variations in soil properties, texture and fertility
et al.
, 2020; Fendrich
et al.
As the global population continues to grow, the
role of soils in ensuring food security becomes
sustaining crops and forests, soils serve as a vital
source of raw materials necessary for various
et al.
In light of historical and ongoing urbanisation
dynamics, natural ecosystems, including soils,
urban landscapes cannot be overstated. Urban
soils present many challenges and opportunities
Protecting soil cultural heritage is crucial for
enhancing soil security, as it strengthens the
by soils, going beyond traditional agricultural,
forestry and environmental perspectives to
include social and cultural dimensions, notably
soil cultural heritage. This recognition aligns
with the perspectives of various researchers
et
al.
comprehensive evaluation of soil health. They
emphasise the importance of assessing not
only the material value of soil but also its non-
commercial value, which encompasses cultural
heritage and recreation. These non-commercial
values of soils contribute to human well-being,
supporting the achievement of targets included
in the UN’s sustainable development goals by
promoting health, education, environmental
et
al.
health, education, diversity and cultural identity,
Friedrichsen
et al.
As Europe faces ongoing environmental challenges
biodiversity loss, climate change impacts and
habitat destruction, the wise stewardship of its
soils will be key to maintaining the health and
resilience of its ecosystems.
Source:
Created through the Joint Research Centre art and science programme by artists in residence Sonja Stummerer and
Martin Hablesreiter to highlight the importance of a fair, healthy and environmentally friendly food system fullling the UN
sustainable development goals as part of the European Green Deal.
Photo 1. Food and Futures.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202420
#03
Drivers of
changes in soil health
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 21
03 Drivers of changes
in soil health
Drivers of changes in soil health are the
the condition, quality and functionality of
drivers can originate from natural processes, such
as climate variability and geological dynamics, and
from human activities, including land use practices,
leading to alterations in their properties, biological
composition and functions. This can have
environmental sustainability and ecosystem
et al.
key drivers of soil change is essential for identifying
threats to ecosystems and assessing their
impacts, and implementing strategies to mitigate
soil degradation and promote sustainable soil
management practices.
3.1 Climate change
Climate change is one of the primary drivers of
various mechanisms. Prolonged periods of
pressure on soil resources such as water and
by altering heterotrophic activity, organic matter
decomposition rates and nutrient cycling
processes. Warmer temperatures can accelerate
soil organic matter decomposition, leading to
et
al.
increasing the risk of soil erosion, compaction and
et al.
, 2016; Kelishadi
et al.
, 2018; Panagos
et al.
, 2021; Kaushal
et al.
,
the frequency, intensity and distribution of rainfall
events, can have a profound impact on soil
et al.
soil erosion, nutrient leaching and waterlogging,
while drought can lead to soil moisture
depletion, increasing susceptibility to erosion and
et al.
The EU’s ambitious climate targets hinge on
preserving vegetation and soils to prevent further
carbon losses, especially in organic soils, and to
foster carbon sequestration. However, gains from
related hazards such as temperature extremes,
et
al.
attributed to low precipitation, high evaporation
induced permafrost thaw can release stored
carbon and methane, leading to soil subsidence,
land instability and altered hydrological regimes,
hence exacerbating climate change feedback
et al.
3.2 Land use and land cover change
Between 2011 and 2021, the proportion of
protected land in the 32 EEA member countries
in global demand for agricultural products by
is poised to impact natural resources such as
land and water, and biodiversity, underscoring
the importance of sustainable land management
practices. The management of cropland, pasture
and agroforestry is particularly critical in this
context. Concurrently, forest and tree plantation
management, grazing land management and
The State of Soils in Europe - 202422
use dynamics. In the last few years, we have
started to observe that the mountains of Europe
are being re-explored by the mining industry, with
the expansion of open pit and underground mines
Urbanisation and infrastructure development have
also left a tangible mark on land use patterns.
Between 2012 and 2018, land take in the EU-27
2.
,
zones, which, unlike city centres, provide valuable
wildlife habitats, support carbon sequestration,
recycling, including constructing in or rehabilitating
previously built-up areas, only accounted for
signals the need for more sustainable land use
practices to mitigate adverse impacts on soils
and ecosystems.
3.3 Socioeconomic drivers
Socioeconomic factors play a crucial role in driving
between human activities and environmental
et al.
growth and urbanisation exert pressure on
practices and expansion into marginal areas
et al.
by the demand for food and commodities, often
involves the excessive use of chemical inputs,
extensive tillage and monoculture cropping, which
et
al.
incentives and policies, such as deforestation for
agriculture or infrastructure development, further
exacerbate soil degradation by disrupting natural
et
al.
and lack of access to resources and knowledge
can limit sustainable land management practices,
leading to land degradation and loss of livelihoods
et al.
In 2020, according to The Third Clean Air Outlook,
in Italy, the Dutch–German–Danish border areas
and north-eastern Spain were characterised by
et al.
2020. The zero pollution action plan aims for a
ecosystem properties in Europe, such as soil pH
to respond with varying delays to the current trend
et al., 2019;
Schmitz et al.
3.4 Soil water
Owing to the recognition of the interconnectivity
between water, energy, food security and
ecosystems, whereby any limitation in one of the
inputs will disturb the availability of the others,
it is important to understand water as a key
Moreno
et al.
biological activities in soil are dependent on its
balance determines soil health, irrigation needs
and crop productivity, and is intimately connected
with degradation processes such as drought,
Source:
A. Jones.
Photo 2. Soil sealing through urban expansion.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 23
as it inhibits the biological functioning of soil
et al.
services. While water excess due to poor drainage
et al.
can also increase soil erosion due to saturation-
et al.
et al.
that changes in the water content of soil also
have profound implications for the greenhouse
as peatlands and rice crops, and in many natural
or semi-natural humid ecosystems. These
environments play critical roles in global carbon
cycles and biodiversity conservation, making them
et al.
Despite the importance of climate in controlling
the water content of soil, the implementation of
et al.
et
al.
conditions, such as water-holding capacity and
War-induced soil degradation.
-
-
pacts on soil. Scientists at Ukraine’s Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry Research
across Ukraine so far. Military actions have led to a wide array of soil degradation issues,
including pollution, compaction, loss of organic matter and nutrients, reduced biodiversi-
ty, soil sealing and other, less well understood, issues (Dmytruk
et al.
, 2023). The ongoing
toxic chemicals. Consequently, the environmental impact of the military activities is set
-
-
ing a thorough survey of soils impacted by military activities remains unfeasible at present,
it is evident that addressing the repercussions of the war will pose a substantial challenge
in tackling global issues.
box
1
Photos box 1:
Soil desgradation caused by the war in Ukraine. Source: Y. Dmytruk.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202424
3.5 Disturbances (wildres, droughts and
windstorms)
have been marked by the emergence of summers
et al., 2015; Abatzoglou et al.,
2018; Carnicer et al.
et al.
globally, especially in Europe.
Southern Europe, already a hotspot for climate-
et al., 2017; Dupuy et al.
breaking summer of 2022, the second-warmest
year on record, resulted in the largest drought-
2,
between 2000 and 2022. This trend is alarming,
given projections of increased heatwave
frequency and intensity by 2030, along with
decreased summer precipitation in continental
and Mediterranean regions.
activity. Degraded soils are often less able to
retain moisture, leading to drier conditions that
et al.
Source:
D. Vieira.
exacerbate soil degradation by reducing organic
matter, altering soil structure and increasing
et al.
they create a feedback loop originating from
multiple disturbances,
leading to further soil
degradation, limited ecosystem recovery and
these impacts, adjusting land management
practices is crucial. Therefore, the implementation
Member States is vital.
The Sixth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
et al.
,
are likely to experience an increased frequency
and intensity of storms, including strong winds
and extra-tropical storms. In southern Europe,
the intensity of storms is predicted to rise, while
their frequency may decrease. Agricultural soils,
especially bare surfaces, face severe threats from
et
al.
droughts and windstorms are key factors to
consider in assessing soil degradation in Europe.
strategies to manage these impacts and protect
soils from them. Addressing these challenges
is therefore essential for maintaining good soil
condition and ensuring the long-term sustainability
of European ecosystems.
Photo 3.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 25
#04
Regional status
and trend of
soil degradation
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202426
Assessing soil condition involves evaluating
a range of physical, chemical and biological
change in soil health resulting in the diminished
capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and
from existing and recent evidence, including
data, our assessment focuses on various soil
degradation indicators. These include:
•
• soil carbon change
• soil erosion
• soil compaction
• soil pollution
•
• soil biodiversity change
• soil sealing and land take.
4.1 Excess and deciencies in soil
nutrients
Soil nutrients are essential for plant biomass
production and quality, and other ecosystem
et al.
, 2016; Ros
et al.
other services includes the major biogeochemical
cycles and related soil functions, notably carbon
et al.
Nutrient management is therefore essential to
maintain soils in good chemical, biological and
physical conditions. Nutrients are managed to
et al.
, 2000; Hou
et al.
4.1.1 Status and trends
-1
et al.
high mobility of nitrate, N losses from the soil are
-
pluses across the EU and the United Kingdom
-1-1 to more than
–1-1.
A high N surplus mostly occurs in areas with high
N inputs, especially in intensive livestock areas,
et al.
04 Regional status
and trend of soil degradation
Soil nutrient status in Europe,
particularly regarding nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P), exhibits signicant
spatial variations, inuenced by
factors such as agricultural practices,
climate, and soil properties. Despite
eorts to manage nutrient inputs,
high N and P surpluses persist in
many regions, posing risks to soil and
water quality. Addressing the drivers
of nutrient excesses and deciencies,
including fertilizer application,
land use practices, soil erosion,
and climate patterns, is crucial for
mitigating environmental pollution,
soil acidication, and economic costs,
while safeguarding human health and
agricultural productivity. Eective soil
management strategies are essential
to balance nutrient inputs and
outputs, ensuring sustainable land use
and ecosystem resilience in the face of
ongoing environmental challenges.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 27
in the EU and the United Kingdom has excessively
high N inputs when considering the regional vari-
loss through leaching to groundwater, respectively
et al.
Between 1930 and 1990, N surplus increased
et al.,
its highest value around 1990 because of a peak
in N inputs. The surplus declined in subsequent
years. Since 1990, total N inputs in cropland have
been relatively stable, with a slight increase from
–1–1–1-1-
arsson
et al.,
vary considerably across the EU and the United
Kingdom, with most areas having concentrations
-1
levels occur in northern Germany, northern France
and northern Italy, and in Belgium, Denmark,
Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and the United
Kingdom. Despite these high soil P levels, balance
calculations have shown an average surplus of
–1–1
et al.
, 2022b; Muntwyler
et al.
,
et al.,
2014; Einarsson
et
al.,
among countries, and extensive areas in the EU
and the United Kingdom are currently experi-
–1–1,
despite the generally high soil P concentrations in
these regions.
The current P management practices were evalu-
ated by comparing the P balance with the available
et
al.
mineral fertilizer inputs minus outputs due to re-
et
al.
than 30 mg kg-1, negative P balances increase the
-
et al.
, 2012; Steinfurth
et al.
,
-
al land. When P-Olsen concentrations are greater
than 30 mg kg-1
et al.
, 2012; Stein-
furth
et al.
, positive P balances increase the
Figure 2.
Source:
De Vries et al. (2021)
The State of Soils in Europe - 202428
risk of P environmental losses which is the case in
Many Member States have experienced much
more imbalanced P management in recent
decades: P inputs peaked above 30 kg ha–1 in
et al.
are nowadays, on average, 16 kg ha–1 in the EU
et al.
Due to the low mobility and high retention of P
in soils, the positive P balance of the past have
et al.
When 30 mg kg-1 of P-Olsen is used as thresh-
et al., 2012;
Steinfurth et al.
P-rich soils, with possible adverse impacts on wa-
ter quality. The threshold of 30 mg kg-1 is the low-
est value of the range proposed by the European
Commission in the proposed Soil Monitoring Law
mg kg-1, 10 % of agricultural soils in the EU and
UK has excess of P.
In non-EU countries such as Norway, P surpluses
reduced from 1985 to 1990, and have remained
-
es in Norway are similar to those in the United
Kingdom, contributing to the eutrophication of
et al.
-
pluses reduced in Switzerland between 1990 and
–1
–1
The N and P budgets in Iceland are generally
N and P budgets since 1990 of all non-EU coun-
–1-1 in 2020. This drastic reduction
in fertiliser input after the 1990s can be attribut-
ed to the political transformations in post-Soviet
et
al.
-
cultural land could have relatively large N surplus-
es, as this area consists of greenhouses and open
Source:
EUSO, based on Ballabio et al., (2019) and Muntwyler et al., (2024).
Figure 3.-1.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 29
N fertiliser doses. However, generally fertiliser
application in these countries happens to be far
below the average EU level; they therefore have a
higher chance of having negative N and P budgets
to nutrient mining and a decrease in soil fertility
et al.
In Türkiye, both the N balance and the P balance
-
–1-1–1–1 from
-
–1–1–1–1;
–1 to
–1
Available K concentrations, determined using
ammonium acetate, vary across the EU and the
United Kingdom depending on parent materi-
al, soil clay content and manuring history, with
et al.
-
tries or regions with intensive animal husband-
ry. For example, in France, the exchangeable K
-1-1
-1
soils have exchangeable K concentrations of below
-1-1, respectively. They can
therefore be considered soils with low K levels for
biomass production.
-
-
in sustaining terrestrial ecosystems, which is partly
related to their contribution to sustaining biomass
development. In addition, these elements are
divalent cations, which control aggregate stabili-
ty, soil water retention and supply, resistance to
wind erosion, topsoil sealing, subsoil compaction,
et al.
,
information on the levels of these nutrients in soil
there is information on the total amounts of some
et al.
, 2018; Van
Eynde
et al.
-
-
trients are typically applied in the form of salts
and chelates, but there is no spatial information
regarding the quantity of micronutrient fertilisers
characterised by a high pH and low organic matter
et al.
intense cropping can exacerbate micronutrient de-
et al.
as a source of Cu and Zn for agricultural soils in
et al.
et al.
et al.
4.1.2 Drivers
The main drivers of soil nutrient excesses and de-
drivers include the following.
• Fertiliser and manure application. Since the
1950s, the increased use of fertilisers has
boosted crop and forest production, but their
et al.
Gaseous emissions from industry and agricul-
ture, as well as natural processes, also lead to
the deposition of nutrients in terrestrial ecosys-
tems.
• Land use and management practices. Agricultur-
al systems have become specialised, resulting in
the decoupling of crop and livestock production.
On the one hand, there are systems relying on
both internally and externally produced feed,
waste such as manure. Applying this nutrient
source inappropriately often leads to substantial
-
pend on external fertiliser inputs to manage their
nutrient needs. In addition, agricultural practices
such as tillage, irrigation and pesticide use can
et al.
• Soil erosion and leaching. Erosion results in the
loss of nutrients such as P to lower areas and to
et al.
-
The State of Soils in Europe - 202430
ing can result in the loss of nutrients such as N
et al.
loss of nutrients leads to a decline in soil fertility,
while sedimentation and leaching can result in
an excess of nutrients elsewhere.
• Soil properties. Soil types and related charac-
-
of carbon and nutrients such as K and P in soils
et al.
solution, ionic form, and adsorption and mobility
et al.
, 2022;
et al.
• Climate and weather patterns. Weather events
such as heavy rainfall can accelerate nutrient
the atmosphere, while drought conditions can
concentrate salts in the soil, potentially lead-
ing to nutrient imbalances. In addition, climatic
conditions control crop yield and nutrient use
et al.,
4.1.3 Impacts
-
mental, ecosystem and human health. Some of the
key consequences are as follows.
• Environmental pollution. Excess nutrients, par-
ticularly N and P, can leach into groundwater or
erosion. This results in eutrophication, with the
loss of biodiversity, the depletion of subaquatic
vegetation, a decline in coral reef health, the
occurrence of algal blooms and the creation of
et al.
, 1998; Smith, 2003; Smith and Schindler,
can also result in increased N losses into the at-
mosphere. The subsequent deposition of N is a
major driver of plant biodiversity loss through N
et al.
• Climate change. Excess N in soil can lead to the
increased emission of , a potent greenhouse
is released from soils through
et al.
, 2013; Arias-Navarro
et al.
,
2017; McDonald
et al.
, 2022; Pan
et al.
• Excessive
nitrate in soils due to N fertilisation causes
availability of other nutrients, and contaminants
et al.
in dry and sub-dry regions can lead to soil salini-
et al.
• Soil pollution. The excessive use of P fertilisers
-
ganic fertilisers and amendments, may introduce
et al.
of synthetic chelates to correct micronutrient de-
the introduction of recalcitrant products, with neg-
et al.
• Economic costs.
et al.
et al.
reduce farmers’ incomes, and increase the costs
of inputs. Excess nutrients can also lead to serious
losses to the environment, requiring environmen-
tal mitigation measures, with associated costs.
• Human health risks. Gaseous N emission
contributes to the formation of aerosol and
et al.
as they can compromise the safety of drinking
-
nutritional quality, compromising livestock pro-
duction, as well as food security and food quality
et al.
is very common and is a growing concern, as
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 31
4.2 Soil acidication
Breeuwsma, 1987; Guo et al.
all around the world. In calcareous soils with a
as the pH remains stable and slightly alkaline
until all carbonates are depleted. This depletion
depends on their dissolution rate. However, in
especially sandy soils with low organic matter
fast decline in soil pH and base saturation. Soil
pH is an important indicator of soil health, as it
et al., 2003; Pagani and
and Swift, 1986; Dijkstra et al.
functioning of soil as a habitat for organisms and
et al.
4.2.1 Status and trends
-
et al.
material, vegetation and past management practic-
es, such as liming.
-
Soil acidication, a global concern,
impacts soil quality, ecosystem integ-
rity and human well-being. It predom-
inantly aects non-calcareous soils,
with low buer capacity, leading to a
decline in pH. This decline can impair
nutrient availability and increase
the mobility and availability of toxic
elements. While some countries have
seen improvements, acidication
remains a signicant issue in Ukraine
and Türkiye, aecting agricultural pro-
ductivity and environmental quality.
Drivers of soil acidication include
natural processes, industrial emissions
and agricultural practices. The exces-
sive use of ammonium-based fertiliz-
ers may lead to soil acidication.
Source:
EUSO, based on Ballabio et al. (2019).
Figure 4. Soil pH, measured in HO, in EU and UK soils.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202432
et al.
2009 and 2018 shows that pH both increased and
increase in soil pH from 2009 to 2018, while neg-
ative values show a decrease in soil pH. In some
land cover classes, the trend is an increase rather
than a decrease. Further analysis should assess
which factors explain the change in pH. Given the
pH on primary productivity, as mentioned above,
a typical management strategy is liming. However,
there are currently no regulations on the applica-
tion of lime to agricultural or forest soils at the EU
level, nor are there any data about the application
of lime to agricultural soils.
land uses, including forest, agricultural land and
et al.
recent decades, a slight improvement in upper soil
horizons has been observed, with pH values rising
et al.
depth. While some research indicates increasing
et al.
, 2007; Schmitz
et al.
, 2019; Wellbrock
et al.
Kingdom, reduced sulphate deposition has facil-
et al.
have reported an increase in soil pH across all UK
habitats, with national-level data showing a mean
et al.
,
-
et al.
Acidic soils are predominantly found in the Polis-
-
ticularly in the natural areas of the Polissya zone,
Soil acidity is important for sustaining soil health,
particularly in the East Black Sea Region of Türkiye.
As a result of natural processes, the high annual
rainfall results in leaching, which increases the
presence of hydrogen and aluminium cations,
ultimately leading to soil acidity.
4.2.2 Drivers
can vary depending on regional and local factors.
Some of the main drivers include the following.
Source:
EUSO, based on LUCAS 2009 and 2018 topsoil databases.
Figure 5.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 33
• Natural processes.
process. It is mainly caused by the dissociation
of carbonic and organic acids, which leads to the
leaching of bicarbonate and non-acidic cations
et al.
-
ular mineral rocks containing sulphide minerals
-
tions in soils.
• Acid deposition and waste. Mining activities and
industrial processes can release acidic substanc-
es into the environment, either directly through
emissions or indirectly through the disposal of
and air pollution have been major drivers of for-
increasing the deposition of mainly N and S com-
-
er, regulatory controls have reduced emissions
and consequently the deposition of compounds
et al.
-
pecially S compounds. This has resulted in the
re-alkalinisation of several European forest soils
et al.
, 2016; Prietzel
et al.
et al.
Critical loads of acidity are currently rarely ex-
et al.
• Agricultural practices. In agricultural soils, acidi-
-
in legumes, plant root exudates and the miner-
et al.
Agronomic measures such as the addition of ma-
-
tion, thereby preventing a decline in soil pH.
4.2.3 Impacts
ecosystem functioning and human health.
Some of the main impacts are as follows.
• Reduced nutrient availability.
the solubility, concentration in soil solution, ionic
form and adsorption of most nutrients, as well
• Contamination and human health.-
cation can increase the solubility and mobility of
toxic elements such as aluminium, cadmium and
et al.
primary productivity. Due to the increased mo-
of surrounding surface water and groundwater
et
al.
et al.
