Content uploaded by Alejandro Gregorio Marangoni
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Alejandro Gregorio Marangoni on Nov 27, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
Functional properties of oleogels and emulsion gels as adipose
tissue mimetics
Elyse Czapalay, Alejandro Marangoni
*
University of Guelph, Department of Food Science, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
ARTICLE INFO
Handling Editor: Prof. F. Toldra
Keywords:
Adipose tissue
Fat mimetic
Plant-based meat analogue
Oil structuring
ABSTRACT
Background: The demand for plant-based meat analogues continues to rise as consumers seek sustainable and
healthier dietary choices. Currently, plant-based meat analogue manufacturers focus heavily on protein quality
and content. At present, there is an emphasis on converting globular plant proteins to more meat-like, brous
structures, while the fat portion of plant-based meat alternatives is not given adequate attention and remains
subpar. To replicate the textural and sensory attributes of animal-based meat, the development of adipose tissue
mimetics is essential, as adipose tissue is the primary fat store for meat.
Scope and approach: This narrative review investigates the concept of adipose tissue and explores various
methods for creating adipose tissue mimetics using oleogel or emulsion gels. Adipose tissue is made up of an
extracellular matrix which contains animal fat. Since the fat in animals is not “free,” adipose tissue retains its
structural integrity after cooking, which contributes to its high resilience and ability to sustain its shape. Popular
methods in creating adipose tissue mimetics, including the use of oleogels and emulsion gels, are discussed with
examples from recent years, as well as examples of other, less common methods.
Key ndings and conclusions: Strengths and limitations of the various methods employed for creation of adipose
tissue mimetics are carefully considered. Emulsion gels were able to maintain their solid-like behaviour even at
elevated temperatures. Emulsion gels used more label-friendly gelling materials compared to oleogels which used
the non-label-friendly ethylcellulose. Oleogels were however able to achieve the same oil content as well as
hardness of adipose tissue in some samples. Both types of gels offered a customizable lipid prole, the ability to
partially mimic TPA results of animal adipose tissue, and utilized plant-based sustainable and health-conscious
ingredients. Based on this review, areas that need improvement include textural and rheological qualities like
hardness, oil retention upon heating, preserving meat-like sensory properties in plant-based meat analogues, and
nding consumer friendly ingredients.
1. Introduction
Before diving into what adipose tissue (animal fat) is and its
composition it is important to rst have some background information
on fats in general. Oils and fats are a class of lipids that differ from each
other depending on whether they are liquid or solid at ambient tem-
perature, respectively (Gunstone, 2008). The main component of edible
fats are triacylglycerols (TAGs). TAGs usually make up between 93 and
98% of the weight of fats and are made from a glycerol backbone with
three fatty acid substituents (Marangoni & Wesdorp, 2013, p. 489;
Mazzanti, 2004). The physicochemical and functional properties of
TAGs are greatly dependent on the chain length and degree of unsatu-
ration of their fatty acids. Generally, if a TAG is fully saturated, its
melting points will be higher than a TAG containing mostly unsaturated
fatty acids (Marangoni et al., 2012; Mazzanti, 2004). In addition to
being saturated or unsaturated, fatty acids can also be classied as cis or
trans. A fatty acid is trans, also known as a trans-unsaturated fatty acid, if
it contains at least one double bond in the trans conguration. Trans--
fatty acids are found most often in foods such as margarine, deep-fried
foods, and other highly processed foods.