• Altered soil biota activity.
-
et al.
, 2006;
Siciliano
et al.
and rotifer abundance and earthworm biomass,
and a change in microbial composition, thereby
et al.
• Ecosystem disturbance.
disrupt ecosystem dynamics and alter the
composition of plant communities. Acid-sensi-
tive plant species may become less abundant,
while acid- tolerant species may become more
predominant, leading to shifts and reductions in
et al.
-
es to agriculture, forestry, ecosystem management
and human health, reinforcing the importance of
implementing strategies to mitigate its impacts
and restore soil condition. Various practices can
the application of agricultural lime to neutralise
acidity. On the other hand, soil alkalinisation,
liming activities, can enhance the volatilisation of
ammonia, so the application of ammonium-based
fertilisers at the same time as lime is not recom-
The State of Soils in Europe - 202434
4.3 Soil carbon change (in mineral soils,
organic soils and inorganic carbon)
Soil hosts the largest carbon pool in the terres-
trial ecosystem, playing an essential role in the
global carbon cycle and the regulation of climate
change. Soil carbon is solid carbon stored in soils,
existing in organic and inorganic forms. An import-
ant distinction between these two forms is that
inorganic carbon has a much higher potential for
permanence in soils than organic carbon. Soils are
characterised as mineral or organic based on their
organic matter content.
Mineral soils form most of the world’s cultivated
organic matter. Organic soils are naturally rich in
organic matter, principally due to vegetation and
climate, and are distinguished from mineral soils by
-
et al.,
organic horizon, a high organic carbon content, and
the possibility of water saturation episodes.
4.3.1 Mineral soils
The SOC content of mineral soils
varies across Europe, with the high-
est levels in woodlands. Croplands
exhibit the lowest SOC content,
posing challenges to achieving EU
climate targets due to ongoing car-
bon loss. Land use changes, includ-
ingthe conversion of grasslands to
croplands, have a signicant impact
on SOC stocks, highlighting the need
for sustainable land management
practices. Climate change and land
use change are major drivers of SOC
change, inuencing soil fertility, water
dynamics, GHG emissions, biodiver-
sity and resilience to climate change.
Mitigating SOC loss is essential for
maintaining soil health, agricultural
productivity, and ecosystem stability,
highlighting the importance of imple-
menting strategies to enhance soil
carbon sequestration and minimise
soil degradation.
4.3.1.1 Status and trends
Europe exhibits considerable spatial variability
in soil types, climates and land uses, leading to
diverse patterns in SOC content across regions.
Based on the soil measurements from LUCAS,
SOC content increases from south-eastern to
-
de et al.
-1
-1
-1,
-1 in shrubland. Organic
-1
-1
Overall, soils are losing carbon as CO
EU climate targets. SOC changes in agricultur-
al soils across the EU and the United Kingdom
from 2009 to 2018 have been comprehensively
assessed, showing varied impacts depending on
et al.
-
an change in SOC content indicates an average
-1 for the EU and the United
Kingdom combined, with some countries, such as
Austria and Slovenia, experiencing increases of
-1
-1, occur in the higher latitudes of north-
ern Europe, where a lower soil clay content cor-
relates with decreased carbon retention capacity.
In contrast, central European regions mostly main-
tained stable SOC levels over the period studied.
The Mediterranean area, characterised by warmer
temperatures and less rainfall, showed a broader
-1-1,
with the initial SOC levels also being the lowest in
the EU. Notably, grasslands in this region played
continuous grassland or conversion from cropland
contributing to an increase in SOC. Conversely,
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 35
continuous cropland had a net negative impact on
SOC levels, attributed to practices such as mono-
culture and tillage. In addition, soils with a high
initial SOC content tended to lose more carbon
than soils with lower initial SOC contents.
Overall, SOC trends observed using soil data from
-
tions from several national soil monitoring net-
et al.
cropland soils constitute an exception: their SOC
content has increased in most parts of the country
due to a steadily increasing proportion of ley in
et al.
, 2005; Poeplau and Don,
2015; Knotters
et al.
In the United Kingdom, some studies suggest that
et al.
,
et al.
-
et al.
croplands show stability overall but some diver-
et al.
Ministry of Agriculture and Food is funding the
national programme for monitoring SOC in forests
and intensive grasslands. Soil sampling started in
July 2023, and these samples will provide informa-
tion about the levels of, and eventually changes
in, soil carbon stores in Norwegian forests and
grasslands.
In the western Balkans, it is estimated that the
-
agement in the western Balkans, the loss of SOC
et
al.
-
-
zegovina shows that the SOC content is mostly at
type, soil depth, land use, slope, soil cover, etc.
There are no data for Montenegro on SOC change.
An analysis conducted on many soil samples to
monitor the fertility of agricultural land in Serbia
shows that most samples had an organic carbon
the degradation of agricultural land in the Serbia
is a loss of organic matter due to intensive agricul-
tural production, intensive tillage, a lack of organic
Source:
EUSO, based on De Rosa et al. (2023).
Figure 6.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202436
fertilisation, irrigation, the removal of crop resi-
dues or their burning and other SOC stocks is less
et al.
report discussing the state of the art of soil unsuit-
able cultivation practices.
-
termined as part of the monitoring and surveying
of Ukrainian agricultural land, but the humus con-
-
ing to survey results, the lowest humus content
The most recent SOC data for Türkiye, published
–1. Most carbon reservoirs
are located in forests, followed by pastures, which
areas, cultivated land has the lowest SOC content.
According to FAO’s land degradation neutrality de-
cision support system, the SOC content in Türkiye
is projected to decline by 2040.
However, the system has reported that SOC levels
in agricultural soils are rising due to the increas-
ing use of organic fertilisers and the expansion
of drip-irrigated agriculture, compared with the
period when re-irrigation practices were intensive-
ly used.
4.3.1.2 Drivers
Numerous experiments have investigated the
are being consolidated in an increasing number
et al.
, 2020; Beillouin
et al.
,
• Climate change. Soils will release more carbon
into the atmosphere under future warmer cli-
-
back loops of soil carbon loss causing climate
et al.
a notable increase in the occurrence of forest
statistic that 2022 was the second worst year on
record in the EU in terms of area burned by wild-
et al.
imperative not to underestimate the indirect
snow cover have received limited attention in
et al.
is a noticeable absence of synthesised results
et al.
investigations are needed to enhance our under-
standing of the individual and collective impacts
of climate change on SOC, particularly across
diverse land use types and varying climatic con-
et al.
• Land use change.
use change and land management on SOC
et al.
the conversion of grassland to cropland could
retaining soil carbon stocks that may otherwise
et al.
grasslands to croplands typically results in a loss
et al.
this conversion is crucial for averting soil carbon
losses. However, it is essential to acknowledge
that the conversion of grassland to cropland
often occurs in response to food security chal-
lenges. This poses a dilemma, as food security
could be compromised, given that more land is
required to produce human food from livestock
2001; de Ruiter
et al.
, 2017; Clark and Tilman,
2017; Poore and Nemecek, 2018; De Rosa
et al.
,
have broader implications for land degradation,
et al.
,
change could lead to carbon losses from mineral
et al.
• Soil erosion.
site sediment transfer and deposition, soil ero-
sion has multiple environmental impacts, with
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 37
et
al.
, 2018a; Borrelli
et al.
-
tions for biogeochemical processes such as SOC
cycling, by increasing CO emissions through
enhancing mineralisation and decreasing carbon
et al.
, 2016;
Borrelli
et al.
, 2017; Panagos
et al.
4.3.1.3 Impacts
impacts on the environment, agricultural pro-
ductivity and overall ecosystem health in Europe.
Some of the main impacts include the following.
• Reduced soil fertility. SOC is a key component
of organic matter, which provides essential nu-
availability for plant growth. Declining soil fertility
can lead to decreased crop yields, reduced
forest health, in particular when organic matter
that crop yields and yield stability enhance with
increasing organic matter content, though some
• Impaired water retention and drainage. SOC
plays a crucial role in regulating soil water
dynamics. The loss of carbon can reduce the
making them more prone to waterlogging or,
conversely, decreasing water availability during
-
ter use by crops, increase the risk of soil erosion
et al.
, 2008; Schindlbacher
et al.
,
• Increased GHG emissions. Soil carbon losses
contribute to the increased emission of GHGs,
particularly CO. When organic matter decom-
poses, carbon is released into the atmosphere.
This process not only reduces soil carbon stocks
but also contributes to climate change, exacer-
et al.
, 2017; Lugato
et al.
, 2021; Le Noë
et al.
• Loss of biodiversity. Soil organic matter is a hab-
itat and food source for various microorganisms,
fungi and fauna. A decrease in soil carbon can
lead to a loss of biodiversity inthe soil ecosystem,
including above-ground plant communities
et al.
• Soil erosion. Soil carbon loss is often associated
with soil erosion, as it weakens the soils’ struc-
thereby soils’ ability to resist erosion. Erosion
leads to the removal of topsoil, which is rich in
organic matter. This, in turn, exacerbates the
loss of soil fertility and hinders sustainable agri-
et al.
,
• Increased vulnerability to climate change. Agri-
cultural soils with lower organic carbon content
are generally more vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change, such as extreme weather events,
those with higher carbon contents. Increasing
SOC levels can enhance soil’s resilience to these
et al.
4.3.2 Organic soils
European peatlands are facing
signicant degradation due to
agriculture, drainage and peat
extraction, leading to signicant
carbon loss, biodiversity decline and
environmental damage. New land use
change policies under the common
agricultural policy (CAP) reform aim to
reduce drainage and implement the
rewetting of drained peat soils. The
EU Regulation on Nature Restoration,
aims to restore degraded peatlands
to achieve climate and biodiversity
objectives and enhance food security.
Restoring drained peatlands is
identied as one of the most
cost-eective ways to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in
the agricultural sector.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202438
4.3.2.1 Status and trends
Peatlands are unique ecosystems that store sig-
et al.
-
rope’s total SOC. The corresponding organic soils,
also known as Histosols, are important SOC stores.
Organic soils store much more carbon per unit
area than mineral soils. The amount could be
more than 10 times the carbon stored in mineral
soils, depending on peat thickness. As acidic and
waterlogged conditions restrict decomposition
hold more carbon per hectare on average than all
other ecosystems, making them the largest carbon
et al.
et al.
,
-
bution of organic soils across Europe, generally re-
portion of the land area in the Nordic countries.
Almost one third of European peatland is in Fin-
land, and more than a quarter is in Sweden. The
remainder is in Iceland, Poland, the United King-
dom, Norway, Germany, Ireland, Estonia, Latvia,
the Netherlands and France. Small areas of peat
and peat-topped soils occur in Lithuania, Hungary,
Denmark, Czechia, Belgium, Italy, Austria and Spain
et al.
, 2017; Tanneberger
et al.
Data from peatlands, particularly heavily degrad-
et al.
Measuring the depth of the organic horizon helps
quantify the amount of carbon stored in the soil,
which is essential for understanding the role of
peatlands in climate regulation and carbon se-
et al.
part of the soil data collected in the 2018 LUCAS
et al.
-
ever, most of the sites selected for depth assess-
Histosols. The assessment failed to analyse the
very shallow organic soils, such as those found on
bedrock. The implication could be either that many
of these locations are mineral soils with well-de-
veloped organic horizons, or that peatlands have
been eroded back to the underlying mineral base
et al.
Monitoring changes in the depth of the organic
horizon over time can help assess the extent of
peatland degradation due to factors such as drain-
age, land use change and climate change. Germany
has initiated a peatland monitoring programme
utilising a standardised approach aimed at the long-
-
-
concerning peatlands, containing peat and other
organic soils, within the land use, land use change
and forestry sectors and the agricultural sector. It
seeks to achieve this by providing measurements
and enhancing methods for regionalising the prima-
ry factors determining emissions.
-
carbon loss, biodiversity decline and environ-
mental damage. Within the EU, the proportion is
2
et al.
The EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard shows EU
peatlands that are likely to be degraded due to
Source:
A. Jones.
Photo 4.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 39
-
ment Programme’s Global Peatlands Assessment ,
whose data are retrieved from the Global Peatland
Database compiled by the Greifswald Mire Centre.
In Europe, the degree of peatland degradation
clearly increases from Arctic to temperate regions.
have been utilised for agriculture, forestry or peat
-
CO
mainly from agriculture on drained peat soils. This
-
from enteric fermentation and from fertili-
-
-
et al.
,
-
Ukrainian peat soils are situated in the southern-
most region of eastern Europe’s peat soil expanse.
Shaped by warmer climates, they boast an age
surpassing their northern counterparts. These
soils previously achieved an equilibrium, including
-
disrupted this equilibrium, resulting in a negative
et
al.
, 1973; Tanovitskii, 1980; Succow and Jeschke,
1986; Bambalov and Rakovich, 2005; Truskavetskii,
and fauna, a reduction in biodiversity, and a trend
extensive peatlands.
4.3.2.2 Drivers
The main factors driving peat loss are intricately
on the type of peatlands involved. Certain threats
example, arable agriculture poses a particular risk
to lowland peat.
• Land use change. The impact of humans on
northern peatlands dates back centuries, to
et
al.
of changes stemming from agricultural cultiva-
tion, the expansion of grazing pastures, forestry
activities and the extraction of peat for fuel. The
population growth from the 1700s to the 1900s
increased the need for more arable land. In the
early 1800s, the pressure for land resulted in its
reclamation for agriculture or other uses, which
continued with many large drainage projects
et al.
Finland, a lack of coherence in forest, agricultural
and environmental policies has led to increased
drainage activity on peat soils since the be-
ginning of the 20th century, which is linked to
targets of increasing farm size and productivity
and to developments in the CAP. The area of
cleared since 2004 have not been eligible for
et al.
• Drainage. Drainage is the key driver of the deg-
et al.
the original peatland area has been drained for
et al.
, 2017; Szaj-
dak
et al.
Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Ireland,
et al.
Agricultural uses vary from extensive pastures
to intensive cultivation, for example vegetable
production in Switzerland and the United King-
dom; the growth of maize for fodder and biogas
generation in Germany; and dairy farming on
grassland in the Netherlands.
• Peat extraction. Peat extraction for horticultur-
al and energy purposes directly removes car-
bon-rich peat from organic soils, leading to the
irreversible loss of soil carbon. Peatlands have
always been important for farmers as a source of
-
ity production and heating continues in a small
number of northern European countries, while
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202440
• Climate change. Climate-driven drying of Euro-
pean peatlands is likely to have been exacerbat-
ed by direct human impacts in recent centuries
et al.
-
took place. Distinguishing between the impacts
becomes challenging, as these factors overlap
and interact with each other.
• Fire.-
mon phenomenon during summer throughout
Europe, because dry peat is a fossil fuel. When
peatlands are drained, prolonged
droughts turn
peat into highly combustible matter that can
easily be ignited through carelessness. Increased
increase carbon loss from peatlands, contribut-
ing to a shift from carbon sink to carbon source
et al.
vegetation can increase the amount of wildland
et al.,
et al.
4.3.2.3 Impacts
Loss of soil carbon from organic soils, particularly
in peatlands, in Europe can have profound impacts
on the environment, ecosystems and society. Peat-
lands provide a wide range of ecosystem services,
including carbon sequestration, water regula-
tion, biodiversity conservation and recreational
opportunities. Loss of soil carbon in peatlands
diminishes their capacity to provide these services,
compromising their ecological and socioeconomic
et al.
• Climate change. Loss of carbon through drain-
change in a positive feedback loop. Changes in
temperature and precipitation patterns associ-
ated with climate change can alter soil carbon
dynamics. Warmer temperatures can enhance
heterotrophic activity and accelerate decompo-
et al.
-
and carbon storage. Drainage of wetlands and
peatlands for agriculture, forestry or develop-
ment purposes accelerates decomposition of
organic matter by increasing oxygen availability.
This process enhances biological activity, leading
to increased decomposition rates and loss of soil
et al.
drained peatlands will continue to lose SOC and
climate change will induce further peat loss from
et al.
• Biodiversity loss. Peatlands are unique eco-
systems that support a rich diversity of plant
and animal species, many of which are specially
adapted to these environments. The loss of
carbon from soil in peatlands can disrupt these
ecosystems, leading to the loss of habitat and
decreased biodiversity. Rare and specialised
species, such as bog mosses, are particularly
vulnerable to habitat degradation. Indeed, many
European peatlands have already undergone
shifts in vegetation composition over the last
300 years, including changes in Sphagnum
et al.
et al.
et al.
Typical peatland biodiversity, in particular that of
groundwater-fed fens in temperate Europe, has
et al.
, 2017;
• Reduced water quality. Peatlands play a crucial
et al.
,
2004; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005;
from soil in peatlands can degrade water quality
and contamination from agricultural chemicals
-
lands with agricultural uses in the EU are also a
et al.
reduce water quality for human consumption
and increase treatment costs for water utilities.
Further negative consequences of drainage are a
reduction in water quality through the discharge
-
berger
et al.
in the case of sulphide-bearing peat drainage
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 41
• Peatlands act
as natural sponges, absorbing and storing water
during periods of heavy rainfall and releasing
it slowly over time. Loss of carbon from soil in
peatlands reduces their ability to retain water, in-
can lead to damage to infrastructure, the loss of
arable land and the degradation of aquatic hab-
et al.,
2005; Rooney et al., 2012; Nieminen et al.
• Cultural and archaeological losses. Peatlands
contain valuable cultural and archaeological
sites, including ancient human settlements,
artefacts and well-preserved organic materials.
The loss of carbon from soil due to drainage,
degradation and extraction activities can dam-
age or destroy these sites, resulting in the loss of
important cultural heritage and historical infor-
et al.
, 2011; Flint and Jennings,
• Economic costs. The impacts of peatland degra-
dation and loss of carbon from soil impose sig-
include the loss of ecosystem services, increased
and expenditure on restoration and conserva-
et al.
, 2012;
Bonn
et al.
New land use change policies under the CAP
reform aim to reduce drainage and the imple-
-
ment, habitats and biodiversity, the protection
of buried paleo-archaeological features and
-
graded ecosystems, helping to achieve the EU’s
climate and biodiversity objectives and enhance
food security. As restoring drained peatlands is
emissions in the agricultural sector, EU countries
-
ting will remain voluntary for farmers and private
landowners. Successful peatland restoration
in Europe requires knowledge transfer among
4.3.3 Inorganic carbon
The distribution of Soil Inorganic Car-
bon (SIC) in Europe varies geograph-
ically, concentrating in areas with
Mediterranean climates and calcar-
eous parent materials. Human activ-
ities such as fertilization, irrigation,
management of soil organic matter,
and reclamation practices impact SIC
levels. Loss of SIC can have wide-rang-
ing impacts, including reduced carbon
sequestration capacity, soil fertility
decline, land degradation, deserti-
cation, changes in water resources,
and biodiversity loss. Research on
SIC dynamics is essential to develop
management strategies for carbon
sequestration and soil condition im-
provement, in particular in the areas
with Mediterranean climates.
4.3.3.1 Status and trends
SIC distribution in Europe varies geographical-
ly, concentrating in regions with Mediterranean
climates and calcareous parent materials. Conse-
quently, large areas of southern Europe, particu-
larly those with Mediterranean climates, are char-
acterised by carbonate-rich soils with pH values
exceeding 7.5. Other areas located on calcareous
lithology also show relevant concentrations in the
areas, such as the French regions of Champagne
et al.
compiled the data from LUCAS 2015 regarding SIC
concentrations in European topsoils, presenting
them in digital maps. There is high variability in
-1 to more
-1. No information is available on the
trends in SIC concentration or storage in European
soils, although data from the more recent rounds
of LUCAS could be used to estimate such changes.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202442
4.3.3.2 Drivers
The most relevant natural factors contributing
to SIC concentration are soil parent material and
climate. However, some other factors, such as
position in the landscape and even vegetation can
of soil carbonates. As a result, SIC can be present
in soils in varying amounts, vertical distribution
also be present as cementing agents, forming pet-
rocalcic horizons. In addition, SIC is known to be
The most relevant ones are as follows.
• Fertilisation. Mostly as a source of acidity,
mineral fertilisation with N salts can induce the
dissolution and progressive loss of soil carbon-
ates, while releasing CO
et al.
Fertilisation can also result in changes in the pro-
portion of pedogenic compared with lithogenic
et al.
• Irrigation. By changing the soil water regime,
or bicarbonate, irrigation interferes with many
aspects of SIC cycling. In addition, the partial
pressure of CO
et al.
observed to increase the emission of CO from
et al.
amount of carbonates in the silt and clay frac-
tions, while increasing the proportion of pedo-
et al.
• Management of soil organic matter. Some
forms of organic matter added to agricultural
soils can be sources of acidity, and therefore
et
al.
been observed to induce carbonate neoforma-
et al.
• Reclamation of sodic calcareous soils. The use
of gypsum for reclamation of this type of soil can
result in the formation of calcium carbonate,
while the use of S to dissolve carbonates in sodic
soils can result in the loss of carbonates by acidi-
et al.
4.3.3.3 Impacts
• Carbon sequestration. The retention of SIC
helps maintain the soil’s capacity to seques-
ter carbon, potentially mitigating increases in
atmospheric CO
of global warming. In addition, because of the
role of SIC in organic matter stabilisation, chang-
es in SIC concentration, typology and physical
distribution in soils can have consequences for
SOC storage and protection in agricultural soils
et al.
and leaching loss in agricultural ecosystems may
could be lost entirely as CO
et al.
,
• Climate change. SIC levels can change with the
climate, and the consequences are crucial for
crop production, soil quality and land manage-
2006; Banger
et al.
, 2009; Bughio
et al.
, 2016;
Gao
et al.
-
ment of changes in SIC in response to changes
in temperature and CO concentrations, and the
• Soil fertility decline. Inorganic carbon contrib-
utes to soil pH regulation and nutrient availabil-
soil fertility by reducing the availability of essen-
tial nutrients such as calcium and magnesium.
This can impair plant growth and productivity,
some other nutrients, for example iron and P,
although various crop and fertilisation strategies
et al.
, 2022; Ahmadi
et al.
• SIC can
act as a substantial carbon reservoir in dryland
soils, especially those derived from sedimentary
et al.
Continued loss of SIC can contribute to land
particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Given
the overall increase in aridity in a warming world,
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 43
drought may exacerbate loss of SIC from dryland
et al.
The dissolution of SIC is more important than
previously thought in regulating atmospheric
CO
of SIC-derived CO to total CO emissions may
et al.
• Impacts on water resources. SIC loss can
et al.
geographical perspective, changes in SIC asso-
ciated with increased fertilisation can also result
in changes in riverine alkalinity at the watershed
et al.
• Biodiversity loss. As plants and soil organism
-
ber
et al.
, 2009; Rousk
et al.
soil properties due to the loss of SIC can impact
microbial communities, fauna and plant species
composition in soil. This could disrupt ecosystem
functioning and reduce habitats’ suitability for
various organisms, leading to biodiversity loss
and ecological imbalances. Research on the dy-
namics of carbonates in soils is still much below
the level that will allow practitioners to imple-
ment strategies to manage CO sequestration as
SIC. Some of the possible research paths are us-
ing non-acidifying fertilisers on calcareous soils,
developing practices other than liming to combat
et al.
calcium from sources other than carbonates,
et al.
4.4 Soil erosion
Soil erosion poses a signicant threat
to soil health and agricultural sus-
tainability in Europe. Water erosion is
particularly prevalent, aecting 24%
of EU land at unsustainable rates,
surpassing soil formation rates and
impacting soil quality and land pro-
ductivity. Projections of future trends
in soil erosion in Europe are emerging,
as the increase in rainfall erosivity
may lead to an increase of up to 25%
in soil loss. Soil erosion in Europe,
driven by factors such as poor land
management, deforestation, climate
change and wildres, poses significant
threats. It leads to loss of soil fertility
and agricultural productivity, while
also causing sedimentation, ooding
and landslides, aecting water quality
and causing economic losses. Loss of
soil fertility, sedimentation and agri-
cultural production losses are among
the most obvious impacts of soil ero-
sion, but other o-site impacts such
as risks to cultural heritage sites, land
abandonment, desertication and bio-
diversity loss should not be neglected.
Addressing soil erosion necessitates
holistic approaches integrating policy
interventions and sustainable land
management practices tailored to
regional conditions.
threats to European soils and the ecosystem
services they provide. It threatens all major
functions of soils, leading to a decline in land
Patault
et al.
, 2021; Panagos
et al.
alters its structure, changes its biological activity
and reduces its water holding capacity. In addition,
it causes nutrient loss to water, and can reduce
-
ly distributed and ephemeral nature of erosion
makes its prediction and monitoring challenging,
hindering proper risk assessment and policy
mitigation. Worldwide, very few national survey
programmes for soil erosion exist. Notable excep-
The State of Soils in Europe - 202444
tions are the United States National Resources
Inventory and the Chinese national general survey
programme on soil and water conservation. No
EU. While recent modelling has been transforma-
tive in informing policy, it has been restricted to
single processes, whereas often several natural
and anthropogenic erosion processes operate in
the same area simultaneously or subsequently
et al.
The processes of soil erosion include water ero-
sion through sheet, rill, gully and piping erosion;
wind erosion; tillage erosion; and soil loss due to
et al.
in Europe, the occurrence of all aforementioned
erosion processes has been documented in vari-
-
eral, as they depend on the nexus of susceptible
soil, mechanical disturbance, antecedent moisture
-
cially the occurrence of meteorological extremes,
such as intense rainfall events, snow and frost or
4.4.1 Status and trends
Soil erosion by water is one of the most prominent
soil degradation processes in the EU, with an esti-
-
–1–1
et al.
is important to note that this rate only considers
the loss of topsoil through sheet and rill erosion
and does not include other water- related process-
es such as gully or piping erosion or landslides,
which cause soil loss at lower depths. Neverthe-
less, this value exceeds estimated average soil
et al.
-
–1–1–1
et al.
-
tions of soil erosion by water in Europe in 2000,
et al.
by water erosion in the EU was estimated to be
–1–1. This value is well above the
aforementioned soil formation rates, and there
uses. An area twice the size of Belgium is estimat-
soil throughout the EU and the United Kingdom. A
with past models implemented is that it incorpo-
et al.
, 2015a,
to the model are linked to the Good Agricultural
and Environmental Conditions requirements of
the CAP and the EU’s guidelines for soil protection,
which can be grouped into the areas of land man-
farming, and the use of plant residues and cover
-
maintenance of stone walls and the use of
Wind erosion primarily occurs in dry conditions
when the soil is exposed to strong winds. The
potentially transported over long distances before
et al.
better understanding of the wind erosion situa-
tion in Europe, the European Commission’s Joint
-
ment of land susceptibility to wind erosion in the
et al.
et al.
The results of the application of the equation
suggest that wind erosion in croplands may have
–1–1, with the second
–1–1 and
–1–1
et al.
the net downhill movement of soil due to tillage
et al.
a soil degradation process in its own right, it also
makes the soil more sensitive to other forms of
et al.
such as hillslope convexities and land parcel bor-
ders, tillage erosion can result in greatly decreased
soil depths, with direct negative impacts such as
reduced crop yields. Soil erosion due to tillage has
been modelled at the pan-EU scale as a function
of the erosivity of tillage operations and the erod-
et al.
,
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 45
version of the tillage erosion model constructed by
derived show that the gross total erosion rate is
–1–1 for the EU and the United Kingdom,
corresponding to a total soil mobilisation rate of
–1
et al.
arable land during the harvesting of root and
tuber crops, such as potatoes, sugar beets, carrots
et al.
, 2001; Kuhwald
et
al.
fragments that are attached to crop components
are uplifted from the soil. While a small amount of
most of the adhering soil is completely removed
et al.
,
et al.
due to their high annual cultivation volumes. This
high and harvest is frequently conducted under
-
–1
et al.
, 2007;
Kuhwald
et al.
-
sociated with sugar beet and potato harvesting in
–1–1,
et al.
Gully erosion occurs when concentrated water
incise a larger channel into the soil. A typically
-
et al.
several metres wide and deep and lead to enor-
mous soil losses. Gully erosion, leading to ephem-
eral or permanent erosion channels, typically only
-
and heavy rainfall, causing water to accumulate to
–1–1
et
al.
-
–1–1 in
et al.
process that depends on a complex combination
land use and management, soil properties, mete-
scales. This makes predictions at the European
et al.
-
less, the most susceptible areas to gully erosion
in the EU are in the Mediterranean region, and in
et al.
, 2022,
parts of France and eastern Romania, can also be
et al.
Climate change, and in particular longer periods
during extreme events, aggravate the problem
et al.
Piping erosion is the removal of soil particles by
-
-
Source:
EUSO, based on Panagos et al. (2019, 2020) and Borrelli et
al. (2017, 2023).
Water
Tillage
Wind
SLCH
Figure 7.-
the EU and United Kingdom.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202446
this process becomes visible at the surface when
the roof of a pipe collapses and thus transforms
the pipe into a gully. As such, piping erosion may
accelerate gully erosion by stimulating the forma-
tion of new gullies and intensifying gully headcut
retreating rates. Piping erosion leads to soil losses
Europe, they have been estimated to range from
–1–1–1–1-
tert
et al.
–1–1 in Spanish
that the area threatened by piping erosion in the
2
Geography and co-occurrence of soil erosion
in Europe:
Recently, Borrelli
et al.
multi-model approach to estimate gross soil dis-
placement by water, wind, tillage and crop harvest-
these four erosion processes are expected to
move
displacement of -1 y-1-
ceeds the average soil displacement resulting from
sheet and interrill processes, which are usually the
the region are predicted to have soil displacement
–1–
1–1–1-
rence assessments of several processes revealed
more drivers. The results of this modelling exer-
cise show that unsustainable soil erosion rates
-1-1
due to water erosion predominates both spatially
erosion is the second-biggest cause of soil dis-
is geographically and statistically predominant, till-
age, wind or crop harvesting in arable landscapes
displacement in the EU and United Kingdom. That
said, it should be noted that these numbers do not
include the contribution of landslides, piping and
gully erosion, which currently cannot be modelled
quantitatively at the European scale.
Türkiye’s soils are very sensitive to erosion due to
a combination of environmental factors, such as
climate, topographical structure, soil properties
and land use. The amount of soil lost by erosion
Map of Türkiye was produced using the dynamic
erosion model and monitoring system developed
by the General Directorate of Combating Desert-
Agriculture and Forestry. The system indicates that
-
lion tons of soil are lost every year as a result of
water erosion. The amount of soil displaced by
et al.
Even though Switzerland boasts extensive legal
et al.
,
-
or agricultural practice used, erosion rates may in-
–1–1 on slopes
et al.
grassland for which soil erosion had been largely
underestimated in the past, as most large-scale
modelling studies assume nearly zero soil loss on
grasslands. The soil erosion rate estimated using
the RUSLE, which accounted for these grasslands
having largely low or damaged vegetation cover
et al.
–1–1 at the
et al.
with measured erosion rates. Hotspots of soil
loss in degraded Alpine grasslands were indicated
–1–1–1–1
et al.
In contrast to other European geographical re-
monitoring systems for most western Balkan
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 47
countries. Estimates suggest that approximately
water-erosion-induced failure, with soil erosion
et al.
a new soil erosion map, using the erosion poten-
tial method for the entire country and the RUSLE
model for agricultural zones. Results revealed that
-
et al.
-1-1 from agri-
cultural land. In Albania, the countrywide average
-1-1
of the area experiences a soil loss rate exceeding
Use of remote sensing and 137Cs for gully erosion research in Malčanska River Basin,
Eastern Serbia.
activities play a crucial role in altering vegetation cover and, consequently, erosion intensity.
The study aimed to assess gully morphology and soil erosion using 137Cs, small-scale ero-
sion variability within gullies and variability between gullies to evaluate control measures’
soil sampling, high purity germanium gamma-ray spectrometry, and the creation of a pro-
137Cs inventories.
The results found that dense canopies hindered unmanned aerial vehicle remote sensing
and photogrammetry, but 360° camera terrestrial photogrammetry successfully captured
gully morphology, producing detailed terrain models. The use of 137Cs revealed erosion pre-
dominantly in the gullies, with low soil deposition in some areas. Estimated average annual
-1-1-1yr-1. The use of 360° camera photogrammet-
over time, emphasising its importance in erosion research and management.
Figure box 2:
Digital elevation models of gullies with sampling points.
Source
:
Đokić et al.,
(
2023)
box
2
The State of Soils in Europe - 202448
-1-1
-
tural land, with water erosion prevalent in central
-
2
-
gro, with the coastal area being the most vulnera-
ble. Of the coastal river basins, estimates suggest
-
cessive, high and moderate erosion, respectively.
In general, a high proportion of this region experi-
ences high and excessive erosion, meaning actual
–1-1
–1-1
In Ukraine, expert assessments indicate that
-
-
tour farming, alongside poor land management
practices such as deforestation, overgrazing and
cultivation on steep slopes, contribute to erosion
et al.
Projection of future trends in soil erosion in
Europe
Soil erosion is unlikely to remain stable in Europe
due to several evolving factors, which will determine
its future trends. By 2050, soil erosion rates
agricultural lands of the EU and the United Kingdom
et al.
are driven by changes in climatic conditions and
land use patterns, socioeconomic development,
farmers’ choices and, importantly, changes to
agro-environmental policies. The consideration of
all these factors is required to meaningfully predict
et al.
,
2021; Borrelli
et al.
baselines, future model projections identify the
Atlantic and the continental climate zones as the
locations most vulnerable to water erosion, with
Source:
EUSO, based on Panagos
et al.,
(2021) and Borrelli
et al.,
(2023).
A B
Figure 8. Future trends in water and wind erosion across agricultural landscapes in the EU and United Kingdom.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 49
a higher risk of experiencing extreme weather
during the wettest quarter. During the driest
quarter, vulnerability to water erosion is predicted
to increase in an expansive region covering most
of central eastern Europe. In contrast, noteworthy
decreases in water erosion are predicted in
Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, western France, southern
Italy and Portugal.
Given that soil erosion involves a mix of
concurrent processes, predictions need to account
for the uniquely changing spatial and temporal
characteristics of each process. For example,
concerning wind erosion, Mediterranean regions
include the most vulnerable areas due to longer
periods of drought during the driest quarter
et al.
processes can help in the delineation of strata to
predictions suggest that monitoring programmes
need to be adopted not only to address water
erosion but also to determine strategies to
mitigate tillage and wind erosion. For example,
contribution to total soil loss in the EU, which
can cause a twelve-fold increase in erosion rates
et al.
,
increase compared with current rates, driven by
projected increases in the total burned area due
et al.
,
et al.
some researchers have shown that approximately
et al.
others conclude that in the Mediterranean regions,
et al.
,
4.4.2 Drivers
The drivers of soil erosion are numerous and vary
-
graphical location and land use practices employed.
main characteristics of each erosion process.
The processes of water erosion include splash ero-
-
erosion. Soil erosion by water is driven by hydro-
mechanical forces and is one of the major threats
et al.
Water erosion is caused in Europe by natural fac-
tors such as steep topography, landscape position
inappropriate land management in areas suscepti-
Wind erosion occurs in dry conditions when the
et al.
has increased the frequency and magnitude of this
geomorphic process, with consequences especial-
ly for sensitive lands that are important for food
et al.
management practices such as intensive crop
cultivation, increased mechanisation, enlargement
-
allowing consecutive bare fallow years in cultivated
lands exacerbate both the environmental and eco-
-
on soil disturbance during harvesting in croplands
et al.
Several key factors control the magnitude of SLCH,
-
et al.
, 2004, 2005;
Kuhwald
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202450
to tillage operations that result in the downhill
displacement of soil. The variation in soil displace-
ment rates due to tillage erosion may be rather
large, depending primarily on topographic charac-
teristics, tillage depth and tillage direction, and to
a lesser extent on the tillage velocity and imple-
et al.
Tillage erosion displaces soil over small areas, but
et al.
Involved in each of the aforementioned erosion
deriving from interactions between anthropogenic
and natural phenomena. The most prominent fac-
tor is scarce or no vegetation cover, which can be
caused by one factor or a combination of multiple
factors. These factors include the following.
• Poor land management practices. Unsustain-
able land management practices such as over-
grazing, inappropriate tillage methods, monocul-
ture farming and improper irrigation practices
et al.
These practices can disturb soil structure, de-
crease vegetation cover and increase soil’s vul-
nerability to erosion. In land management cycles,
the removal of vegetation cover during periods
when the risk of erosion is high greatly increases
the overall vulnerability of soil to water and wind
Matthews
et al.
susceptibility to other erosion processes, tillage
et al.
• Deforestation and mining. Deforestation, driven
by agricultural expansion, urban development
and logging activities, removes the protective
vegetation cover crucial for stabilising soil. With
this protective layer gone, soil becomes suscepti-
et al.
-
tivities disrupt soil integrity through excavation,
Estimating sediment removal costs from the reservoirs of the EU.
-
ment, limiting their water storage and energy
production capacities. The cost of removing
-
mulated sediment due to water erosion only
per year in the EU and United Kingdom, with
types of soil loss processes, a simple extrapo-
lation puts the sediment input at an order of
but lumped extrapolations do not consider
that the removal cost (per cubic metre) may
be less due to the application of less costly
countries.
for all erosion processes, the removal of sedi-
ment from EU dams is predicted to cost
box
3
Photo box 3:
Sediment build up in Val Formaza, Italy.
Source:
A. Jones
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 51
vegetation removal and waste disposal, acceler-
et
al.
• Land levelling. When the local topography does
not allow particular agricultural operations
reshaped by levelling. Such land levelling leads
locally to very large soil losses, resulting in highly
also becomes more prone to other soil erosion
processes such as piping and gully erosion, and
et al.
• Climate change. Climate change further exac-
erbates soil erosion by altering precipitation
patterns, increasing the frequency and inten-
sity of extreme weather events and disrupt-
et al.
Depending on the spatial and temporal patterns
et al.
, 2021; Borrelli
et
al.
projected the impact of climate change on soil
et
al.
, 2012; Routschek
et al.
, 2014; Grillakis
et al.
,
2020; Luetzenburg
et al.
, 2020; Eekhout and de
• Fire. Anthropogenic or naturally induced wild-
Outcomes are highly variable between geo-
graphical regions, for example depending on
et al.
also trigger the occurrence of extreme erosion
-
ing downstream the integrity of water bodies
et
al.
-
ducted at the EU scale, additional soil losses of
-
et al.
4.4.3 Impacts
on both the environment and human activities.
These impacts can be divided into on-site
consequential monetary losses. Some of the main
impacts include the following.
• Loss of soil fertility and soil biodiversity. Soil
erosion removes the top fertile layer of soil,
which contains the nutrients necessary for plant
growth. In addition to a reduction in soil fertility,
important soil functions are impacted, such as
the soil’s ability to store carbon, nutrients and
-
maercke
et al.
damage in addition to reducing the land’s natu-
Poesen, 1999; Bielders
et al.
• Food security.
-
al productivity and undermining soil’s capacity
to produce enough food to meet the needs of
et al.
, 2004, 2007;
García-Ruiz
et al.
erosion, in particular, can be considered a seri-
ous threat to future food and feed production,
from agricultural systems can be attributed to
et al.
In a recent study, integrating economical and
biophysical models, Sartori
et al.
-
economy as a result of soil erosion. The accom-
panying impact on food security is a reduction
tonnes, with accompanying rises in agri- food
food product category. Under pressure to use
more marginal land due to the loss of fertile
land through erosion, abstracted water volumes
-
The State of Soils in Europe - 202452
tres. Finally, there is tentative evidence that soil
erosion is accelerating the competitive shifts in
comparative advantage on world agri-food mar-
et al.
• Sedimentation. Eroded soil particles are often
1999; Patault
et al.
can degrade water quality, disrupt aquatic
ecosystems and harm aquatic organisms by
smothering habitats and reducing light penetra-
et al.
, 2003; Owens
et al.
In addition to the damage caused by the mineral
components of soils, considerable ecological
damage can occur because particle-bound
nutrients, heavy metals and pesticides are
transported into neighbouring aquatic habitats
where damage to biotic communities is caused
• Decline in terrestrial biodiversity. Soil erosion
can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation,
which can reduce biodiversity. Many plant and
animal species depend on stable soil ecosystems
for survival. Erosion can disrupt the equilibrium
in these ecosystems, leading to declines in bio-
et al.
,
1995; Guerra
et al.
, 2020; Rendon
et al.
Moreover, soil erosion and soil biodiversity inter-
act bi-directionally: below-ground organisms af-
fect soil loss through their mixing activities, while
intensive erosive events shape the soil-occupy-
ing organisms and the functions and services
• Soil ero-
landslides, especially in areas with steep slopes,
heavy rainfall and low vegetation cover. Soil deg-
et al.
soil can clog waterways, increasing the risk of
-
versity discussed above. The destabilisation of
slopes by water and wind erosion can also result
in landslides, which directly endanger human
et al.
• Economic costs. Soil erosion imposes economic
costs on agriculture, forestry and infrastructure.
The current estimate of agricultural productiv-
ity loss in the EU due to the on-site impacts of
et al.
of severe soil erosion by water on crop produc-
et
al.
monetary cost is the removal of sediments from
-
et al.
,
• Climate change. Soil erosion reduces soil’s
stability, alters its structure, impedes its biologi-
cal activities, reduces its water-holding capacity,
causes soil nutrient loss and can reduce SOC
et al.
major functions of soil, and not only its pro-
ductivity. Soil erosion may exacerbate climate
change by releasing carbon stored in soil organic
matter into the atmosphere from displaced sed-
et al.
complex interactions between soil erosion and
of soil erosion on the carbon cycle remain, which
eroded soils also have reduced water-holding ca-
pacity, which can exacerbate drought conditions
-
• Impact on cultural heritage. Soil erosion can
impact cultural heritage sites, such as archaeo-
logical sites and historic buildings. Erosion can
degrade or destroy these sites, leading to the
loss of valuable cultural and historical resources
et al.
, 2020; Polykretis
et al.
• Social impacts, such as land abandonment
(and possibly migration). The main reason
for land abandonment is degradation and the
loss of soil fertility, either as a consequence of
erosion processes or as a result of soil nutrient
et al.