In adipose tissue, the fatty acid prole can vary depending on the
breed and diet of the animal (Wood et al., 2004). Bovine adipose tissue is
generally made up of 39–44% saturated fatty acids, 46–49% mono-
unsaturated fatty acids, and 3–5% polyunsaturated fatty acids (Noci
et al., 2005). The fatty acid prole of fats and oils not only contributes to
their economical or health factors but also the avour.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: amarango@uoguelph.ca (A. Marangoni).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Trends in Food Science & Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104753
Received 22 January 2024; Received in revised form 17 October 2024; Accepted 20 October 2024
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
Available online 22 October 2024
0924-2244/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
In recent history, there has been a desire to decrease consumption of
saturated and trans-fatty acids because of health concerns such as cor-
onary heart disease, various cancers, and more (Fan et al., 2023; Wood
et al., 2004). This has led to an increase in research regarding fat re-
placements (Barbut et al., 2016; Soleimanian et al., 2023; Teng &
Campanella, 2023). Additionally, global demand for vegan or vege-
tarian products has been on the rise for reasons including health bene-
ts, environmental impact, or religious and cultural reasons (Cramer
et al., 2017). Worldwide plant-based meat market projections are ex-
pected to grow from $4.6 billion (2018) to $85 billion by 2030 (Singh
et al., 2021). Most plant-based meat products do not currently use an
adipose tissue mimetic and instead opt for using unstructured plant oils.
Researching and advancing adipose tissue mimetics, and by association
plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) is crucial for several reasons.
Firstly, from an environmental standpoint, the livestock industry is
the largest driver of natural habitat loss (such as destruction of grass-
lands, forests, and more recently, tropical forests), and is a signicant
contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and water
pollution (Dopelt et al., 2019; Machovina et al., 2015; Szender´
ak et al.,
2022). Transitioning to plant-based alternatives can mitigate these
environmental impacts, promoting sustainability and reducing the
overall carbon footprint associated with food production.
Secondly, health concerns related to excessive meat consumption,
such as cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers, and development of
antibiotic resistance underscore the importance of developing high-
quality PBMAs. Plant-based diets are associated with a reduction in
risks of type II diabetes and cancer, an improvement in cardiovascular
health, and prevention of developing antibiotic resistance from meat
(Fan et al., 2023; Szender´
ak et al., 2022; Wood et al., 2004). While it is
clearly important to reduce meat consumption for environmental and
health purposes, the issue of taste, texture, and other sensory qualities
stands in the way of many people. Food neophobia (reluctance to try
new foods) and meat attachment (positive bond with the consumption of
meat, comprised of hedonism, afnity, entitlement, and dependence)
are also two big issues that discourage people from trying PBMAs
(Szender´
ak et al., 2022). If PBMAs were more similar to real meat
products, perhaps the reluctance of people experiencing food neophobia
and meat attachment would taper. The addition of an adipose tissue
(AT) mimetic to these products would signicantly increase the sensory
similarities, making PBMAs more appealing to a broader audience and
facilitating a smoother transition towards a more sustainable and
health-conscious food system. However, recent research that attempts to
create a fat mimetic has not been successful and falls short when it
comes to various sensory attributes, making it important to highlight
what worked and what did not from said recent studies.
There has been a heavy emphasis on the protein quality and content
of PBMAs, but lipids, more specically AT containing lipids, are very
important as well and can provide characteristics such as juiciness,
tenderness, and avour (Teng & Campanella, 2023). The fatty acid
proles of fats and oils can be drastically different from one another
causing them to have unique avours or health benets. Table S.1 shows
that coconut oil contains only about 6% of the oleic acid (C18:1) which
is the most abundant fatty acid in American beef as well as in pork back
fat, accounting for about 40% of its fatty acid prole and providing a
“meaty” avour (Amri, 2011; Lian et al., 2023; Smith et al., 2006).
Though, it should be noted that the fatty acid prole in animal fats can
vary depending on many factors including the origin and diet of the
animal as well as what part of the animal the fat is cut from (Glorieux
et al., 2018; Wood et al., 2004). While the oleic acid content is low in
coconut oil, there are other plant-oils that have a higher content such as
sunower and canola oil, the latter of which has an even higher value
than beef fat at about 65% (Ghazani and Marangoni, 2013). Another
difference we can observe in Table S.1is that plant oils, especially canola
and soybean, contain higher amounts of the omega-3 fatty acid
alpha-linoleic acid (C18:3). It is important to note that C18:3 is different
from the omega-3 fatty acids that can be found in sh. Regardless,
alpha-linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid (we do not synthesize it on
our own) and it is a precursor to eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5), and
docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) (found in sh oils) (Stark et al., 2008).
This review investigates and compares different methods of forming
AT mimetics with an emphasis on oleogels and emulsion gels. Recent
studies attempting to make an AT mimetic are discussed and advantages
and disadvantages from each are presented. There is commonly confu-
sion between “fat” and AT. At this moment, there is very little research
on AT and AT mimetics. This review focuses on recently published pa-
pers (2010 and sooner) that have attempted to replicate animal AT to be
used in PBMAs, with heavy stress on what AT is and how it behaves
functionally and mechanically.
2. Review of the literature
2.1. Methodology
The Omni search tool provided by the University of Guelph library
was used to search for keywords relating to the topic at hand. Keywords
searched to nd relevant publications included: “adipose tissue”, “fat
substitute”, “fat mimetic”, “plant-based meat”, “oleogel”, “emulsion
gel”, and other similar variations and combinations of such terms. Many
of the results were not related to PBMAs, or food at all, and were
therefore excluded. The aim of some studies was to use the fat substitute
to make meat products healthier; these were only included if there was a
total replacement of animal fat. Additionally, the fat substitutes dis-
cussed in the papers had to be entirely plant-based. Any papers whose
abstracts implied relevance to this review and that were published in
2010 or sooner were included.
This review discusses many of the common tests done on plant-based
AT mimetics including texture prole analysis (TPA), rheology, and
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). To better understand these
techniques a brief summary of each will be provided.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is a common technique for
analysing thermal behaviour. A reference and a sample will both be
placed separately into the calorimeter and a heating/cooling rate will be
applied. DSC measures the heat ow difference and the output is a
thermograph which can provide information such as melting points,
enthalpy of denaturation, and more (Differential Scanning Calorimetry,
2013).
Rheology is a eld which studies the deformation and ow patterns
of materials. There are various tests that can be done using a rheometer
but typically an amplitude sweep is performed rst to nd the linear
viscoelastic region (Amplitude Sweeps | Anton Paar Wiki, n.d.). This is
followed typically by a frequency sweep at a strain below the critical
strain observed previously. Very generally rheology can describe if a
material is viscous, viscoelastic, or elastic and how it is inuenced by
shear (shear stress, strain, rate, and time) as well as temperature (Basics
of Rheology | Anton Paar Wiki, n.d.). Rheology provides values known as
G
′
and G’’ (the elastic and plastic moduli, respectively) which can tell us
whether a material behaves as a solid-like or liquid-like material. If G
′
is
greater than G
″
the material can be called a viscoelastic solid material
under the conditions in which it was tested. When G
″
is greater than G
′
,
the material is uid-like and can be considered a viscoelastic liquid
material. The conditions, such as temperature and frequency, are critical
to interpretation of G
′
and G’’.
Texture prole analysis (TPA) analyzes how samples behave when
chewed using a double compression method. The shape of the plate, the
force, and the speed can all be adjusted dependent on the sample. TPA
can measure parameters such as hardness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness,
chewiness, springiness, and more. The measurements are based on how
the sample resists and bounces back under compression. For example,
hardness is measured by the maximum force of the rst compression
(the rst bite) in Newtons. Cohesiveness refers to how well the sample
can withstand the second deformation relative to its rst, springiness
refers to how well the sample springs back after the rst compression,
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
2
and so on (Texture Prole Analysis | Texture Technologies, n.d.).
2.2. Plant-based meat analogues
PBMAs are made up from non-animal sources of proteins, fats, car-
bohydrates, and other ingredients that are structured to imitate whole
muscle tissues, such as a beef steak or a pork chop (McClements et al.,
2021). There are also processed meat analogues and meat preparation
analogues which aim to mimic processed meat products such as sau-
sages, and fragmented whole muscle tissue such as minced meat,
respectively (McClements et al., 2021).