-
et al.
, 2005; Díaz and Sinoga,
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 53
causing nutrient depletion and enhancing
farmers and thus contributes to famine, migra-
sustainable development and ecosystem resilience
soil conservation and land management practices.
4.5 Soil compaction
Soil compaction is a prevalent issue
in Europe. It aects soil properties,
reduces crop yields, impairs water
inltration, diminishes soil fertility
and increases GHG emissions. It poses
signicant challenges to sustainable
land management and agriculture,
highlighting the need for preventive
measures and conservation practices
such cover cropping and reduced till-
age. While the compaction of topsoil
can be mitigated with conservation
practices, subsoil compaction persists
and aects various soil functions.
due to the application of mechanical stresses that
exceed soils’ internal strength. These stresses can
weight from upper layers of soil or thick layers of
compaction is not a recent phenomenon, and its
low organic matter content are more prone to
compaction due to their tendency to form hard,
dense layers when subjected to high surface
pressures. In fact, sandy and clay-rich soils with a
–3–3,
respectively, could constrain root development
Under such conditions, the risk of compaction
increases as soil clay content increases and soil
organic matter content decreases. When soil
is greater potential for soil compaction, particularly
in topsoil.
4.5.1 Status and trends
Despite the extensive documentation of adverse
impacts of soil compaction on soil properties and
functions, determining the extent and severity
of compaction in Europe remains challenging
et al.
Schjønning
et al.
exhibit critically high relative normalised densities.
According to the European database of soil
et al.
et al.
of soil compaction.
to clearly describe with thresholds because
conditions are highly unstable and dynamic;
mechanical seedbed preparation, recovery after
the growing season and the use of cover crops.
The degree of topsoil deformation can therefore
be rather temporary; however, it can also be a
warning sign that any continuation of current
Dashboard provides insight into the natural
susceptibility of agricultural soils to compaction
that a third of European subsoils are very
moderately so.
be easily measured or that are common in many
soil surveys include BD, air capacity, soil texture
and visual features of compaction, such as platy
-3
-3 and
-3-3
is considered extremely bad, as it restricts root
growth. However, it should be noted that the
The State of Soils in Europe - 202454
optimal and critical limits of soil BD are dependent
on soil texture, particle size, management
practices and organic matter content.
from the LUCAS 2018 campaign. A high resolution
map of BD for the whole of Europe was recently
et al.
-3, with high variability between
-3, followed by permanent
drivers of BD variation are land cover type, and, in
land use and management practices have such
an important impact on BD as the BD of arable
lands is almost 1.5 times higher than woodlands.
Countries with a large proportion of woodlands
have quite high biases in their BD estimates
.
It should be noted that areas with naturally high
soil BD may not necessarily be compacted. BD
is a parameter with high spatial and temporal
variability. While BD is compaction sensitive, it is
it describes only changes in volume and does not
quantify the potentially negative impacts on pore
functions. If BD is used because of its widespread
information about, for example, texture or soil
structure is needed to make a better qualitative
assessment of compaction.
of BD as an indicator for natural and human-
et al.
, 2003; Tobias
and Tietje, 2007; Shamal
et al.
, 2016; Panagos
et al.
, 2024b. The use of PD as a proxy for soil
compaction facilitates practical monitoring
et al.
estimated for the EU and United Kingdom the
packing PD using the BD and the clay content
et al.
–3
susceptible to further compaction. Medium-
compacted soils have a PD in the range of
–3 to 1.75 g cm–3 while the less
–3
et al.
et al.
. Based
on the currently avaialble European data sets,
71.8% of all soils would appear less compacted,
Source:
EUSO, based on Panagos et al. (2024a).
Figure 9. Use of PD as a proxy for soil compaction to identify hotspots where soils are highly compacted.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 55
2.2% compacted and 26% with medium packing
density. In the arable lands, medium packing
The pan-European assessment does not
challenge any local or regional assessments made
with a higher number of analysed samples. In
Switzerland, BD has increased since the 1980s
in the majority of agricultural soils. Moreover,
the compaction of forest soils is also increasing,
compaction is also of growing concern in northern
Europe, mainly due to increasing production
costs and economic pressure, which lead to the
use of heavier machinery and to more contract
et al.
, 2019; Seehusen
et al.
not measured in soil monitoring programmes
in Ukraine ,but soil compaction is widespread
et al.
soil compaction due to the manoeuvres of heavy
et al.
In the western Balkans, soil compaction is not
of great importance in most agricultural lands in
the region due to the lower use of agricultural
machinery than in developed agricultural
countries. However, further investigations should
be conducted to determine the real impact.
According to experts’ assessments, in Türkiye,
the human-induced compaction of agricultural
land has become a serious and growing problem
for soil, due to the increasing weight and use
of soil cultivation and harvesting machines. Soil
compaction is a new phenomenon among the
country’s farmers and is yet to be fully assessed.
The main obstacle to preventing or reversing soil
compaction is failing to recognise it. Natural soil
compaction occurs spontaneously when alkaline
old lake bottom in Central Anatolia.
4.5.2 Drivers
In Europe, several factors contribute to soil com-
paction. The driving force is the economic condi-
tions for crop, animal and timber production: in
machinery is used, or animal density is increased.
This increases the mechanical stresses applied to
et al.
• Agricultural and forestry activities. Large and
heavy machinery, such as tractors and harvest-
ers, and equipment used in forestry operations
wet conditions. Intensive or improper tillage
practices can contribute to soil compaction by
breaking down soil aggregates and reducing soil
porosity.
• Trampling by livestock. Continuous grazing
and trampling by livestock can compact the soil,
particularly in pastures and grazing areas. This is
more likely to occur in areas with high stocking
densities or in wet conditions.
• Infrastructure development. Urbanisation and
construction activities can result in soil com-
paction due to the use of heavy construction
equipment, increased soil disturbance and the
creation of impervious surfaces.
• Continuous mono-cropping. Cropping the same
compaction due to the conduct of the same
mechanisation activities over time. Identical root
development and systems can also accelerate
complementary root growth strategies improve
crops’ adaptation to and the remediation of hos-
et al.
4.5.3 Impacts
Soil compaction in Europe can have several
and ecosystems. Several studies have shown that
structure, increases BD and reduces soil porosity,
growth by increasing mechanical impediments
to root growth, hampering root architecture and
et al.
,
2015; Keller
et al.
include the following.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202456
• Crop yield reduction. Compacted soil has
reduced pore space, limiting the movement of
et al.
can hinder root growth and penetration, leading
-
dey
et al.
and development, and yield. Soil compaction
the magnitude and severity of soil compaction
et al.
et al.
• Compacted soils
have a reduced ability to absorb water, leading
can contribute to water pollution through the
transport of sediment, nutrients and agrochemi-
cals into water bodies, impacting aquatic ecosys-
tems and water quality. Soil compaction can also
et al.
, 2017; Alaoui
et al.
• Reduced fertility. Soil compaction restricts the
movement of air into the soil, which can lead to
decreased microbial activity and nutrient cycling.
This can result in soil degradation and reduced
soil fertility over time. Besides the changes in soil
structure, compaction reduces soil pore space
and increases soil strength while decreasing root
growth and root elongation rate, which results
in reduced water and nutrient uptake by plants
et al.
, 2013; Sadras
et al.
, 2016; Colombi
-
paction on soil conditions also reduce plant
• Increased GHG emissions. Compaction may
atmosphere through mechanisms associated
crop development. A range of studies have clear-
emis-
emissions because the cultivation of compacted
• Constraints on land use. Soil compaction can
limit the suitability of land for various agricultural
and land management practices. It can restrict
the use of heavy machinery, limit crop growth
and increase the cost of soil restoration and
et al.
-
mated the compaction costs to be higher than
of which productivity losses account for more
et al.
soil compaction has a substantial impact on crop
growth, development and yield, and farm income
et al.
• Increase tillage costs. As soil compaction
increases, the cost of tillage increases. Periodic
deep ripping becomes necessary, especially in
regions where crops such as sugar beet are
et al.
, 2019; Shaheb
et al.
,
-
es to sustainable land management, agriculture
and ecosystem health in Europe, highlighting the
importance of implementing measures to prevent
and mitigate its impacts. The compaction of topsoil
-
ricultural practices such as the use of cover crops,
non-tillage and organic amendments improve soil
structure and therefore drastically reduce soil
compaction. However, compaction of the subsoil is
of soil functions.
4.6 Soil pollution
by the presence of substances in soil with levels
considered unacceptable from an environmental
layers, including the root zone and connected
compartments. Point-source pollution occurs
when substances are released from a single well-
substances over large geographical areas from a
single source or a range of sources.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 57
4.6.1 Status and trends
Despite the fact that there is a common
understanding of the impacts of soil pollution in
the EU, comprehensive, large-scale assessments
are scarce. Most of the data at the EU scale
originate from the various LUCAS rounds, while
data from individual Member States are often
comparisons. Nonetheless, it is possible to
recognise a set of indicators: for metals, from
mine sites, from the Water and Planetary Health
The spatial distribution of cadmium in topsoil
across the EU and United Kingdom was assessed
-1. This threshold
Environment and corresponds to the lower limit
for cadmium in soils in the sewage sludge directive
et
al.
important variable explaining cadmium levels. The
application of the EU fertilising products directive
should further limit cadmium inputs to soils. High
croplands and linked to anthropogenic activities.
This is the case in vineyards and orchards in
regions of northern Italy and parts of France,
probably related to fungicide treatment and the
et al.
Copper compounds, including copper sulphate,
are authorised for use in the EU as bactericides
and fungicides, despite being considered
substances of particular concern to public health
fungicides are also authorised for use in organic
et al.
high concentrations have been found close to
mining activities, while the rest could be related
to either coal combustion industries or local
-1
et al.
-1
The distance from natural Zn deposits or Zn
mines was one of the most important variables
in explaining Zn concentrations in Europe.
Moreover, the high likelihood of grasslands having
-1 indicates
that collecting data on fertiliser and manure
inputs would improve the estimation of topsoil Zn
et al.
An analysis of heavy metal concentrations in EU
the sewage sludge directive found that 19 % of
samples exceeded the limit values as laid down
in the national legislations for at least one single
et al.
methods should be used to determine the
actual heavy metal fractions that may be taken
Soil pollution in Europe arises from a
variety of sources, including industrial
activities, urbanisation, agriculture
and military operations. These
activities release contaminants such as
heavy metals, pesticides and industrial
chemicals into the soil, posing
signicant risks to environmental
and human health. Despite eorts to
address soil pollution, comprehensive
assessments remain limited, making
it challenging to fully understand its
extent and impact. Indicators such
as the presence of heavy metals
and pesticides suggest concerning
trends. Soil pollution has far-reaching
consequences, aecting not only
human health but also ecosystem
services and agricultural productivity.
To address these challenges,
concerted eorts are needed to fill
knowledge gaps, establish harmonised
monitoring practices and implement
eective pollution prevention and
remediation measures.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202458
distribution of heavy metals in agricultural soils
et al.
areas. Future pollution monitoring at the EU level
will build on the LUCAS soil module, through which
heavy metals and other contaminants are now
regularly monitored.
Pesticide residues are commonly found in
residues across crops and farming systems
et al.
soils, mostly long-banned substances are
found, while conventionally managed soils host
mostly a mix of compounds currently in use
and recently or long banned. Glyphosate and
its main metabolite aminomethylphosphonic
acid, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, are
the compounds most frequently found in soils
et al.
, 2021; Riedo
et al.
, 2021; Knuth
et
al.
et al.
pesticides residues, and a higher toxicity risk, in
et al.
, 2023b; Franco
et
al.
Edwards
et al.
territory, as well as the major commodities under
although only one quarter are included in national
registries.
In the western Balkans, soil contamination is a
Sources: EUSO, based on (a) Ballabio et al. (2018, 2021, 2024) and Van Eynde et al. (2023), (b) Yunta et al. (2024),
(c) Vieira et al. (2023) and (d) Hudson-Edwards et al. (2023); modied from Vieira et al. (2024).
LEGEND:
Presence of Cd. Cu, Hg and Zn
Above threshold
EU Countries
non-EU Countries
A
LEGEND:
Pesticide residues
incidence classes [3403]
No substances [868]
1 substance [586]
2-5 substances [934]
6-10 substances [646]
> 10 substances [369]
EU Countries
non-EU Countries
C
LEGEND:
Heavy Metals
Not exceeding
Exceeding
EU Countries
non-EU Countries
B
LEGEND:
Active mines
Inactive mines
EU Countries
non-EU Countries
D
Figure 10.-
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 59
of industrialisation. The extent of contamination
although some countries, such as Serbia, have
et al.
,
faces challenges brought by trace elements in
fertilisers and pesticide residues. In addition,
emerging contaminants, such as microplastics,
substances, are under-researched but require
et al.
to determine due to a lack of data. A national
project in Türkiye titled ‘Determination of plant
nutrient and potential toxic element contents of
Türkiye’s agricultural soils: Creation of a database
and mapping’ is being conducted by the General
Assessment of the impact of military activities on soil quality in Ukraine
An analysis conducted by the Institute of Soil Protection of Ukraine assessed the impact of
military activities on soil quality in regions including Kyiv, Zhytomyr, Sumy and Kharkiv. Soil
samples were analysed for heavy metals, oil products and agrochemical parameters. The
results showed that the maximum allowable concentrations were exceeded for Pb, Zn, Cu
and Mn in the Sumy region due to military activities. In Kharkiv, nickel (Ni) concentrations
revealed Pb, Cd, Zn and Ni contamination in the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions. Experts
in war zones. They noted soil changes including increased heavy metal content, increased
carbon content due to burning and alterations in particle size distribution and density in
-
es and soils due to pollution and contamination.
The assessment of the impact of military activities on soil quality in Ukraine underscores
metals and pollutants, posing risks to both agricultural productivity and public health.
environmental organisations and the international community to restore soil health and
box
4
Photos box 4:
The impact of war on soil.
Source: Y. Dmytruk.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202460
Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies.
The project aims to establish a comprehensive
database by collecting soil samples nationwide,
creating soil property distribution maps, supported
by the geographic information system, at a scale
changes in soil properties over time. This initiative
and identify potentially toxic elements present in
In Ukraine, soil pollution stems primarily from
three sources: residual radionuclides from the
Chernobyl nuclear disaster; industrial activities
such as metallurgy, the use of chemicals and
mining, which release trace elements and
radionuclides; and agricultural practices involving
pesticides, fertilisers and liquid waste.
sanitary inspectorate monitors pollutant levels in
with heavy metals such as Cd, Mn, Pb, Cu and
Zn in cities such as Pavlohrad, Mariupol and
Pervomaisk. The exceedance of maximum allowable
concentrations for Pb and Cd was observed
in various regions. Moreover, approximately
hectares of agricultural land exhibiting high levels
of 137
4.6.2 Drivers
Soil pollution in Europe is driven by various factors,
each contributing to the degradation of soil quality
and posing risks to environmental and human
health.
• Industrial activity. Due to the long industrial
history of EU, industrial activities represent two
thirds of point sources of soil pollution, in combi-
nation with commercial and waste disposal and
contaminants are mineral oils, trace elements
and organic contaminants such as halogenated
and non-halogenated solvents, polychlorinated
biphenyls and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
• Industrial waste products from food produc-
tion, leather tanneries and the pharmaceutical
industry are some of many drivers of heavy
et al.
• Primary sources of polychlorinated biphe-
et al.
,
et al.
et al.
• Besides mining activities, coal burning and
et
al.
which can be found in slurry on agricultural
facilities, are now threatening soil and ground-
et al.
• Urban areas and the transport sector. Severely
polluted urbanised areas can have an impact
to soils for several kilometres surrounding the
et al.
et al.
,
•
et al.
Urbic Technosols. These anthropogenic soils
are, in many cases, ‘multi-contaminated’, as
-
alloids but also organic pollutants.
• Lead, zinc, copper and cadmium contami-
nation were found in samples taken on the
surface and in the immediate vicinity of a high-
way in France. The observed concentrations
decreased rapidly with an increase in distance
et al.
identify these sources of pollution as a global
et al.
, 2017; De Silva et
•
inappropriate site selection, may result in the
leakage of contaminated leachates into the
et al.
,
• Agriculture. Agricultural soils can be contaminat-
ed due to traditional farming activities, such as
the application of pesticides, fertilisers, manure
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 61
and sewage sludges and the use of plastic
mulches, and motivated by increasing demand
• Ostermann
et al.
between concentrations of the antibiotic sul-
famethazine and Cu or Zn, suggesting that in
regions with a high rate of manure application
the assessment of metals currently in soils
may help to identify potential hotspots for
antibiotic pollution.
• The release of antibiotics and other phar-
maceuticals to soils tends to result from the
et al.
plants, the spreading of sewage sludge or
The release of these pharmaceuticals results,
among other things, in the development of
-
do-Baquerizo
et al.
metals and biocides have been described as
factors promoting the development of antimi-
et al.
• Plastic mulches, used in agricultural lands
to improve water use and reduce the preva-
lence of weeds, are a source of microplastics,
et al.
and soil’s physico-chemical and hydrological
et al.
transport and slowing down their degradation
et al.
• Hazards and military activities. Soil pollution
can also be caused by punctual events with
unprecedented impacts, triggered by natural
hazards but also by exceptional anthropogenic
circumstances such as military activities or wars.
Examples of those at the EU level are as follows.
• Radionuclides emitted by atmospheric nuclear
weapons tests, which peaked in the 1960s,
and the Chernobyl accident in 1986 are found
ubiquitously in soils across Europe. Neverthe-
less, the spatial patterns and the contributions
of these two sources remain poorly con-
et al.
• Warfare and military activities can lead to the
physical disturbance of soils and their en-
et
al.
• Fires. Fires are known to drive soil pollution
due to the release of toxic compounds during
-
omatic hydrocarbons, metals; Ré
et al.
et al.
et al.
4.6.3 Impacts
The impacts of soil pollution in Europe are mul-
et al.
sustainability, public health and socioeconomic
well-being.
• Animal and human health. Living in areas with a
higher concentration of heavy metals and metal-
loids in soil was associated with all-cause cardio-
vascular disease mortality, the aetiology of some
types of cancer and an increased probability of
et al.
, 2017;
Ayuso-Álvarez
et al.
-
refer to the total amount of a given pollutant in
soil, and do not consider the bioavailable frac-
tion that has the capacity to be incorporated and
et al.
, 1991;
Zhao
et al.
• Ecosystem service degradation. More than
soil health status, especially for food supply and
a healthy environment. The potential impacts of
pollutants in soils ecosystem’s services provision
• Metal and pesticide pollution.
invertebrates and soil microbial communities,
et al.
, 2015; Faggioli
et al.
, 2019; Soudzilovskaia
et
al.
, 2019; Gunstone
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202462
• Microplastics and nanoplastics. Have negative
-
ties. The degradation of these substances often
organisms and plant growth, and accumulating
of microplastics on soil are still poorly under-
et al.
It should be highlighted that soils with naturally
should not be considered degraded soils or to
degrade ecosystem service provision, unless their
natural equilibrium is disrupted.
-
cant challenges due to substantial gaps in knowl-
in monitoring practices and a limited understand-
ing of the complex interactions between pollut-
ants and soil ecosystems. Despite the recognised
presence of various pollutants and their adverse
impacts on soils, comprehensive assessment
frameworks remain incomplete. The main knowl-
edge gaps can be divided into four groups.
• Processes. Due to a general lack of knowledge
on individual substances, it is often not possible
to identify their pathways to soil or interactions
residence, transport and fate, nor identify their
ecotoxicological properties, bioaccumulation and
bioavailability, or their exposure and risk to the
environment and humans.
• Monitoring. Our limited capacity to quantify and
determine the level and spatial extent of vari-
point-source pollution, limits the development
of knowledge and regulations. A harmonised
inventory and an impact assessment of contam-
inated sites across Member States are examples
of unavailable knowledge products.
• Synergies. Several studies show that soils are
-
stances simultaneously, and very little is known
the natural background pollution, the variability
of soils in the EU and other pressures currently
in place.
• Emerging pollutants. There is no priority watch
list for pollutants in soil that could help in specif-
ically addressing the former points in relation to
emerging pollutants.
Addressing these gaps, in a holistic and harmon-
ised way, with policy support, is essential for devel-
and ensure the sustainability of soil resources for
future generations. The consequences of soil pol-
lution extend beyond environmental degradation
to include risks to human health, food security and
ecosystem integrity. Addressing these challenges
pollution prevention and remediation measures,
promote sustainable land management practices
and foster greater awareness of the importance
of preserving soil health for current and future
generations. By taking decisive action to mitigate
soil pollution, Europe can work towards ensuring a
more sustainable and resilient future.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 63
4.7 Soil salinisation and sodication
Soil salinisation is a major soil degra-
dation process in Europe, diminishing
soil fertility. It can stem from natural
factors such as geological and climatic
conditions or human-induced practices
such as improper irrigation methods
and poor drainage, with Mediterra-
nean countries being most aected.