Proteins and AT mimetics are both very important with respect to
PBMAs, though many manufacturers focus more heavily on protein,
adopting methods to convert globular plant-based proteins into brous
meat-like structures (Teng & Campanella, 2023). Creating a brous
structure is not enough on its own to effectively mimic animal meat (He
et al., 2021). AT mimetics should also be seriously considered, as they
can provide improved avours, texture, mouthfeel, appearance, and
juiciness to foods (Chen et al., 2023; Marangoni, 2005, p. 828; Ren et al.,
2022; Teng & Campanella, 2023).
Many PBMAs that are currently being manufactured directly add
coconut oil into their products, since it is solid at room temperature
similarly to animal fat (Soleimanian et al., 2023; Teng & Campanella,
2023). Adding coconut oil into PBMA is not an adequate replacement to
animal fat. Coconut oil melts rapidly at high temperatures, due to its
elevated content of medium-chain saturated fatty acids, and does not
maintain any structural integrity at said temperatures (Teng & Campa-
nella, 2023). In addition to the thermal behaviour of coconut oil, the
texture prole completely different from AT which provides chewiness
to meats.
One of the biggest challenges regarding PBMAs is that vegetable oils
have low melting points, typically being liquid at room temperature.
Therefore, to be used in PBMAs where they will be cooked, a method for
structuring the oils is required. A 2016 review paper highlights some of
the more common methods for structuring oil such as direct dispersion
(e.g., lipid-based gelators, ethyl cellulose oleogels), structured biphasic
systems (e.g., structured emulsion, oil bulking system, gel-lled emul-
sions), oil sorption (e.g., cellulose foam, porous starch, cellulose bres),
and indirect method (e.g., interface stabilized by particles, interface
stabilized by crosslinking, interface stabilized by molecular layer) (Patel
& Dewettinck, 2016). Some of these methods will be discussed in further
detail in section 2.4.
2.3. Adipose tissue and its functional properties
It can be a challenge for PBMAs to successfully imitate meat due to
the differences between animal and plant-derived fats. Animal fat tissue,
also known as adipose tissue (AT), is made up of a network of connective
tissues containing oils and fats (Dreher et al., 2020; Ren et al., 2022).
Adipose tissue is made up of fat cells known as adipocytes which are
enclosed in an extracellular matrix (ECM) (Wijarnprecha et al., 2022).
Adipocytes are very small, typically 50–200
μ
m, and they store the fat in
animals (Wijarnprecha et al., 2022). The ECM mainly consists of
collagen bers including collagen I and III (Tordjman, 2013). Because
animal fat is stored in an ECM, even when molten it maintains its
structural integrity, a feature plant-oils do not exhibit.
To successfully mimic AT with plant-based ingredients, rst, we need
to study the physicochemical and rheological properties of animal fats.
Wijarnprecha et al. published two papers in 2022 which highlight their
research on animal AT including temperature-dependant microstructure
and thermal properties in part 1, as well as temperature-dependent
texture and rheology characteristics in part 2. The AT used in these
studies were lamb back fat (LBF), pork back fat (PBF), and beef back fat
(BBF). Part 1 of the study found that adipose fat microstructure and
melting behaviour at elevated temperatures are closely related. Part 2
focused on the small and large deformation behaviour of the AT from the
three meats, specically the texture and rheology before and after
heating.
The behaviour of heat-treated animal fat is critical when it comes to
understanding and mimicking AT. For example, beef fat has greater
hardness at 4 ◦C than pork fat because beef fat has a higher melting point
(beef fat is higher in SFAs than pork fat) (Wen et al., 2021; Wood et al.,
2008). Fig. 1 summarizes the major changes that take place to the
microstructure of AT when it is heated from 20 to 80 ◦C (Wijarnprecha
et al., 2022).
Fig. 1demonstrates that though some structural integrity is lost in AT
upon being cooked, the protein structure is not completely decomposed
(still has much more than vegetable oils for instance) (Wijarnprecha
et al., 2022).
The hardness of animal AT is also critical, Wijarnprecha et al.
demonstrated the different rheological properties of LBF, PBF, and BBF
at 20 ◦C, 80 ◦C, and after being cooled back to 20 ◦C, in part 2 of their
studies (Wijarnprecha et al., 2022).