Rising trends in soil salinisation are
evident in Spain, Italy, Cyprus and
Portugal due to various factors, in-
cluding climate change and intensive
agriculture. Addressing soil salinisation
necessitates integrated management
approaches focusing on drainage im-
provement, sustainable irrigation, crop
selection and ecosystem restoration.
Soil salinisation is a major soil degradation process
in Europe, diminishing soil fertility. It can stem from
natural factors such as geological and climatic
conditions or human-induced practices such as
improper irrigation methods and poor drainage,
with Mediterranean countries being most impacted.
Rising trends in soil salinisation are evident in Spain,
Italy, Cyprus and Portugal due to various factors,
including climate change and intensive agriculture.
Addressing soil salinisation necessitates integrated
management approaches focusing on drainage
improvement, sustainable irrigation, crop selection
and ecosystem restoration.
Soil salinisation is the increase in soluble salt
concentration in soil. It is considered one of the
major causes of soil degradation, decreases
soil fertility in Europe. It can happen naturally
Source:
EUSO, based on Tóth et al. (2008).
Figure 11. Saline and sodic soils map for the EU-27 showing
The State of Soils in Europe - 202464
such as unsustainable irrigation practices and
inappropriate management of water reservoirs
and canals, can cause secondary salinisation
et al.
rich irrigation water or poor drainage conditions
et al.
This results in the soil having unfavourable physical
utilise the soil and reduces its ecosystem
service potential.
4.7.1 Status and trends
-
an basin, Ukraine, the Carpathian Basin and the
et al.
European soils because of secondary salinisation
et al.
-
et
al.
Coastal vulnerability and groundwater salinisation in Türkiye:
Implications and solutions.
residing in vulnerable regions along the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara, and Black Sea
coasts. Coastal cities, though occupying a small percentage of the country's land area,
2007).
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MoAF) in Türkiye conducted a research project in
sea water intrusion on water and soil - The Bafra Plain Irrigation Project. The project exem-
-
Urgent action is needed to address coastal vulnerability and groundwater salinization,
strategies to safeguard Türkiye's coastal regions and agricultural lands.
box
5
Figure box 5: Location of the study area.
Source:
Arslan et al., (2007) and MoAF (2022).
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 65
et al.
,
et al.
extent remains uncertain, it is estimated that in
Europe Mediterranean regions are most suscep-
et al.
, 2016;
Stolte
et al.
et al.
,
-
-
sented in the map should only be used for
guiding purposes.
form of soil degradation in certain areas, with
et al.
of irrigated land has reduced agricultural yield due
hectares of irrigated land experiences soil salini-
et al.
-
et al.
addition, some soils in Albania, southern France
and northern Portugal, and other regions, also
hinder agriculture due to their high levels of salin-
et al.
-
ever, these areas do not always align with those
-
should therefore primarily be used for guiding
et al.
While no systematic data on soil salinisation trends
are available, research indicates that salinisation
is increasing in Spain and Italy due to the large ex-
tent of irrigated areas with a high evapotranspira-
is a high risk of saline intrusion in coastal areas in
Portugal owing to groundwater abstraction and
et
al.
Dashboard measures irrigation in climatic areas
with more evaporation than precipitation to esti-
mate the soil salinisation risk.
Solonetz soils, characterised by a high clay content
-
et al.
regions such as Bulgaria, Spain, Hungary
and Romania.
These soils are predominantly found in steppe
et al.
sodium content, these soils crack during droughts,
when they dry out, and swell during extreme rain-
fall events, leading to the build-up of inland water,
making them vulnerable to climatic extremes. Over
time, the extent of saline, sodic and saline-sodic
croplands has increased, resulting in accelerated
-
creased agricultural productivity, and consequent-
ly jeopardising environmental and food security
et al.
The western Balkans is home to a special soil type:
et al.
,
dry or wet, this soil is extensively cultivated in Alba-
nia, North Macedonia and Serbia, covering nearly
et al.
largely owing to natural conditions, except for
when salinity build-up due to poor-quality irriga-
et al.
Soil salinisation and alkalisation processes are
et al.
-
gated. Salinisation processes are almost widespread
-
-
The State of Soils in Europe - 202466
-
hectares facing saline-alkaline conditions, and
-
in coastal regions due to rising sea levels, with
millions of people residing in vulnerable regions
along the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara and
Black Sea coasts. Institutional research projects
are being conducted to study groundwater charac-
teristics and the impact of sea water intrusion on
et al.
Urgent action is needed to address coastal vul-
nerability and groundwater salinisation, and
integrated coastal management strategies must
be implemented to safeguard coastal regions and
agricultural lands.
4.7.2 Drivers
The main drivers of soil salinisation in Europe can
vary depending on the region, but some common
factors include the following.
• Irrigation practices. Improper irrigation practic-
es, such as excessive or poorly managed irriga-
tion with salty water, can lead to the build-up of
salts in the soil. In arid regions, where irrigation
is necessary for agriculture, such as southern
Europe, the accumulation of salt deposits can
content of irrigation water. Drivers encountered
in agricultural irrigation arise at successive
stages, starting from the development of water
Additional problems arise from factors such as
farmers, misguidance and the inadequate use of
et al.
, 2014; Shahid
et al.
• Poor drainage. The most important factor in the
occurrence of drainage problems is uncontrolled
damage to and poor maintenance of irrigation
canals and water intake structures cause unnec-
The depth of groundwater in irrigated areas may
-
root zone causes a decrease in yield in irrigated
agricultural areas due to salinity and alkalinity
problems, and may even render these areas un-
suitable for agriculture. Poorly drained soils are
particularly susceptible to salinisation, especially
in areas with high water tables or clay-rich soils
et al.
, 2006; Mukhopadhyay
et al.
• Intensive agriculture. Intensive farming often
relies on fertiliser supply to maximise crop yields.
Some fertilisers contain soluble salts, such as
potassium chloride and ammonium nitrate,
which can contribute to soil salinity when applied
2019; Corwin, 2021; Liu
et al.
, 2023; Tarolli
et al.
,
fertilisers in some Mediterranean countries, such
as Greece, France, and Italy, contribute to soil sa-
et al.
• Climate change. Climate change can exacerbate
soil salinisation by altering precipitation patterns
and increasing temperatures, leading to changes
-
climate change accelerate the development of
soil salinity, potentially spreading the problem to
et al.
The rising temperatures and droughts increase
evapotranspiration. As a result, water evaporates
and the salt remains in the soil, increasing soil
agriculture could act as a carbon sink if these
-
cia-Franco
et al.
• Coastal waterlogging. In coastal areas, saltwater
intrusion into freshwater sources can result in
saline soils. This can occur due to factors such as
rising sea levels, the over-extraction of ground-
water or changes in coastal hydrology. Drivers
of rising sea levels are the thermal expansion
of ocean water, the melting of glaciers and the
mass loss of polar and circumpolar ice sheets.
The rise in seawater intrusion, driven by climate
change and human activities, is a major concern
in coastal areas of Greece, Spain, Italy, Cyprus
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 67
4.7.3 Impacts
Soil salinisation disrupts the natural cycles of
various earth processes, including biochemical
et al.
, 2010; Setia
et al.
et al.
salinisation can lead to the depletion of valuable
soil resources, and essential goods and services,
agricultural production and the overall health
agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
Some of the key impacts include the following.
• Reduced crop yields and food security. High
soil salinity levels can inhibit plant growth and
reduce crop. Irrigated areas in arid and semi-arid
The reports prepared by FAO and the United
-
nization based on the data from the Soil Map of
et al.
of the formation of Solonetz soils within the EU
include the loss of arable land due to swelling
clay, increased sodium content and waterlog-
-
fard
et al.
• Economic impacts. Soil salinisation can have
economic repercussions for agricultural indus-
tries, including reduced crop yields, increased
irrigation costs and decreased land values.
Farmers may incur additional expenses for soil
remediation measures such as leaching, soil
amendments and land reclamation, impacting
-
with soil salinisation, primarily attributable to
agricultural yield losses, fall within the range
-
Bosello
et al.
rivers and deltas, estimated that the current eco-
nomic impact of salinity within the EU, primarily
in the agricultural sector, amounts to approxi-
• Environmental degradation. Soil salinisation
can lead to the degradation of natural habitats,
including wetlands, grasslands and forests, as
salt-tolerant species may outcompete native
vegetation. The loss of habitat diversity and
ecosystem services can further exacerbate the
impacts of soil salinisation on overall ecosys-
et al.
,
communities and inhibit the growth of native
plant species, leading to reduced biodiversity
and ecosystem resilience. Changes in soil salinity
can also impact soil-dwelling organisms, such as
crucial roles in nutrient cycling and soil health
et al.
• Soil salinisation is a major driver
primarily due to human activities, including
extensive irrigation and the unreasonable use of
saline water, causing over-pumping and seawa-
Domínguez-Beisiegel
et al.
Despite being recognised as a major soil threat
et al.
,
et al.
integrated management approaches that focus
on improving soil drainage and implementing
sustainable irrigation practices. Adaptation
strategies in the long run should include selecting
salt-tolerant crop varieties and developing new
et al.
By mitigating the impacts of soil salinisation,
Europe can safeguard agricultural productivity,
protect natural resources and promote
environmental sustainability.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202468
4.8 Soil biodiversity change
Soil biodiversity– including microor-
ganisms, such asfungi and bacteria,
and fauna, such as springtails and
earthworms– is vital for the provision
of ecosystem service s such as food
production, medicine discovery and
water regulation. Factors such as pH,
land use and climate inuence soil
biodiversity. Urbanisation, agricultur-
al intensication and pollution pose
signicant threats. Climate change
exacerbates these risks, aecting the
distribution and abundance of soil
organisms. Addressing biodiversity
changes is imperative for maintaining
soil health, ecosystem resilience and
food security.
Soil organisms span a wide range of body sizes,
component for the delivery of soil ecosystem
services, such as food production, pest control,
and water and climate regulations
Delgado-Baquerizo
et al.
,.
Source:
EUSO based on Orgiazzi et al. (2016).
A
C
B
Figure 12.
and soil biological functions in the EU + United Kingdom.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 69
4.8.1 Status and trends
An assessment of soil biodiversity was included
2018, gathering data from over 880 soil samples
collected across all the current Member States
and the United Kingdom. The sampling method
was repeated in the 2022 survey, and expanded
wide assessment of soil biodiversity by means
et al.
, 2023;
Labouyrie
et al.
the elucidation of consistent trends between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic communities: usually,
higher biodiversity was hosted in croplands
than grasslands and woodlands. Additional
analyses have been carried out on the fresh
soil samples collected in 2018 to determine the
spatial distribution of microbial biomass and
et al.
,
biological indicator of soil health in the European
Commission’s proposal for a soil monitoring and
Previously, to assess the status of life in EU soils,
an inventory was made of the risk of 13 potential
threats to soil biodiversity in the EU, including
habitat fragmentation, land use change, soil
et
al.
populate the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard,
which shows areas where the risk is estimated to
be moderately high or high. Despite the intrinsic
limits of this knowledge-based assessment, a
remarkable potential risk to soil biodiversity
was observed.
Beside the LUCAS soil biodiversity dataset, some
Member States have national soil monitoring
the EU, in Switzerland, 30 long-term monitoring
sites in the Swiss Soil Monitoring Network were
stability of bacterial and fungal communities
et al.
Kingdom, for 2013–2016, an ecological survey
was undertaken at the national scale in Wales
to determine environmental status and trends,
Sources:
Köninger et al. (2023) and Labouyrie et al. (2023).
Soil organism Driving factors
1 2 3
Bacterial chemoheterotrophs Isothermality pH Annual temp. range
Carbonate C:N ratio Temp. range
Bacterial pathogens pH Clay Isothermality
Ectomycorrhizal fungi Monthly aridity P pH
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Clay Extractable K Temp. seasonality
Fungal saprotrophs P Carbonate Monthly aridity
Fungal plant pathogens pH Temp. seasonality Annual temp. range
Protists P C:N ratio Bulk density
Rotifers pH Microbial biomass C C:N ratio
Tardigrades Basal respiration P Soil water content
Nematodes C:N ratio P Bulk density
Arthropods C:N ratio Intensity gradient
2009-2018
Ecosystem type 2015
Annelids pH P Respiration quotient
Table 1.
are shown; see source publications for additional details. C, carbon; temp., temperature.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202470
among which trends in soil biodiversity were
et al.
agricultural soil monitoring programme will include
a soil biodiversity module in 2024. Soil biodiversity
data collection is lacking in all the countries of the
western Balkans, and data on biodiversity is not
included in the soil monitoring programmes in
Iceland, Liechtenstein, Türkiye and Ukraine.
4.8.2 Drivers
Soil biodiversity may be driven by both edaphic
factors, such as pH and organic carbon, and an-
-
tion, climate change and above-ground vegetation
et al.
, 2015; Orgiazzi
et al.
et al.
,
2023; Labouyrie
et al.
-
tion of the main factors driving both the taxonom-
ical and the functional diversity of soil organisms.
-
-
list of drivers is presented for the taxonomical and
functional groups of soil organisms examined.
• Land use change. Land use changes, including
deforestation, have profound impacts on soil
biodiversity and ecosystems. Urban expansion
converts natural habitats into impervious surfac-
es, reducing soil organism habitats. Population
growth, and subsequent urbanisation of green
spaces, has increased soil sealing, and decreased
soil biodiversity by impeding organic matter
et al.
depending on whether taxonomical diversity or
functional diversity is considered. Intensive prac-
et al.,
-
al land or for other uses also eliminates habitats
et
al., 2015; Wachira et al.
• Pollution. Chemical pollution, stemming from
agrochemicals, industrial pollutants and other
sources, may contribute to the loss of soil biodi-
Pesticides, for example, can deplete or disrupt
non-target invertebrates, such as earthworms,
and soil microbial communities, impacting not
just taxonomy but also critical functions, such
et
al.
, 2012; Chagnon
et al.
, 2015; Mahmood
et al.
,
2016; Pagano
et al.
whole soil-occupying community are still missing.
• Microplastics. Soils are likely to serve as a signif-
et al.
,
soil biota are largely unknown, making them an
emerging threat to soil biodiversity that warrants
increased attention in research and continued
Möhrke
et al.
, 2022; Sajjad
et al.
-
ular concern is the potential for earthworms to
potentially exposing other subsoil organisms to
et al.
• Climate change.-
soil organisms, with some species proving more
sensitive than others to changes.
4.8.3 Impacts
The loss of soil biodiversity may have far-reaching
impacts on soil health and ecosystem functioning.
• Reduced soil fertility. The loss of key function-
al groups of soil organisms can decrease de-
composition rates, reduce nutrient cycling and
impede soil structure maintenance, resulting in
reduced agricultural productivity and increased
et al.
,
2013; Paes
et al.
• Disruption of ecosystem services. Soil biodiver-
sity changes may contribute to the disruption
of crucial ecosystem services such as carbon
-
tion, compromising the resilience of ecosystems
et al.
, 2020; Le Provost
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 71
• Reduced food security. The maintenance of
high levels of functional diversity in the soil is
closely related to the functional diversity above
ground. For instance, it has been shown recently
-
et al.
• Human health. Changes in soil biodiversity can
alter the occurrence and distribution of dis-
ease-carrying organisms. This can increase the
prevalence of vector-borne diseases, posing risks
et al.
decreased soil microbial diversity may reduce
the soil’s ability to break down pollutants, leading
to increased levels of contaminants in food and
et al.
Addressing soil biodiversity change is critical for
maintaining soil health, ecosystem services and
food security in Europe. Historically, soil organisms
and their diversity have been underrepresented
in the assessment of soil condition compared with
et
al.
-
-
-
ological constraints and the inability to monitor
a wide range of organisms. In recent years, the
evaluation of soil biodiversity has become in-
creasingly feasible thanks to advancements in
-
an Commission’s LUCAS soil biodiversity dataset
will support the production of maps that provide
information on the richness and abundance of
characterising soil biological condition and start
developing a monitoring scheme for life in EU soils.
4.9 Soil sealing and land take
In Europe, soil sealing varies by
country, with signicant proportions
observed in Malta, the Netherlands,
Türkiye and the United Kingdom.
Urbanisation and industrialisation
are major drivers, leading to the
conversion of agricultural and natural
land into built-up areas. Albania,
North Macedonia, Serbia, Türkiye and
Ukraine have experienced signicant
soil sealing due to urban expansion
and infrastructure development. The
impacts of soil sealing are profound,
aecting soil and ecosystem services.
Soil sealing disrupts natural processes
such as water inltration and gas
exchange, leading to increased ood
risk, carbon loss and higher tempera-
tures in urban areas. Biodiversity loss
is also a concern. Sustainable spatial
planning is crucial for mitigating these
impacts and ensuring a healthy envi-
ronment in the face of climate change.
Eorts to unseal soils and restore their
functions through multistakeholder
approaches are under way in some
regions, but challenges persist amid
ongoing trends towards urbanisation.
4.9.1 Soil sealing
Soil sealing is the permanent covering of an area of
as one of the main soil degradation processes in
report of the EEA on the status of the European
Soil sealing is the most serious, irreversible and
unsustainable form of soil degradation.
4.9.1.1 Status and trend
Soil sealing is usually expressed as a percent-
-
ing soil sealing at the national or regional level
The State of Soils in Europe - 202472
and census data or information from ground-
measuring soil sealing is by classifying high-resolu-
spectral mixture analysis, including linear spectral
-
measures adequately, very-high-resolution data
et al.
, 2010; Disperati and Virdis, 2015;
Codemo
et al.
resolution is necessary, with measurements every
et al.
threshold values for soil sealing, for example for
Romano
et al.
sealing and imperviousness are not always well
addressed. Confusingly, soil sealing indicators are
soil sealing data. Imperviousness only considers
soils covered by non-permeable materials, while
soil sealing also considers soils covered by part-
Although the utilisation of imperviousness as an
indicator may not be entirely accurate, it serves as
a metric at a regional scale. The EEA’s data viewer
and the EUSO dashboard provides accounts of
imperviousness for 2018. According to the EEA,
-
-
tion of surface sealed is lower than in other parts
Albania reported a potential loss of about
for 1990–2020. It is estimated that the annual rate
housing needs, followed by industrial activities and
infrastructure development. The greatest impacts
of soil sealing are observable around the largest
urban areas in North Macedonia. The continuous
increase in the population of the Skopje region
results in the radical sealing of agricultural land.
The mean annual rate of soil sealing for the whole
certain land use categories and classes of the soils
that have been sealed by urban development in
Serbia from 1990 to 2018 shows that mostly pas-
tures and heterogeneous agricultural areas were
sealed.
In Ukraine, developed land falls into several cate-
gories, including residential and public buildings,
industrial buildings, and buildings with transport,
communications, energy, defence and other pur-
countries in terms of urbanisation according to UN
rankings, and there has been a marked increase in
SOIL SEALING MAPS OF FLANDERS
types of data. The maps combine ‘known’ sealing, from the administrative Large-scale Refer-
ence Database, with modelled sealing determined by a machine learning model based on aeri-
accurate vectorial representation of Flanders’ buildings and infrastructure. The aerial images
box
6
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 73
the area of sealing and urbanisation in the country
in recent years.
has shifted towards recognising soil sealing as a
This has led to actions to protect and maintain
existing green areas despite urban and subur-
et al.
studies underline that the unsealing of soils and
restoration of soil functions can be achieved by
applying multistakeholder approaches involving
et al.
, 2006;
green spaces are more actively managed and
planned in Turkish agglomerations: roadside veg-
et al.
et al.
more attention than other areas. Lighthouse
projects such as the Atatürk Forest Farm in Ankara
stand out as models of how to convert alternative
et
al.
of urbanisation decreasing in Türkiye. While intact
urban soils and their functions become more and
et al.
-
ant to recognise the need to safeguard valuable
-
et al.
4.9.1.2 Drivers
Rapid urbanisation, driven by population
growth, necessitates the expansion of urban
areas for housing, infrastructure and industry.
This expansion, coupled with the development
of infrastructure such as roads, highways and
with impermeable materials. Furthermore,
the conversion of agricultural or natural land
into urban or suburban areas, alongside the
establishment of industrial zones and factories,
contributes to soil sealing. In addition, the
construction of commercial buildings such as
exacerbates this phenomenon.
4.9.1.3 Impacts
reducing the supply of many of its services. It is
normal practice to remove the upper layer of
topsoil, which delivers most soil-related ecosystem
services, and to develop strong foundations in
buildings or infrastructure, before proceeding
with the rest of construction. This process
usually results in irreversible land cover and
land use change, permanently altering the soil’s
natural state and its ability to provide essential
of rainwater and the exchange of gases between
the soil and the air. Soil sealing increases the
reduces soil’s ability to absorb and store carbon,
increases temperatures in urban areas and
et al.
sustainable spatial management is crucial to
ensure a healthy living environment and address
climate change.
4.9.2 Land take
Land take is a process, often driven by econom-
ic development needs, that transforms natural
land, using soil as a platform for construction and
infrastructure, as a direct source of raw material or
as an archive for historic patrimony at the expense
of the capacity to provide other ecosystem services
-
converted from urban areas into agriculture, forest
or other semi-natural areas’, while ‘net land take
et al.
distinguished by the ‘settlement area’, which is ‘The
area of land used for housing, industrial and com-
mercial purposes, health care, education, nursing
infrastructure, roads and rail networks, recreation
-
ning, it usually corresponds to all land uses beyond
agriculture, semi-natural areas, forestry, and water
The State of Soils in Europe - 202474
Annual land take maps of Italy.