Wijarnprecha et al. (2022b) showed (Fig. 2), that at 20 ◦C the back
fats all had high G
′
values and were characterized as solid materials with
high stiffness. Upon heating to 80 ◦C, the fat phase became completely
molten and G
′
decreased but was still greater than G
″
because of the
underlying protein network of the ECM. When cooled back to 20 ◦C, G
′
and G
″
increased once again, to values similar or even higher than those
of the values found before heating (Fig. 2E and F) (Wijarnprecha et al.,
2022).The ability for AT to regain its original stiffness demonstrates how
the ECM can hold in the fat while it is molten, allowing for it to
recrystallize upon cooling back to room temperature. This data tells us
that the protein network was responsible for the observed rigidity of the
back fats, though the rigidity of the AT was dependent on the state of the
fat phase. When the fat phase is molten, the G’ values are lower than
when the fat is still in its solid state. It is important to consider the
thermal behaviour of adipose tissue because it is typically consumed
after being cooked. The texture is important to palatability and if the
adipose tissue were to become mushy or entirely liquid it would be less
desirable for a consumer.
2.4. Fat mimetics
There is a plethora of reasons that fat mimetics are of interest from
their ability to reduce trans and saturated fatty acids, to replacing animal
fats for dietary or religious regions (Nicholson & Marangoni, 2023). In
addition to the reasons to not consume animal fat, liquid oil from plants
can be rich in ingredients known to benet human health. These in-
gredients include vitamins,
ω
-3, and
ω
-6 fatty acids giving consumers a
reason to consume these oils (Shao et al., 2023). While it is true that these
healthy ingredients can be found from animal sources (sh oil, milk fat,
etc.), they are often more sustainable and do not have the same dietary
or religious restraints when they are derived from plant oils. In some
cases, crops are less sustainable however due to excessive water usage,
deforestation, pesticides, and reduced biodiversity (Poore & Nemecek,
2018). These factors are important to consider before selecting the oil
phase of a fat mimetic.
A major challenge in the development of PBMAs is the inability to
simulate the behaviour of AT using plant materials (Teng & Campanella,
2023). Since plant-derived fats do not have AT, their rheological and
thermal properties are very different from those of animal fats (Dreher
et al., 2020). For instance, animal fat is a solid, even after cooking, so in
order to replicate that, the liquid oil must remain in place. Therefore, the
oil binding capacity is very important for AT mimetics (Nicholson &
Marangoni, 2023). When it comes to making an AT mimetic, there are so
many things to consider to most accurately mimic animal fat (oil binding
capacity, textural and thermal properties, etc.) as well as things like
shelf-life, consumer acceptability (e.g., ingredients), and industrial
applicability (Chen et al., 2023).
There have been a considerable number of studies in recent years
that have attempted to replace animal fat in meat (Table 1). Many of
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
3
these studies were not meant to create something to be used in PBMAs
but instead were trying to make animal meat healthier by lowering
saturated fatty acid content. Either way, these studies can provide
insight into the development of great AT mimetics for use in PBMAs. The
research highlighted in Table 1 will be discussed in section 2.4. First, it is
important to dene the two main types of fat mimetic being used in
these studies: oleogels and emulsion gels.
Oleogels are an option for structuring plant oils by using structuring
agent (oleogelator). Typically about 90% of the oleogel is made up by
the oil-phase which aquires a solid-like texture after being entrapped by
a three-dimensional crystalline network formed by the oleogelator
(Silva et al., 2023). On the other hand, emulsion gels, or more specif-
ically solid-like emulsion gels, are made by gelling the continuous phase
of a liquid-like emulsion or by aggregating the emulsion droplets
(Dickinson, 2012). The continuous phase most often refers to the water
portion of the emulsion and it can be gelled using various materials such
as starches, proteins, gums, and more (see Table 1). Oleogels tend to
have a higher proportion of oil than emulsion gels which makes them
appear to be a better candidate for mimicking adipose tissue. Examples
of research utilizing both of these oil-structuring options will be
investigated.
2.4.1. Oleogels
In the realm of plant-based foods, oleogels (also known as organo-
gels) offer a versatile solution to enhance the sensory attributes and
nutritional prole of products. One of the key advantages lies in their
ability to replace saturated fats in plant-based formulations, addressing
health concerns associated with conventional fats (Xie et al., 2023).
Oleogels are characterized as semi-solid systems that have a liquid hy-
drophobic phase entrapped in a 3D network of lipophilic solids, known
as gelators (Ferro et al., 2021), the ability of oleogels to structure liquid
fat makes them a very interesting candidate for fat mimetic use in
PBMAs (Davidovich-Pinhas et al., 2016). Oleogels already contribute to
various plant-based applications, such as spreads, margarines, and
PBMAs on a small-scale level. However, more research is needed in
order to perfect their use as AT mimetics at an industry-level scale
(Okuro et al., 2020).
It can be difcult to apply oleogels in foods because of the challenges
in nding food grade and low-cost gelators (Singh et al., 2017). Ethyl
cellulose (EC) is a commonly used oleogelator and is a semi-crystalline
cellulose polymer derivative (Alejandre et al., 2019; Gravelle et al.,
2017). An issue with using EC can be that EC oleogels are notoriously
quite brittle (Nicholson & Marangoni, 2023), additionally it is not
“label-friendly” and can deter consumers (Li et al., 2021). Despite these
restrictions, oleogel research has increased in recent years (Patel &
Dewettinck, 2016). Some of the latest animal fat replacement studies
have utilized oleogelation methods in their formulations. Most often the
hydrophobic phase in said oleogels is made up by a plant oil or modied
plant oils, canola oil being a very popular choice as shown in Table 1.
Canola oil is commonly used for various reasons including that it is very
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of microstructural changes in adipose tissue upon heating and cooling from 20 to 80
◦C.
Adapted with permission from Wijarnprecha et al., Temperature-dependent properties of fat in adipose tissue from pork, beef, and lamb. Part 1: microstructural,
thermal, and spectroscopic characterisation. Food & Function, 2022, 13, 7112–7122.
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
4
accessible being the third most produced vegetable oil worldwide, it is
one of the healthiest plant oils showing that it can lower risks of car-
diovascular disease and has anticancer effects, and that it has high
oxidative stability (Bana´
s et al., 2023).
Oleogels provide a method for incorporating vegetable oils into
PBMAs or meat products without adding in more liquid. The oleogels in
Table 1 all utilized ethyl cellulose at various concentrations (5–14 %) to
structure their gels. Often the choice of oil is dependent on economic or
health factors such as the cost, availability, fatty acid prole, avour,
and environmental impact. Additionally, the hydrophobic phase can
have an impact on the hardness of oleogels. It was found between
canola, soybean, and axseed oil that the more highly unsaturated oils
(axseed) increased gel strength (Zetzl et al., 2012). In the 2023 study
by Soleimanian et al. vegetable oils were converted into vegetable fats
using enzymatic glycerolysis. In a newer study by the same group these
glycerolysis products were used as the fat phase of oleogels in an attempt
to better replicate the solid nature of the animal fat portion of AT
(Soleimanian et al., 2024).
2.4.1.1. Physical and sensory properties of oleogels. The TPA results from
the oleogel studies in Table 1 indicate some promise for their use as fat
mimetics. It is important to point out that, some of the oleogel research
Fig. 2. Frequency (left column) and amplitude (right column) sweeps showing G’ (lled) and G’’ (open) for back fat [PBF (●,
○), BBF (▴, △), and LBF (■, □)] at 20 ◦C (A
& B), 80 ◦C (C & D), and 20 ◦C after cooling (E & F).
Figure adapted with permission from Wijarnprecha et al., Temperature-dependent properties of fat in adipose tissue from pork, beef, and lamb. Part 2: rheology and
texture. Food & Function, 2022, 13, 7132–7143.
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
5
Table 1
Summary of recently developed oleogel/emulsion gel based animal fat substitutes.