The annual land take maps of Italy are for example produced by Earth Observation techniques,
using both Copernicus Sentinel 1 and 2 data and other VHR satellite images. In addition to
land take maps, soil sealing and settlement areas maps are also produced every year. These
data are used for the development of several indicators and for the assessment of the impact
available for the period 2006-2022.
Figure box 7:
Land take changes (2006-2022) for Italy. Source: Munafò (2023).
box
7
The concept of land take is often generic but
should always exclude land that has been taken to
build new urban green areas. So the concepts of
urbanisation, which considers all settlement areas,
and soil sealing should be considered alongside it.
4.9.2.1 Status and trends
2 of
took place in commuting zones. Net land take,
calculated by subtracting the area of recultivated
land from the area of land taken, in the EU and the
2, mostly at
the expense of croplands and pastures.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 75
4.9.2.2 Drivers and impacts
Major drivers of land take include population
growth, the need for transport infrastructure,
et al.
the, often irreversible, loss of the capacity of soils
biomass provision, water and nutrient cycling, bio-
jeopardising food security. Sealed soil also expos-
4.9.3 Landscape fragmentation
Landscape fragmentation is ‘the result of
transforming large habitat patches into smaller,
et al.
environmental and social implications, and
implications for climate change adaptation and
mitigation, and biodiversity. It is most evident
in urbanised or heavily developed areas, where
fragmentation is the product of the linkage of
built-up areas through linear infrastructure such
as roads and railways.
4.9.3.1 Status and trend
Based on an EEA analysis, large parts of Europe
have become fragmented because of the
expansion of urban and transport infrastructure
in the EU-27 and United Kingdom is considered
highly fragmented where habitats are less than
2 on average’. Moreover, it says, ‘As
distance from city centres increases, the extent of
landscape fragmentation drops rapidly.’ The extent
of landscape fragmentation varies considerably
by country in the EU and United Kingdom, being
highest in Malta, followed by the Netherlands,
Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg. Luxembourg
and Belgium have the largest areas of highly
fragmented habitats. In contrast, In Finland, the
Baltic states and Sweden, habitats are much less
fragmented than in other parts of Europe.
4.9.3.2 Drivers
Landscape fragmentation is the outcome of complex
interactions between policies, the geophysical
characteristics of the landscape and socioeconomic
drivers of development. Land take, urban sprawl and
economic activities lead to habitat fragmentation,
decreasing the resilience of ecosystems.
4.9.3.3 Impacts
Landscape fragmentation is a threat to ecosystem
service supply, landscape quality and the
sustainability of human land use. Landscape
fragmentation changes the visual aspects of
landscapes: roads, railways and built-up areas
are the most prominent contributors to the
transformation of natural landscapes into
fragmented anthropic landscapes. Landscape
fragmentation is a major cause of the rapid
decline in many wildlife populations. As landscape
fragmentation contributes to the destruction
of established ecological connections between
et al.
roads are not taken seriously enough in the
planning process, which contributes to the ‘spiral
Another issue is that the lack of accountability
the construction of new transport infrastructure,
observed until long after the infrastructure is built.
4.9.4 Land recycling rate
including the redevelopment of previously
purposes; the ecological upgrading of land for
et
al.
building of green urban areas such as golf courses
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202476
Land recycling can be estimated based on
multiple surface-related indicators. However,
such indicators are often considered limited
by the availability of initial data with a high
spatial resolution, and, in some cases, they can
overestimate built areas.
de-sealing of previously sealed areas and the
development of anthropogenic soils such as
et al.
et
al.
et al.
2006–2012. Although the general trend is an
increase in recycled lands during this period, for
some countries the trend is inverted. For example,
Land recycling rates can be considered an
indicator of previously sealed soils becoming
sealing–de-sealing process, while easy to use and
accessible for decision-making, focuses only on
land use, excluding the analysis of soil features
and characteristics to identify and quantify their
Further investigations should focus on tools
and methods that allow the assessment
and monitoring of land recycling in terms of
functionality over time.
Indicators should not be limited to land use data
but must integrate soil properties and processes
that provide a wide range of ecosystem services.
4.9.5 Conclusions
land take reverberate across ecological, social
and economic spheres, underscoring the need
for proactive measures. From compromised
soil functionality to heightened urban heat
the impacts highlight the need for sustainable
land management practices. Addressing
these challenges requires holistic approaches,
incorporating green infrastructure, compact urban
design and stringent land use regulations. By
prioritising the preservation of natural landscapes,
promoting permeable paving techniques and
fostering resilient communities, we can mitigate
ensuring a more sustainable and harmonious
co-existence between human activities and the
environment.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 77
#05
Convergence of
evidence of soil
degradation in Europe
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202478
The interplay of diverse drivers and
soil degradation processes creates a
complex web impacting soil condition
in Europe. Soil acidity, inuenced by
factors such as mineral fertilisation,
can deplete soil carbonates, aect-
ing fertility and nutrient availability.
Soil erosion, caused by unsustainable
agricultural practices, leads to nutri-
ent loss and diminishes soil functions.
Declines in soil carbon also disrupt soil
biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Chemical pollution further compounds
these pressures. The EUSO (EU Soil
Observatory) convergence of evidence
map illustrates overlapping soil deg-
radation processes, emphasising the
need for integrated approaches to ad-
dress multiple threats simultaneously.
Holistic soil management practices are
essential for preserving soil health and
ensuring ecosystem sustainability.
Without detailed information on soil prop-
erties, characteristics, indicators and their
thresholds for the delivery of multiple
ecosystem services at a regional scale, policymak-
in accurately assessing soil degradation, identifying
areas of concern, and implementing targeted inter-
ventions. This gap in data and knowledge hinders
our ability to understand the extent and severity of
soil threats, such as compaction or contamination,
which can have profound implications for agricul-
tural productivity, ecosystem resilience, and envi-
ronmental sustainability. Addressing this knowledge
gap requires investments in soil monitoring and
-
search collaborations to generate comprehensive,
up-to-date information on soil health parameters
across Europe. By enhancing our understanding
of soil condition at a regional scale, we can better
protect and manage this vital natural resource for
current and future generations.
5.1 Monitoring
Soil monitoring is essential for assessing soil
health and guiding sustainable land management
collect data on physical, chemical and biological
National soil monitoring programmes vary widely in
scope and methodology across Europe. The lack of
comprehensive and standardised soil data across
the region has led to inconsistencies and challenges
in comparing soil conditions among countries.
Addressing this knowledge gap requires invest-
ments in soil monitoring and mapping initiatives,
to generate comprehensive, up-to-date information
on soil health parameters across Europe. Moni-
toring programmes play a crucial role in assessing
soil condition and guiding sustainable land man-
agement practices. These programmes typically
involve systematic collection of data on various
soil parameters, including physical, chemical and
biological indicators. Physical indicators may include
-
cal indicators such as pH, nutrient levels, and heavy
metal concentrations provide insights into soil fer-
tility and contamination risks. Biological indicators,
including microbial biomass, enzyme activity and
on soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. By
tracking changes in soil properties and associated
soil functions over time, these programmes help
05 Convergence of evidence
for soil degradation in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 79
management practices, and inform decision-mak-
ing processes aimed at preserving soil health and
promoting sustainable land use practices. In addi-
tion, monitoring data serve as a valuable resource
public awareness initiatives aimed at addressing
soil deg-radation and advancing soil conservation
5.1.1 National Soil Monitoring programs
Several countries have already invested in the
implementation of national soil monitoring sys-
tems, whereas some of those have been contin-
However, during their development the primary
objectives of such programmes stemmed from
their national priorities, resulting thus in a highly
variable set of monitoring schemes.
Previous research has already reviewed existing
national soil monitoring programmes in Europe
for assessing soil quality through the assessment
of a minimum set of attributes, e.g. in the environ-
mental assessment of soil for monitoring project
et al.
Soil Condition Database, which include physi-
cochemical and hydraulic properties for forest
et al.
Leeuwen
et al.
The environmental assessment of soil for moni-
comprehensive review of European soil monitoring
et al.
, 2008; Arrouays
et
al.
by the European joint programme on agricultural
further insights to the landscape. However, results
from EJP SOIL should be interpreted with caution,
as not all countries have disclosed information
regarding their forest soil monitoring systems,
suggesting that the landscape of soil monitoring
across Europe may be more varied and complex
than initially apparent.
monitoring programmes to understand the moni-
toring landscape.
5.1.1.1 Central and western Europe
In 2008, the German Federal Ministry of Food and
Agriculture commissioned the Thünen Institute
agricultural soil inventory at the national scale
networks for soil protection and contaminated
measurement points across the country, covering
cropland, grassland, forests and other areas. In
addition, Germany has a long history of long-term
data to soil research. The peatland monitoring
to improve the reporting of GHG emissions of
forested peatlands in a comparable and repre-
sentative way. This nationwide basis can then
also be used to derive measures for peatland soil
protection. The peatland monitoring thus pro-
vides the long-term and area-wide emission data
of organic soils under forest needed for the IPCC
reporting. France operates a comprehensive soil
measurements and observations every 15 years
systematic approach ensures periodic assessment
and monitoring of soil conditions. In the Nether-
lands, national soil monitoring was done for more
than 18 chemical, physical and biological indicators
in 1998 and 2018, whereas each province moni-
tors soil quality each year. Soil data are stored and
available via a digital soil information system. In
addition, private research institutes deliver de-
tailed soil property maps derived from agricultural
routine laboratories for regional policy support.
5.1.1.2 Northern Europe
Denmark has a long history of soil mapping, with
extensive soil databases used at the national and
European levels. The nationwide Danish soil data-
bases have been widely used for the planning of
rural land at the county and national levels.
Although Finland has an uneven distribution of
-
er in the south than in the northern part of the
Sweden, systematic soil monitoring is conducted
at both the national and regional levels by various
departments of the Swedish University of Agricul-
The State of Soils in Europe - 202480
tural Sciences and the National Board of Forestry.
Environmental Protection Agency and coordinated
with common protocols by county boards on a
regional scale. The data collected by the university
are publicly available, contributing to transparency
and informed decision-making. The Geological Sur-
vey of Sweden initially conducted historical surveys
and mapping relevant to soil conditions in the mid
20th century. It continues to collect data on soil
depths and geochemistry, particularly focusing on
the natural occurrence of metals and other sub-
stances in forest-covered moraines. Meanwhile,
Ireland embarked on the Irish soil information
system project between 2008 and 2014, resulting
in a new national soil map and associated digital
soil information system. Furthermore, Ireland has
established the National Soil Database, which
includes comprehensive soil geochemistry and mi-
crobiolog ical analysis, providing valuable resourc-
es for soil research and management initiatives.
Estonia has denser monitoring networks than
countries such as Lithuania. In Lithuania, several
national survey networks do exist. For example,
the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Minis-
try of Environment is responsible for soil monitor-
ing in the 71 agricultural land sites in the context
of state environmental monitoring. Monitored soil
properties within this programme are related to
-
ture and industry.
5.1.1.3 Southern Europe
Soil monitoring networks are much denser in
northern and eastern Europe than in southern
-
itoring networks, and their soil survey resources
have historically declined. However, the Spanish
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food will
conduct a comprehensive analysis of the carbon
content in agricultural soils across the country.
This initiative involves the analysis of soils from
-
cise is to evaluate the outcomes of the recently
implemented new CAP, which began this year. In
Italy, soil surveying, soil mapping and information
system implementation have traditionally been
conducted primarily at the regional level, with
approximately 20 administrative regions serving as
centres for these activities. However, since 1999,
there has been a notable increase in soil survey
soil databases across the country. Portugal lacks a
national soil monitoring system.
5.1.1.4 Eastern Europe
Countries such as Czechia, Hungary, Poland,
Romania and Slovakia have established soil mon-
itoring systems, with varying levels of data accessi-
bility and coordination. In Poland, the permanent
monitoring of agricultural soils was initiated in
1995 as part of the State Monitoring of the Envi-
ronment. The obligation to conduct soil monitoring
and observe changes in soil quality is established
in the Environmental Protection Law. The soil
information and monitoring system in Hungary is
designed to continuously monitor changes in soil
quality mand environmental status, and its oper-
1992, annual soil sampling has been carried out at
-
ing network comprises three types of monitoring
points: the national core network, which covers
areas under agricultural cultivation; the forestry
monitoring points for monitoring soils under forest
ecosystems; and the special monitoring points for
characterising areas at risk or already polluted.
The collected data are public and in the public in-
terest, so anyone can request them to supplement
currently no soil monitoring network exists and
the only data are collected by LUCAS. Croatia lacks
a national soil monitoring network but has made
some attempts to develop one.
5.1.1.5 Non-EU countries
Across non EU-countries, the state of soil mon-
as Norway have made substantial advances by
implementing comprehensive soil monitoring
programmes, others such as Türkiye lack a struc-
tured monitoring system altogether. In the United
Kingdom, the National Soil Inventory plays a crucial
role in assessing soil quality and land use trends.
Similarly, Switzerland’s National Soil Monitoring
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 81
Network has been in operation since 1984, provid-
ing valuable insights into soil quality changes over
time. Ukraine faces a challenge with the absence
of proper national soil monitoring despite partial
coverage through soil surveys in agricultural land
agricultural land. At the same time, there are 750
monitoring sites across Ukraine, where some soil
health indicators are regularly monitored.
Meanwhile, in the western Balkans, the only new
regional source is the LUCAS survey of 2015.
There is a pressing need for updated soil data
and the establishment of comprehensive moni-
toring systems to address outdated information
and facilitate regional comparisons. These diverse
approaches highlight the importance of robust soil
monitoring systems for informed decision-making
and sustainable land management practices.
-
itoring exist in most EU countries, but uniformity
in methodology and coverage is far from standard
even within national systems. Soil organic carbon
and pH are among the most commonly mea-
assessing soil health and their direct relationship
with crop productivity. However, several other soil
health indicators exhibit limited coverage, even
in areas deemed at risk. Parameters related to
soil biodiversity and erosion are particularly un-
while some trace elements such as lead are mea-
sured extensively across countries, others such as
mercury show substantial disparities in monitoring
frequency. Indicators related to soil compaction,
such as bulk density and packing density, are also
lacking in approximately half of the countries.
Moreover, there is a lack of uniformity in method-
ology and coverage, even within national systems.
The need for harmonisation of procedures across
concern. This includes analytical protocols, res-
ampling intervals, and metadata collection and
storage. Achieving harmonisation in these areas
would facilitate data sharing and the comparison
systems, as envisaged by the proposed EU soil
monitoring and resilence directive.
5.1.2 International co-operative programme
on assessment and monitoring of air pollu-
The international cooperative programme on the
assessment and monitoring of air pollution in
enhance understanding of air pollution and its im-
pact on forest ecosystems through intensive and
of an extensive systematic network, with sam-
pling conducted within forested areas based on a
occurred only once, under the forest focus regu-
regular, detailed monitoring of forest ecosystems,
including crown condition assessments, soil and
foliar surveys, increment studies, deposition mea-
surements and meteorological observations over a
Across the European Union, Belarus, Moldova,
Montenegro, Russia, Serbia and Switzerland,
networks. The selection of parameters measured
-
formation regarding the collected data is provided
by Arrouays
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202482
5.1.1.3LandUse/CoverAreaFrameSurvey
soil module
The LUCAS Soil programme collects
soil samples across Member States
and neighbouring countries, provid-
ing harmonised datasets for soil prop-
erties at a continental scale. Unlike
other EU-wide soil sampling initia-
tives, LUCAS is a repeated sampling
scheme, enabling trend analysis of
soil health indicators across dierent
land covers. LUCAS Soil contributes
valuable data for scientic research,
policy development and informed de-
cision-making in soil conservation and
land management. Moreover, LUCAS
Soil oers opportunities for collabora
tion with national monitoring sys-
tems, serving as a valuable resource
for countries lacking their own soil
monitoring infrastructure.
-
nent of the LUCAS initiative, is a comprehensive
-
torate-General for Agriculture and Rural Develop-
ment and the JRC, LUCAS conducts regular surveys
to gather information on land cover and land use.
In 2009, the European Commission extended
LUCAS to sample and anal yse topsoil properties
selected for soil sampling, with standardised
procedures for collection and analysis carried out
in a single laboratory. The same procedure,
sampling method and analysis standards were
extended in 2012 to Bulgaria and Romania,
where samples were collected from about
In 2015, the survey was carried out for all the
current 27 Member States and the United King-
dom. In addition, the soil module was extended by
the JRC enlargement and integration programme
Figure 13. LUCAS soil survey procedure.
Source:
EUSO.
Lucas Soil Survey
Surveys
• EU wide monitoring
•42,000 sites
•500 surveyors
Samples
sent to
the JRC
Laboratory analysis
•100,000 samples
analysed over
four campaigns
Datasets
• Indicators
• EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard
• Policymaking
Archive
•50 tons of
soil archived
Samples
archived
Dataset
creation
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 83
Table 2. LUCAS’s integration in Member States and research bodies, including in soil monitoring systems, research pro-
the EU.
Aspect of
integration
Description National/research Involvement
Data use
for derived
products
LUCAS soil data are used to determine the
physical and chemical characteristics of soil,
Data contribute to national and European
pollution levels.
Geostatistical
modelling and
datasets
Spatial datasets are developed for soil
attributes such as clay, silt, sand, pH, C
ratio and key nutrients.
National systems use these datasets to enhance
models, with research from the JRC and others
improving predictions for stakeholders.
Biogeochemical
modelling
LUCAS data are integrated into
biogeochemical models to assess carbon
The data from the modelling are used by
national systems and for EU-wide studies on soil
health and carbon sequestration.
Pesticides
& antibiotic
residues
Samples are analysed from the 2018 survey
to detect pesticide and antibiotic residues.
Residues are analysed to enable the national and
EU-level validation and calibration of pesticide
fate models.
Soil health
indicators
Biodiversity indicators are developed
through the genetic analysis of soil to
assess impacts on land management.
Research collaboration across Member
States under the LUCAS soil module and the
Directorate-General for Environment’s European
Monitoring of Biodiversity in Agricultural
Landscapes initiative
.
AI & machine
learning
for crop
The JRC and national systems use LUCAS
data to train AI models to classify Sentinel-1
data and generate information on crop
types between surveys.
The JRC collaborates with national research
agencies and Colorado State University.
European soil
data centre
LUCAS soil data are accessible through
the ESDAC for various national and
international research projects.
Data are available to national agencies
and stakeholders across Europe for policy
development and environmental monitoring.
Soil organic
carbon mapping
LUCAS data was used by FAO to produce
the Global Soil Organic Carbon Map.
Member States and FAO use LUCAS data for
LANDMARK
H2020
methodology
The method is applied to predict synergies
climate regulation and nutrient cycling.
LUCAS is integrated in national research systems
as part of the Horizon 2020 initiative.
Collaboration
with Member
States
A goal of LUCAS is to form systematic
links with Member States to facilitate site
access, data collection and supplementary
analysis.
task force for soil monitoring and the Commission
Expert Group on the implementation of the EU soil
National soil
monitoring
systems
Member States have national soil mapping
surveys with varying degrees of repeated
sampling and monitoring.
The task force for soil monitoring was
established to harmonise national programmes
with LUCAS’s soil module to facilitate
comprehensive monitoring.
EJP SOIL
integration
EJP SOIL aims to harmonise information on
soil across Europe, focusing on agricultural
soil management and ecosystem services.
outputs, especially in integrating soil sampling
protocols and data from Member States.
Remote sensing
and machine
learning
Remote sensing is integrated in LUCAS
to enhance soil carbon monitoring and
predictions.
The JRC collaborates with international and
national institutions to apply AI and machine
learning tools for soil data integration.
Source: Based on Jones et al. (2022).
The State of Soils in Europe - 202484
to Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,
North Macedonia and Serbia. Switzerland also
participated following standard LUCAS protocols.
soil sampling of LUCAS 2015. Topsoil samples are
analysed for various properties, including coarse
fragments, particle size distribution, pH, SOC, car-
bonates, total N, extractable nutrients, cation ex-
change capacity, trace elements and multispectral
properties. The 2018 edition also includes assess-
ments of soil erosion, organic horizon thickness,
bulk density and soil biodiversity. In 2022, about
Source:
EUSO.
of chemical, physical and biological properties. The
data collected by the LUCAS Soil programme pro-
-
sets of topsoil properties at the EU level, allowing
correlations with land cover and land use types.