Type of
Adipose
Tissue
Mimetic
Oil/Fat Phase Gelling agent(s) Methods Application References
Oleogel Glycerolized oils (palm
olein, shea olein, tigernut,
cottonseed, peanut, and rice
bran)
Ethyl cellulose (5 %) of
differing molecular
weights (EC20 and EC45)
Glycerolized oils heated to glass transition temp. of
ethyl cellulose. Ethyl cellulose was then mixed with
the oils until a max. temp. of 150 ◦C was reached
(5–10 min)
Animal adipose tissue
mimetic (lamb, beef, or
pork back fat).
Soleimanian
et al. (2024)
Canola oil Ethyl cellulose Prepared using canola oil (88, 86.5, or 85%), GMS
(0, 1.5, or 3%), and 12% ethyl cellulose.
Beef fat replacement in
meat batters (for
processed meats).
Alejandre et al.
(2019)
Canola oil Ethyl cellulose (8, 10, 12,
and 14 %)
Canola oil, ethyl cellulose, and sorbitan
monostearate (1.5, 3%) were mixed then heated to
form organogels.
Replacement for pork
fat in breakfast
sausages.
Barbut et al.
(2016)
Canola, soybean, and
axseed oil
Ethyl cellulose (10%) of
three molecular weights
(10, 45, and 100 cP)
Oil and ethyl cellulose were mixed and heated to
glass transition temp. (specic to the three different
molecular weights used). After being removed from
the heat they were stirred until cooled to 120 ◦C,
then poured into glass tubes to cool for 24 h.
Method for reducing
saturated fat in
frankfurters.
Zetzl et al.
(2012)
Emulsion Gel Soybean oil Agar (2 %) and sodium
alginate (0, and 1 %),
CaCl
2
(1 %)
A 3.75 % soy protein isolate solution was prepared
in water. Agar and alginate solutions were also
prepared (separately). All solutions and the
soybean oil were heated to 90 ◦C in a water bath
before being homogenized. Once mixed the
emulsion was stirred into a CaCl
2
solution and left
to equilibrate for 30 min.
Porcine adipose tissue
mimetic.
Choi et al.
(2023)
Coconut or canola oil Deacetylated konjac
glucomannan (1 %) and
methyl cellulose (2.5 %)
Emulsion gels were prepared with deacetylated
konjac glucomannan: methyl cellulose ratios 2:8,
4:6, 5:5, 6:4, and 8:2 and 25 % coconut or canola
oil. The samples were heated at 80 ◦C for 30 min.
The gels were left to set at 25 ◦C for 12 h.
Pork backfat substitute. Jeong et al.
(2023)
Soybean oil Sodium alginate (3 %),
CaCl
2
solution (1.5 %)
Sodium alginate was dissolved in water at 70 ◦C
with stirring and was then stored at 20 ◦C for 24 h.
The soybean oil and alginate solution were water-
bathed separately at 70 ◦C and pea protein isolate
was dissolved in the alginate solution. The soybean
oil was added gradually to the alginate solution and
nally was gelatinized with a CaCl
2
solution.
Beef fat trimming
substitute.
Teng and
Campanella
(2023)
Soybean oil Curdlan Soy protein isolate (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 %) was used as
an emulsion stabilizer with a 1:9 oil:water ratio. 2
% protein emulsions were made with oil contents of
0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 % as well. Curdlan was added to
the emulsions at 4, 5, 6, and 7 % then heated at
90 ◦C for an hour to obtain gels.
Pork backfat
replacement to reduce
fat in meat products.
Cui et al. (2022)
Soybean oil Agar (0.25–2 %) A 2 % soy protein solution was prepared and
homogenized with soybean oil to make a 75 % oil
emulsion which was then heated to 90 ◦C. Agar
solutions of concentrations 0.25–2 % were
prepared and heated to 90 ◦C before being added to
the hot emulsion. The sample was blended using a
high shear mixture and then cooled for 45 min
total.
Beef adipose tissue
mimetic.