-
ed sampling scheme that can provide trends in soil
condition indicators for all land covers. LUCAS Soil
monitoring systems, and provides valuable data
for countries lacking a soil monitoring system, as
Soil degradation processes
Soil
pollution
Cu exceedance
Cu concentration
> 100 mg kg -1
Hg exceedance
Hg concentration
> 0.5 mg kg -1
Zn exceedance
Zn concentration
> 100 mg kg -1
Cd exceedance
Cd concentration
> 1 mg kg -1
Soil
erosion
Water erosion
2 t ha-1 year -1Wind erosion
2 t ha-1 year -1Tillage erosion
2 tha-1 year -1Harvest erosion
2 t ha-1 year -1Post fire recovery
recovery rate
< 1 tha-1 year -1
Loss of
biodiversity
Potential threat to biological functions
> Moderately-High level of risk
Soil
compaction
>
High
susceptibility
to compaction
Loss of
organic soils
Peatland degradation
Peatlands under
hotspots of cropland
Loss of
soil organic
carbon
Distance to
maximum SOC level
Distance to maximum SOC > 60 %
Soil
nutrients
Phosphorus excess
P excess > 50 mg kg -1
Phosphorus deficiency
P excess < 20 mg kg -1
Nitrogen surplus
Agricultural areas where
N surplus > 50 kg ha -1
Secondary salinisation
Areas in Mediterranean biogeographical region
where >30 % is equipped for irrigation
Soil
sealing
Built-up areas
No threshold applied
(all built-up areas)
Soil
salinisation
Figure 14. Soil degradation processes included in the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard. NB: Currently, 18 processes
The threshold values indicated are used in the dash-
board to estimate whether soils can be considered degraded or not.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 85
envisaged by the proposed EU soil monitoring and
et al.
were downloaded in EU Member States, with the
most requests from Italy, Germany and Spain.
followed by private companies and research or-
ganisations. Soil erosion datasets were particularly
popular, especially following the release of the
et al.
5.2 EU Soil Observatory Soil
Degradation Dashboard
The EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard provides
a spatial assessment of soil health across the EU,
processes. By harmonising soil datasets, the dash-
of soil degradation. The dashboard will be enriched
with new indicators and thresholds, aligning with
multiple ecosystem service considerations and
expanding to include data from countries beyond
commitment of the European Commission to ad-
dressing soil degradation and fostering sustainable
land management practices on a broader scale.
The Soil Degradation Dashboard developed by the
-
ment of where degraded soils may be located
in the EU and which degradation processes are
-
et al.
,
together with a novel methodology provides for
EU. The novelty lies in the use of the ‘convergence
of evidence’ approach, which spatially combines
multiple independent datasets to highlight areas
Figure 15. Convergence of evidence map of the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard. The map shows where current
Source:
EUSO.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202486
likely soil degradation processes.
-
soils were determined to be in a degraded state
using the prescribed assessment method, based
on the evidence currently available and current
most prev alent types of soil degradation.
-
actual extent of soil degradation, given the rec-
ognised lack of data on many other soil degrada-
tion issues, such as soil contamination and subsoil
compaction. In addition, the map shows that most
of the degraded soils are subject to more than
one type of soil degradation process, an important
The dashboard supports evidence-based deci-
insights into the drivers of soil degradation. In
addition, it serves as a valuable resource for stake-
holders, policymakers and researchers to access
and analyse soil-related information, fostering
a better understanding of soil degradation and
management practices. The EUSO soil degradation
dashboard will be enriched with new available in-
on countries beyond the EU.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 87
#06
Understanding the
interplay between
drivers and impacts
of soil degradation
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202488
06 Understanding the interplay
between drivers and impacts of soil
degradation
Soil degradation exacerbates
climate change by releasing stored
carbon, impacting food and biomass
productivity, and leading to economic
strain through remediation costs and
decreased agricultural yields . Human
health risks arise from nutrient-
decient crops and increased
exposure to contaminants in polluted
soil. Cultural and recreational values
suer as landscapes change, affecting
community well-being. Water quality
is compromised due to sediment
transport, while soil biodiversity
change aects ecosystem balance.
Building on the foundational knowledge estab-
lished in preceding chapters, this section
unravels the intricate mechanisms driving
soil degradation, exploring the diverse array of
pressures exerted by anthropogenic and natural
forces alike.
6.1 Interconnections between soil
degradation factors: Understanding
complexities in European soil health
Previous chapters have elucidated the intricate
connections among various soil degradation
processes in Europe, portraying them as inter-
linked and mutually reinforcing processes that
collectively contribute to the degradation of soils.
as mineral fertilisation, can lead to the dissolving
and progressive loss of soil carbonates. This pro-
cess not only releases CO but also reduces the
availability of essential nutrients such as calcium
and magnesium, ultimately impacting soil fertility.
Moreover, soil erosion, driven by various factors
including unsustainable agricultural practices,
removes the top fertile layer of soil. This not only
results in a loss of nutrients such as P to surface
waters but also diminishes the soil’s ability to store
important soil functions such as providing habitats
for soil organisms and purifying water. Additionally,
soil biodiversity is impacted by declines in soil car-
bon, and the loss of biodiversity in the soil disrupts
soil functions and ecosystem services. Chemical
pollution from agrochemicals and microplastics
further exacerbates these threats, posing risks to
soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Adding
complexity, these processes overlap, as shown
by the EUSO convergence of evidence map. The
pairs of soil degradation processes shown on the
convergence of evidence map. The size of the
area linking two soil degradations in the diagram
is proportional to the extent of their overlap in the
map. This diagram provides insights into the type
and magnitude of soil degradation combinations
estimated to be occurring in the EU.
These interlinks highlight the complex nature
of soil degradation and the need for integrat-
ed approaches to address multiple soil threats
simultaneously. These interconnected threats
highlight the need for holistic and sustainable soil
management practices. Addressing one aspect of
soil health often requires considering its impact
on other aspects. By understanding and mitigat-
ing these interconnections, we can work towards
preserving soil health and ensuring the long-term
sustainability of our ecosystems.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 89
6.2 Assessing the impacts of soil
degradation on Ecosystems, Agriculture,
and Society in Europe
resilience, water quality, biodiversity and human
important to note that the table is not exhaustive
but rather represents a selection based on report
scale utilised adheres to IPCC guidelines concern-
ing the correlation between evidence, consensus
-
trandrea
et al.
Some of the key impacts include:
• Climate change impact. Soils act as a carbon
sink, playing a crucial role in mitigating climate
change by sequestering CO. Soil degradation,
especially through activities such as deforesta-
tion and improper land use, releases stored
carbon back into the atmosphere, contributing
to climate change.
• Loss of food and biomass productivity. Soil
degradation leads to a decline in its ability to
support healthy plant growth. This results in low-
and economic sustainability.
• Soil erosion. Caused by factors such as water
and wind, this is a major form of soil degra-
dation. It leads to the loss of the topsoil layer,
which is rich in nutrients. This negatively im-
pacts agriculture and may result in increased
sedimentation in rivers and water bodies. In
some regions, soil degradation can progress to
arid and unproductive. This process is linked to
unsustainable land use practices, climate change
and deforestation.
• Economic impact. The impacts of soil degrada-
tion on agriculture, water resources and other
ecosystem services have economic consequenc-
es. Decreased agricultural productivity, increased
can strain economies.
• Human health concerns. Soil degradation
in food. This has implications for human health,
as the nutritional content of food may be com-
promised. Exposure to contaminants in polluted
soil can pose risks to human health through
direct contact with contaminated soil, ingestion
of contaminated dust or water, or consumption
of crops grown in polluted areas.
Source:
EUSO.
Soil erosion
Soil pollution
Loss of soil organic carbon
Soil nutrients
Secondary salinization risk
Loss of soil biodiversity
Soil compaction
Figure 16. Combination of soil degradation factors by area.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202490
• Loss of cultural and recreational values. Soil
degradation also impacts cultural landscapes and
recreational areas. Changes in soil quality and
recreational value of certain areas, impacting
the
well-being of local communities. The expansion
of urban areas may result in the loss of green
quality of life for residents. Access to nature and
open spaces is important for physical and men-
tal well-being.
• Degraded soils contribute
soils may contain sediments, nutrients and
This has implications for aquatic ecosystems
and human health. Degraded soils have reduced
water retention capacity, leading to increased
water supply and overall ecosystem resilience.
• Biodiversity loss. Healthy soils support living
ecosystems, including a wide variety of micro-
organisms, plants and animals. Soil degradation
leads to a loss of below- and above-ground bio-
soil conditions for survival.
crucial areas: human health; and the loss of cul-
tural and recreational value, which encompasses
social impacts. These gaps represent areas where
further research and understanding are needed to
fully comprehend the implications of soil health on
human well-being and societal dynamics.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
Climate
change Food and
biomass
production
Economic
impact Human
health Cultural and
recreational
impact
Water Biodiversity
SOIL DEGRADATION
Sealing
Nutrients
imbalances
Compaction
Pollution
Loss of
carbon
Loss of
carbon
Salinisation
Erosion
Change in
biodiversity
CONFIDENCE SCALE (BASED ON EVIDENCE AND AGREEMENT)
High agreement, robust evidence
High agreement, limited evidence
Low agreement, robust evidence
Limited evidence
Table 3. Soil degradation processes and their impacts.
Source: Own elaboration.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 91
#07
The role of citizen
science in assessing
soil conditions
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 202492
07 The role of citizen science in
assessing soil conditions
Research in soil science plays a
critical role in addressing societal
challenges, but engaging the public
is essential for bridging knowledge
gaps and fostering sustainable
practices. Citizen science oers
a participatory approach to soil
research, empowering communities
to contribute data and insights.
Collaboration between citizens and
researchers fosters co-creation of
projects, leading to sustainable
behaviour change and societal
impact. However, challenges such
as data dissemination, quality
assurance and scalability require
attention. Integrating citizen science
data into existing platforms such as
the European Soil Data Centre can
enhance its utility. Addressing these
challenges will be crucial for realising
the full potential of citizen science in
soil monitoring and management.
Research in soil science is crucial for compre-
hending and enhancing the role of soils in
knowledge and societal needs, a collaborative
-
ly half of the world's population lives in urban
et al.
may also lack engagement or connection with the
topic of soils.
Citizen science is a participatory research method
to generate new data and knowledge or under-
standing through their active involvement. Although
there is debate about what kind of activities and
et al.
science projects most commonly consist of engag-
ing with communities and seeking their participa-
et al., 2021;
Pino et al.
have gained increasing interest, driven by among
others the prominence of soil within policy agendas
et al., 2022c; Gascuel et al.
The importance of increasing citizen engagement
and awareness about soils is recognized in the
following policy frameworks: the ‘EU Soil Strategy
-
tion and learning opportunities contributing to soil
-
opments on soils and let them participate in the
the importance of soil health.
Citizen science can also potentially improve our
In 2015, the European Citizen Science Association
citizen science, summarised as the ten principles
provide a benchmark to review existing citizen
science projects and support the development of
et
al.
et al.
et al.
, 2022; Arias-Na-
varro
et al.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 93
7.1 Current citizen science activities
Soil is still poorly monitored by citizen scientists
compared with water and air, mainly due to the
complexity of soils, the absence of government
regulation aimed at soil protection and a lack of
et al.
et al.
et al.
current and past European citizen science proj-
ects on agricultural soils and grouped them into
-
-
-
projects generated data on soil nutrients and pH,
heterogeneity and soil pollutants. More than half
A recently started Horizon Europe project called
Engaging citizens in soil science: the road to
science as its primary focus. The project aims to
engage citizens by enhancing their knowledge and
interest in soil health, motivating them to protect
and restore soils. It empowers citizens to actively
participate in data collection and soil science, gen-
Through this involvement, citizens gain the capa-
bility to directly contribute to decision-making on
soil issues, utilising their acquired knowledge. With
Source:
C. Kabala (distributed through imaggeo.egu.eu).
Photo 5. Citizen engagement.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202494
the implementation of 28 citizen science initiatives,
across Europe, consolidating this information into
Echorepo, a long-term open-access data reposito-
ry. This valuable data resource is intended to ben-
and end users, including farmers, landowners,
businesses, educators and institutions responsible
for soil management. By doing so, ECHO seeks
evaluate project outcomes against existing data
from other pertinent soil monitoring initiatives.
Generating high-quality soil data is key to develop-
ing sustainable land management strategies and
driving policy actions that protect our essential soil
resources. In addition, several European research
projects on soils and agriculture, including Bench-
marks, Prepsoil, Nati00ns, LOESS, EUdaphobase,
SOLO and Increase, are including citizen science
aspects in their research agendas.
7.2 Outlook
Mason et al.
from participants, increased awareness of
soil among participating citizen scientists and
collaboration were key outcomes of successful
citizen science projects. The citizen science
community is beginning to explore and adopt
et al.
data collection to the co-design of projects. When
citizens and researchers join in interdisciplinary
settings, developing and implementing long-term
research projects, outcomes are more likely
to contribute to sustainable behaviour change
et al.
has shown that collaboration with citizens is a
et al.
example through adequate response in times
et al.
Hence, there is a need to further promote co-
creation to bring citizens - as individuals and
NGO's, for example - together with politicians
and scientists throughout the research process
policy outcomes and the institutionalisation of
et al.
topics, such as agri-food, legal aspects of citizen
science or citizen science in schools. In November
2023, a session with over 100 participants
was held on the role of citizen science in soil
monitoring, at the stakeholder forum hosted by
EUSO. The main aim was to highlight relevant
methodological aspects and identify associated
challenges for citizen science for soil monitoring.
One of the key messages was that existing data
generated by citizen science can be integrated
into ESDAC data. Time limitations often constrain
the dissemination of citizen science project
outputs, and the maintenance of outputs can be
resource intensive.
Other potential pitfalls are complications with
the sharing of data under the general data
protection regulation framework. Future research
should assess the quality control and quality
assurance of data generated by citizen science
and whether they can be compared directly, due
to the type and nature of the data generated in
citizen science. Lastly, an open question was how
citizen science projects and participation can be
structure and skill requirement from conventional
research projects, attention should be paid to
how citizen science projects are funded and to
involving team members with appropriate skills
such as science communication.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 95
#08
Towards sustainable
soil governance:
Policy pathways
for preserving
soil health in Europe
HE STATE OF
SOILS IN EUROPE
The State of Soils in Europe - 202496
08 Towards sustainable
soil governance: Policy pathways
for preserving soil health in Europe
Research in soil science plays a critical
role in addressing societal challenges,
but engaging the public is essential
for bridging knowledge gaps and fos-
tering sustainable practices. Citizen
science oers a participatory ap-
proach to soil research, empowering
communities to contribute data and
insights. Collaboration between citi-
zens and researchers fosters co-cre-
ation of projects, leading to sustain-
able behaviour change and societal
impact. However, challenges such as
data dissemination, quality assurance
and scalability require attention. Inte-
grating citizen science data into exist-
ing platforms, such as the ESDAC, can
enhance its utility. Addressing these
challenges will be crucial for realising
the full potential of citizen science in
soil monitoring and management.
8.1 From the soil thematic strategy to the
Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law:
Advancing soil protection policies in the EU
Over the years, soil policy has evolved from
the soil thematic strategy of 2006 to the
forthcoming legislation on soil monitoring
et al., 2023; Pana-
gos et al.
groundwork for addressing soil degradation and
promoting sustainable soil management practices
at the EU level. Building on this foundation, the EU’s
soil strategy for 2030 and the proposal for a soil
to soil protection and resilience-building measures
-
tance of monitoring soil health indicators, assessing
soil’s resilience to environmental stressors and
implementing measures to enhance soil health and
ecosystem service provision. By advancing soil policy
from strategy to action, the EU aims to safeguard
soil health, promote sustainable land management
practices and ensure the long-term resilience of
its ecosystems.
The forthcoming Soil Monitoring and Resilience Law
is intricately linked with other key policies aimed at
safeguarding soil health and promoting sustainable
land management practices within the EU. This leg-
islation intersects with existing environmental, agri-
cultural and biodiversity policies, forming a cohesive
framework for soil protection and resilience-building
which integrates measures to address soil degra-
dation and promote sustainable farming practic-
es. In addition, the Soil Monitoring and Resilience
Law complements the water framework directive
pressures on water quality and hydrological sys-
tems. Moreover, it reinforces the objectives of the
biodiversity strategy for 2030 and the regulation on
nature restoration, because healthy soils are essen-
tial for supporting diverse ecosystems and conserv-
ing biodiversity. By linking with these policies, the
upcoming legislation on soil monitoring and resil-
ience underscores the EU’s commitment to holistic
environmental governance, ensuring the long-term
sustainability of its soils and ecosystems.
The EU’s soil strategy for 2030 sets out a monitor-
and restore soils and to ensure that they are used
sustainably. The new Soil Monitoring and Resilience
Law will put the EU on a path towards healthy soils
-
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 97
of soil health, putting in place a comprehensive and
coherent monitoring framework and fostering sus-
remediation of contaminated sites
8.2 Soil conservation policies beyond the EU
The soil in the western Balkan region is highly
vulnerable, requiring careful design and application
for more evidence to bolster a robust soil protec-
implementation. Prioritizing the establishment of a
soil protection framework is essential for ensuring
healthy soils and aligning with the Green Agenda for
the western Balkans.
A soil strategy for England was published in Sep-
tember 2009, setting out the policy on soils at the
time and a number of core objectives for policy
and research. Current policies focus on protect-
ing soils and the important ecosystem services
they provide. Research is focused on addressing
in order to strengthen the protection of soils
and their resilience to climate change. The Swiss
national soil strategy, adopted in 2020, aims to en-
-
vices. It addresses unsustainable practices, such
as soil consumption and degradation, and aims
to achieve zero net soil use by 2050. The strategy
focuses on managing soil use, protecting soil from
harm, restoring degraded soils, raising awareness
of soil’s value and promoting international cooper-
ation for sustainable soil management.
Ukrainian legislation focuses on the concept of ‘land’
rather than ‘soil’. There is no clear legislation on soil
monitoring, protection and management. The main
focus is on soils on agricultural land, which is regu-
-
cation of trends in and types of soil degradation and
-
-
cation of soil science priorities as part of the state’s
development strategy are not systematic processes.
In Türkiye, the Law on Soil Conservation and Land
law is to protect and improve the soil, to classify ag-
ricultural lands, and to determine the minimum area
income while mitigating the risk of fragmentation.
The law sets out the procedures and standards for
ensuring that agricultural land is used in a planned
manner, in line with the notion of sustainable de-
velopment and environmental priorities. In addition
to this law, the Regulation of Conservation, Use and
of Soil Pollution and Point Source Polluted Areas
important laws and regulations in force covering soil
conservation in the country.
Source:
EUSO, based on Panagos et al. (2024c).
Figure 17. Roadmap towards assessing soil health in the EU until 2030 to achieve the Green Deal objectives
This endeav-
-
itoring and Resilience Law assessments up to 2030.
The State of Soils in Europe - 202498
#09
Ensuring soil health
and ecosystem
resilience amid
diverse land use
demands in Europe
HE STATE OF
SOILS IN EUROPE
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 99
Ensuring soil health
and ecosystem
resilience amid
diverse land use
demands in Europe
09 Ensuring soil health and
Knowledge gaps persist in the
understanding of social impacts
of soil degradation, including its
effects on human health and cultural
values. In addition, the impacts
of warfare on soils remain poorly
understood, and further research in
this area is required. The soil in the
western Balkans is highly vulnerable,
necessitating the careful design
and implementation of effective
management practices.
Reconciling competing demands for land use
while safeguarding soil health and ensuring
the long-term resilience of European agricul-
ture and ecosystems requires a comprehensive
and balanced approach that considers multiple
stakeholders and objectives. Several strategies can
be employed:
• Integrated land use planning. Develop integrat-
ed holistic land use planning strategies consid-
ering multiple objectives, including agriculture,
biodiversity conservation, urban development,
and mitigation of and adaptation to climate
change. This approach involves identifying prior-
-
resource allocation.
• Promotion of sustainable agricultural prac-
tices. Encourage the adoption of sustainable
agricultural practices that prioritise soil health
and resilience, such as conservation tillage, crop
rotation, the use of cover crops, agroforestry,
and the balancing of nutrient inputs. Providing
incentives, technical assistance and training pro-
grammes can help farmers transition towards
more sustainable land management practices.
• Ecosystem-based approaches. Emphasise eco-
system-based approaches to land management
that enhance the resilience of agricultural land-
scapes and ecosystems. This includes restoring
and preserving natural habitats, promoting bio-
diversity-friendly farming practices and incorpo-
rating green infrastructure measures to support
ecosystem services.
• Soil conservation measures. Implement soil
conservation measures, such as erosion control
-
estation projects, to prevent soil degradation
and loss. Investing in soil restoration techniques,
such as soil remediation and the rehabilitation of
degraded land, can also help restore soil health
and fertility.
• Multistakeholder collaboration. Foster collab-
oration among stakeholders, including farm-
ers, landowners, environmental organisations,
policymakers and local communities, to develop
and implement land use plans and policies that
balance competing demands and prioritise soil
health and resilience.
• Science-based decision-making. Land use
decisions should be based on reliable scientif-
ic knowledge and monitoring data in order to
uses on soil health, biodiversity, water quality
and other ecosystem services. Conducting com-
prehensive impact assessments and modelling
exercises can help predict the long-term conse-
quences of land use decisions and inform
policy development.
ecosystem resilience amid diverse
land use demands in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024100
•
Filling gaps in knowledge regarding soil’s social
values is crucial for developing more holistic
and sustainable land use policies. The values
mental health, education, diversity and cultural
identity. By understanding these social values,
policymakers can better incorporate them into
land use management decisions, ensuring that
the full range of ecosystem services provided by
soils is considered.
• Soil literacy. Improve the understanding of
citizens and stakeholders of how healthy soils
impact their lives. Collaborate with teachers
and soil scientists to develop soil-related
educational products.
• Policy integration and coordination. Integrate
soil protection objectives into broader policy
frameworks, such as agricultural, environmental,
climate change, biodiversity and spatial planning
policy sectors to ensure coherence and synergy
in addressing competing demands for land
use while safeguarding soil health and
ecosystem resilience.
By adopting a multifaceted approach that
combines sustainable land management practices,
ecosystem-based approaches, stakeholder
collaboration, the inclusion of soil sciences in
teaching programmes and science-based decision-
making, it is possible to reconcile competing
demands for land use while safeguarding soil
health and ensuring the long-term resilience of
European agriculture and ecosystems.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 101
The interplay among various drivers and
degradation processes underscores the
intricate nature of soil health. Both natural
phenomena and human activities contribute to
soil degradation, emphasising the need for inte-
grated approaches to address these challenges
comprehensively. Citizen science is a valuable
avenue for raising awareness of the importance
of soil health and increasing public engagement in
enhance participation, particularly in urban areas.
Policy initiatives within the EU demonstrate a com-
mitment to holistic soil governance; yet challenges
persist globally, with varying approaches to soil
Moving forward, it will be imperative to prioritise
data enhancement, policy strengthening and
stakeholder engagement in sustainable soil gover-
long-term monitoring, embracing technological in-
novation and fostering international collaboration
to ensure the resilience and sustainability of our
engagement and robust policy frameworks, we can
collectively preserve soil health, safeguarding this
future generations and securing the health and
well-being of our planet.
Conclusions
he State of Soils
in Europe
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024102
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diation of hostile soils. Plant and Soil, 0123456789.
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of vertical mobility and relative bioavailability of Cu
and Ni in calcareous soil. Environmental Pollutants
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Zhou, M., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Vereecken, H., &
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https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13430
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 141
Abbreviation
Denition
AMPA Aminomethylphosphonic acid
BD Bulk density
CCarbon
CAP Common Agricultural Policy
CHMethane
COCarbon dioxide
COeq Carbon dioxide equivalent
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichlo-
roethane
DEMIS Dynamic Erosion Model and
Monitoring System
EC European Commission
ECHO Engaging Citizens in soil sci-
ence: the road to Healthier
sOils
ECSA European Citizen Science Asso-
ciation
EJP SOIL European Joint Programme on
Agricultural Soil Management
ES Ecosystem Service
ESDAC European Soil Data Centre
EEA European Environment Agency
EU European Union
EUROSTAT
EUSO EU Soil Observatory
FAO Food and Agricultural Organi-
sation
FUA Functional Urban Area
GAEC Good Agricultural and Environ-
mental Condition
Abbreviation
Denition
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GDPR General Data Protection Regu-
lation
GHG Greenhouse gases
Gt Gigatonnes
ICP Forest
International Co-operative
Programme on the Assessment
and Monitoring of Air Pollution
in Forests
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change
JRC Joint Research Center
KPotassium
Kg Kilogram
LDN Land degradation neutrality
LRD Large-scale Reference Data-
base
LUCAS
Survey
LULUCF Land Use, Land Use Change,
and Forestry
MAC Maximum allowable concentra-
tions
Mt Million tonnes
NNitrogen
Nitrous oxide
NH Ammonia
NOx Nitrogen oxides
NRR Regulation on Nature
Restoration
PPhosphorus
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024142
Glossary
Term Denition Reference
Soil The top layer of the Earth’s crust situated between the bedrock
and the land surface, which is composed of mineral particles,
organic matter, water, air and living organisms;
SML
Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism com-
munities and their non-living environment interacting as a
functional unit;
SML
Ecosystem
services
Contributions of ecosystems to the economic, social, cultural
SML
Soil health The physical, chemical and biological condition of the soil de-
termining its capacity to function as a vital living system and to
provide ecosystem services;
SML
Sustainable soil
management
Soil management practices that maintain or enhance the
ecosystem services provided by the soil without impairing the
functions enabling those services, or being detrimental to other
properties of the environment;
SML
Soil management
practices
Practices that impact the physical, chemical or biological quali-
ties of a soil;
SML
Abbreviation
Denition
SMA Spectral Mixture Analysis
SML Soil Monitoring and Resilience
SOC Soil organic carbon
SOx Sulphur oxides
UK United Kingdom
UNEP United Nations Environment
Programme
Water and Planetary Health
Analytics
Water, Energy, Food Security,
and Ecosystems
Water Framework Directive
World Reference Base for Soil
Resources
Abbreviation
Denition
PAHs Biphenyls polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons
PCBs Polychlorinated
PD Packing Density
RMQS -
ité des Sols
RUSLE Revised Universal Soil Loss
Equation
Revised Wind Erosion Equation
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SGU Geological Survey of Sweden
SIC Soil Inorganic Carbon
SLCH Soil Loss due to Crop Harvest-
ing
SLU Swedish University of Agricul-
tural Sciences
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 143
Term Denition Reference
Managed soils Soils where soil management practices are carried out; SML
Soil health
assessment
The evaluation of the health of the soil based on the measure-
ment or estimation of soil descriptors;
SML
Contaminated site -
ence of soil contamination caused by point-source anthropo-
genic activities;
SML
Soil descriptor A parameter describing a physical, chemical, or biological char-
acteristic of soil health;
SML
Land The surface of the Earth that is not covered by water; SML
Land cover The physical and biological cover of the earth’s surface; SML
Natural land
area’s primary ecological functions and species composition;
SML
Semi-natural land An area where ecological assemblages have been substantially
activities, but maintain potentially high value in terms of biodi-
versity and the ecosystem services it provides;
SML
Land used as a platform for constructions and infrastructure or
as a direct source of raw material or as archive for historic pat-
rimony at the expense of the capacity of soils to provide other
ecosystem services;
SML
Land take
land;
SML
Transfer
function
A mathematical rule that allows to convert the value of a mea-
reference methodology, into the value that would be obtained
by performing the soil measurement using the reference meth-
odology;
SML
Soil
contamination
The presence of a chemical or substance in the soil in a con-
centration that may be harmful to human health or the environ-
ment;
SML
Contaminant A substance liable to cause soil contamination; SML
Regeneration An intentional activity aimed at reversing soil from degraded to
healthy condition;
SML
Risk -
ronment;
SML
Soil
remediation
A regeneration action that reduces, isolates or immobilises
contaminant concentrations in the soil;
SML
Soil erosion The wearing away of the land surface by water, wind, ice, gravity
or other natural or anthropogenic agents that abrade, detach
and remove soil particles or rock material from one point on the
earth's surface, for deposition elsewhere, including gravitational
creep and so-called tillage erosion;
ESDAC
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024144
Term Denition Reference
parent material is present or in regions with high rainfall, where
ESDAC
Carbon cycle Sequence of transformations whereby carbon dioxide is con-
verted to organic forms by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis,
respiration or combustion;
ESDAC
Organic soil A soil in which the sum of the thicknesses of layers comprising
organic soil materials is generally greater than the sum of the
thicknesses of mineral layers;
ESDAC
Peat Organic soil material with more than 50% of organic matter
derived from plant residues with not fully destroyed structure.
Peat forms in a wet soil environment or below the water table
where mineralisation of organic matter comes close to zero; a
peat horizon or layer is normally more than 30 cm thick;
ESDAC
Peatland A generic term for any wetland where partially decayed plant
matter accumulates; mire, moor and muskeg are terms used for
peatlands in Europe;
ESDAC
Saline soil
limit of electrical conductivity in the saturation extract of such
soils is conventionally set at 4 dS m-1
ones at about twice this salinity;
ESDAC
Saline-sodic soil
these soils are not suitable for agriculture;
ESDAC
salts, with or without high amounts of exchangeable sodium.
See also saline soil, saline-sodic soil, and sodic soil;
ESDAC
Sodic soil Soil with excess of sodium, pH is higher than 7, usually in the
very poor soil structure. These soils need special management
and are not used for agriculture; non-sodic soils are without
excess of sodium;
ESDAC
Soil degradation -
deterioration of soil properties and functions or destruction of
soil as a whole, e.g. compaction, erosion, salinisation;
ESDAC
Soil fertility
amount of nutrients and water, and a suitable medium for root
development to assure proper plant growth and maturity;
ESDAC
Soil monitoring
Repeated observation and measurement of selected soil proper-
ties and functions, mainly for studying changes in soil conditions;
ESDAC
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 145
Term Denition Reference
Soil
microorganisms
Represented by protozoa, viruses, bacteria, fungi and algae. The
most prevalent are bacteria and fungi, and depending on condi-
are a good indicator of soil status and quality;
ESDAC
Threshold -
-
olds are used to estimate whether soils can be considered in
good condition or degraded;
EUSO
Excess of soil nutri-
ents
Presence of nutrients in the soil that could potentially cause
water quality;
FAO
nutrients
Too low availability of soil nutrients that results in reduced plant
health, crop productivity and the nutritional quality of food for
human and animal consumption;
FAO
Nutrients
imbalance
soil contamination and contributing to water quality deterio-
ration and greenhouse gas emissions, or a lack of nutrients
resulting in low soil fertility;
FAO
Soil biodiversity The variety of life below ground, from genes and species to the
communities they form, as well as the ecological complexes
to which they contribute and to which they belong, from soil
micro-habitats to landscapes;
FAO
Habitat
provision
Refers to the capacity of soil to create and sustain suitable hab-
itats for a wide range of organisms, including microorganisms,
plants, and animals. It encompasses the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of the soil environment that enable the
establishment and maintenance of diverse communities;
BENCHMARKS
Soil threat
and the services that soils provide. Examples of soil threats are:
BENCHMARKS
Soil condition Refers to the state of the soil, which includes its physical, chemi-
cal, and biological characteristics and the processes and inter-
actions that connect them; and which in turn determine the
capacity of the soil to support ecosystem services;
BENCHMARKS
Cultural All the non-material, and normally non-rival and
Young &
Potschin,
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024146
List of boxes
Box 1: War-induced soil degradation ........................................................................................................................23
Box 2: Use of remote sensing and 137
Eastern Serbia .................................................................................................................................................... 47
Box 3: Estimating sediment removal costs from the reservoirs of the EU ...................................................... 50
Box 4: Assessment of the impact of military activities on soil quality in Ukraine ...........................................59
Box 5: Coastal vulnerability and groundwater salinisation in Türkiye: Implications
and solutions ...................................................................................................................................................... 64
Box 6: Soil sealing maps of Flanders ......................................................................................................................... 72
Box 7: Annual land take maps of Italy .......................................................................................................................74
Figure 1: Major soil types in Europe, based on the World Reference Base for Soil Resources
.................................................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2:
and the United Kingdom. ........................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 3: -1 .......................................................................28
Figure 4: Soil pH, measured in HO, in EU and UK soils ....................................................................................... 31
Figure 5:
and 2018 ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 6:
depth, 2009–2018 . ....................................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 7:
and United Kingdom. . ..................................................................................................................................45
Figure box 2: Digital elevation models of gullies with sampling points ............................................................... 47
Figure 8: Future trends in water and wind erosion across agricultural landscapes in
the EU and United Kingdom . ..................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 9: Use of PD as a proxy for soil compaction to identify hotspots where soils are highly
compacted. .................................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 10:
and inactive mine sites ............................................................................................................................. 58
Figure 11: Saline and sodic soils map for the EU-27 showing
........................ 63
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 147
Figure box 5: ........................................................ 64
Figure 12:
........................................... 68
Figure box 7:
Figure 13: LUCAS Survey procedure ......................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 14: Soil degradation processes included in the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard ...................... 84
Figure 15: Convergence of evidence map of the EUSO Soil Degradation Dashboard. The map
85
Figure 16: Combination of soil degradation factors by area .... ...........................................................................89
Figure 17: Roadmap towards assessing soil health in the EU until 2030 to achieve the Green
Deal objectives. ...........................................................................................................................................97
List of photos
Photo 1: Food and Futures ..........................................................................................................................................19
Photo 2: Soil sealing through urban expansion ..................................................................................................... 22
Photos box 1: Soil degradation caused by the war in Ukraine ..............................................................................23
Photo 3: ......................................................... 24
Photo 4: ..................................................................................................................................................... 38
Photo box 3: Sediment build up in Val Formaza, Italy ............................................................................................. 50
Photos box 4: The impact of war on soil .....................................................................................................................59
Photo 5: Citizen engagement ......................................................................................................................................93
List of tables
Table 1: Drivers of changes in communities of the main groups of soil organisms. The top three
C, carbon; temp., temperature ................................................................................................................... 69
Table 2: LUCAS’s integration in Member States and research bodies, including in soil monitoring
............................................................ 82
Table 3: Soil degradation and their impacts ........................................................................................................... 90
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024148
Surname Name Aliation
Akca Erhan
Aldrian Ulrike
Department Statistics and Analytical Epidemiology,
Graz, Austria
Alewell Christine Department of Environmental Sciences, University
of Basel, Switzerland
Anzalone Erlisiana
Arcidiacono Andrea Department of Architecture and Urban Studies,
Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Arias-Navarro Cristina
Ispra, Italy
Auclerc Apolline Université de Lorraine, France
Aydinsakir Koksal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, General
Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies,
West Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute
Ballabio Cristiano
Ispra, Italy
Balog Kitti HUNREN, Centre for Agricultural Research, Institute
for Soil Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
Baragaño Diego Carbon Science and Technology Institute,
INCARCSIC, Asturias, Spain
Baritz Rainer European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Den-
mark
Beltrandi Daniele Fincons group, Italy srl.
Bernatek-Jakiel Anita Institute of Geography and Spatial Management,
Bøe Frederik Department of Soil and Land Use, Division of Envi-
ronment and Natural Resources, Norwegian Insti-
and Land Management Group, Wageningen Univer-
sity & Research, Netherlands.
Borrelli Pasquale Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Rome,
Italy
Breure Timo
Ispra, Italy
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 149
Surname Name Aliation
Briones Maria J.I. Dept. Ecología y Biología Animal, Universidad de
Vigo, Vigo, Spain
Broothaerts Nils
Ispra, Italy
Burton Victoria J Centre for UK Nature, Natural History Museum,
London, United Kingdom
Buttafuoco Gabriele National Research Council of Italy, Institute for Agri-
culture and Forestry Systems in the Mediterranean,
Rende CS, Italy
Cagnarini Claudia Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and
Cherlinka Vasyl Institute of Geography, Faculty of Science, Pavol
Chevallier Tiphaine IRD, UMR Eco&Sols, Montpellier, France
De La Torre Ana
Madrid, Spain
De Medici Daniela Seidor Italy srl.
De Rosa Daniele School of Agriculture, Forestry, Food and Environ-
mental Sciences, University of Basilicata, Potenza,
Italy
Di Lonardo Sara National Research Council of Italy, Research Insti-
tute on Terrestrial Ecosystems, Sesto Fiorentino,
Italy; National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo,
Italy
Dmytruk Yuriy Higher educational institution «Podillia State Univer-
sity», Kamianets Podilskyi, Ukraine
Dragovic Snezana "VINCA" Institute of Nuclear Sciences - National
Institute of the Republic of Serbia, University of
Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
Erpul Gunay Ankara University, Republic of Türkiye
Evrard Olivier Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Envi-
Frank Stefan Thünen Institute of Climate Smart Agriculture,
Thünen, Germany
García Franco Noelia Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
Gascuel Chantal French National Research Institute for Agriculture,
Food, and Environment, France
Gezgin Sait Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Ag-
ricultural Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Türkiye
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024150
Surname Name Aliation
Hackenberger Davorka K. Department of Biology, Josip Juraj Strossmayer
University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
Havenga Christopher Seidor Italy srl.
Hinsinger Philippe Eco&Sols, Univ Montpellier, Cirad, INRAE, Institut
Agro, IRD, Montpellier, France
Jones Arwyn
Ispra, Italy
Kaya Fuat Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
Faculty of Agriculture, Isparta University of Applied
Sciences, Isparta, Türkiye
Köninger Julia Dept. Ecología y Biología Animal, Universidad de
Vigo, Vigo, Spain
Labouyrie Maëva Department of Plant and Microbial Biology,
University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland;
Joint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy
Lamandé Mathieu Department of Agroecology, Aarhus University,
Denmark
Liakos Leonidas UNISYSTEMS, Luxembourg
Lugato Emanuele
Ispra, Italy
Madenoglu Sevinc Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, General
Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies
Martin Jimenez Juan Seidor Italy srl
Mason Eloise French National Research Institute for Agriculture,
Food, and Environment, France
Matthews Francis Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
KU Leuven, Belgium
Maurischat Philipp Institute for Biology and Environmental Sciences,
Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Melpomeni Zoka Operational Unit “BEYOND Centre for Earth Ob-
servation Research and Satellite Remote Sensing”,
Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space
Applications and Remote Sensing, National
Observatory of Athens, Athens, Greece
Mimmo Tanja Faculty of Agricultural, Environmental and Food
Sciences, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy;
Competence Centre for Plant Health, Free
University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy
Monokrousos Nikolaos University Center of International Programmes of
Studies, International Hellenic University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 151
Surname Name Aliation
Moreno Jimenez Eduardo Department of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,
for Advanced Research in Chemical Sciences,
Munafò Michele Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and
Orgiazzi Alberto European Dynamics, Brussels, Belgium
Ortas Ibrahim Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
Agricultural Faculty, Cukurova University, Adana,
Türkiye
Ozcan Hesna Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, General
Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies }
Oztas Taskin Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition,
Agricultural Faculty, Ataturk University, Erzurum,
Türkiye
Panagos Panos
Ispra, Italy
Peiro Alba Ibercivis Foundation, Campus Río Ebro, I+D C,
Piccini Chiara CREA Council for Agricultural Research and Eco-
nomics, Research Centre for Agriculture and Envi-
ronment, Rome, Italy
Poch Rosa M Dept of Chemistry, Physics and Environmental and
Soil Sciences, University of Lleida, Spain
Poeplau Christopher Thünen-Institut für Agrarklimaschutz,Thünen,
Germany
Poesen Jean Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
KU Leuven, Belgium; Institute of Earth and
Environmental Sciences, UMCS, Poland
Polat Atilla Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, General Di-
rectorate of Agricultural Research and Policies, Soil
Fertilizer and Water Resources Research Institute,
Ankara, Türkiye
Tanja Soil and Groundwater Management, University of
Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
Rienks Froukje
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Romanova Svitlana Soil protection Institute of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
Ronchi Silvia Department of Architecture and Urban Studies,
Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Ros Gerard Earth Systems and Global Change Group,
Wageningen University, the Netherlands
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024152
Surname Name Aliation
Sabri Ozturk Hasan Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Ag-
ricultural Faculty, Ankara University, Ankara, Türkiye
Saggau Philipp Department of Science, Roma Tre University, Rome,
Italy
Salata Stefano Department of Architecture and Urban Studies,
Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Sandén Taru
Department for Soil Health and Plant Nutrition,
Vienna, Austria
Sanz Francisco Ibercivis Foundation, Campus Río Ebro, I+D C, Zara-
goza, Spain
Scammacca Ottone UMR Prodig, CNRS, Université Paris 1: Pan-
théon-Sorbonne, IRD, AgroParisTech, Aubervilliers,
France - French Guiana
Scarpa Simone European Dynamics, Brussels, Belgium
Schillaci Calogero
Ispra, Italy
Serpa Dalila Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, De-
partment of Environment and Planning, University
of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Silva Vera Soil Physics and Land Management Group, Wagen-
ingen University & Research, Netherlands.
Sonmez Bulent Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, General Direc-
-
Spalevic Velibor University of Montenegro, Biotechnical faculty, Pod-
gorica, Montenegro
Van Der Heijden Marcel Plant-Soil Interactions group, Agroscope, Zurich,
Switzerland & Department of Plant and Microbial
Biology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Van Eynde Elise
Ispra, Italy
Van Liedekerke Marc
Ispra, Italy
Vanmaercke Matthias Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
KU Leuven, Belgium
Dragana Serbian Environmental Protection Agency, Depart-
ment for Indicators and Reporting, Republic of
Serbia
Vieira Diana
Ispra, Italy
Virto Iñigo -
lic University of Navarre, Spain
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 153
Surname Name Aliation
Wojda Piort
Ispra, Italy
Yunta Felipe
Ispra, Italy
Zdruli Pandi International Centre for Advanced Mediterranean
-
nomic Institute of Bari, Italy
Zhang Chaosheng International Network for Environment and Health
Studies, University of Galway, Ireland
Zupanc Vesna University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
HE STATE OF
SOILS IN EUROPE
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024154
Getting in touch with the EU
In person
On the phone or in writing
Europe Direct is a service that answers your questions about the European Union. You can contact this
service:
Finding information about the EU
Online
EU publications
-
EU law and related documents
EU open data
The portal data.europa.eu provides access to open datasets from the EU institutions, bodies and agen-
cies. These can be downloaded and reused for free, for both commercial and non-commercial purposes.
The portal also provides access to a wealth of datasets from European countries.
The State of Soils in Europe - 2024 155
HE STATE OF
SOILS IN EUROPE