Hu and
McClements
(2022)
Canola oil Protein isolates (pea-1,
pea-2, soy, and potato)
Aqueous protein solutions (8–11.5 %) were stirred
for 5 min. The aqueous solution and oil were
individually heated to 65 ◦C. Emulsions with 65,
70, 75, and 80 % oil were prepared.
Solid animal fat
substitute.
Baune et al.
(2021)
Soybean and coconut oil Potato starch (~0, 5, 10,
15, 20, or 25 %) and
inulin (~40 %)
Lecithin was dissolved in the oils at 35 ◦C, then
water was added and the mixture was
homogenized. The potato starch was added and
stirred for an hour to fully hydrate. Then the
sample was stirred at 80 ◦C for 5 min and nally the
inulin was added slowly. Samples were cooled to
25 ◦C before being refrigerated overnight. Prior to
3D printing the samples were brought back to 25 ◦C
in a water bath.
Pork or beef fat
analogue.
Wen et al.
(2021)
Canola oil Kappa carrageenan (1.5
or 3 %)
Canola oil (40 %) and kappa carrageenan in water
were heated separately at 80 ◦C and were then
homogenized.
Beef fat replacement in
meat batters (for
processed meats).
Alejandre et al.
(2019)
Soybean oil Kappa and iota
carrageenan mix, inulin
For each variation of emulsion gel made rst the
soy protein isolate (4 %) was dispersed in water
then mixed with carrageenan (0, 0.5, or 2 %) for 30
s before adding the inulin (13 or 16.5 %) and
mixing for 1.5 min. Soybean oil (50 %) was then
added to the aqueous mixture and homogenized.
Pork fat replacement for
frankfurters.
Paglarini et al.
(2019)
(continued on next page)
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
6
which conducted TPA used refrigerated or room temperature samples,
as opposed to cooked samples, which does not realistically demonstrate
how the AT mimetics would be consumed (Alejandre et al., 2019; Sol-
eimanian et al., 2024). In Soleimanian et al. (2024) the texture proles
of both oleogels made with shea olein were able to match that of pork AT
at 5 ◦C (hardness of 64.45 ±7.14 N, chewiness of 9.52 ±0.77, etc.).
Several other oleogels were able to replicate the majority of the pa-
rameters of pork AT as well, however lamb and beef AT texture prole
traits were not able to be met with these samples (Soleimanian et al.,
2024). The TPA results from Alejandre et al. (2019) showed that all
three oleogels were able to mimic the hardness of the beef fat (about 15
N) when incorporated into meat batters. In addition to the hardness, the
oleogels were able to imitate the springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess,
chewiness, and resilience.
In the two oleogel studies who performed TPA on cooked samples
both groups were able to match the hardness values of their animal fat
controls. This is worth noting since both groups incorporated their fat
mimetics into the meat products before conducting TPA. If the hardness
and chewiness can be equalled this way (the way the mimetics will be
consumed) that is very good evidence that oleogels could make good AT
mimetics. Barbut et al. (2016) were unable to match any other param-
eters, although, the canola oil control was statistically equal in all the
TPA parameters after being cooked and cooled in the meat batters. The
canola oil oleogel was able to mimic beef fat in both hardness and
chewiness when incorporated into a frankfurter. While all of these
studies utilized EC as their oleogelator, there was no apparent trend
between a higher concentration of EC and the achieved hardness.
While it is important to have TPA, especially in the early stages of
developing a formulation as it does not require human test subjects, it is
also important to have sensory data. Sometimes the results from TPA do
not match those from sensory trials. For example, the SMS (sorbitan
monostearate) oleogels prepared by Barbut et al. (2016) had hardness
values equal to pork fat based on TPA, but lower hardness compared to
pork fat according to the sensory panel (Fig. 3). Unfortunately, between
these four examples of oleogel fat replacements, only the one conducted
any sensory testing.
2.4.1.2. Thermal behaviour of oleogels. In addition to textural proper-
ties, like hardness, it is important to consider the cooking loss of these
products. Cooking loss describes the amount of water and oil lost from a
sample during the cooking process. If a fat mimetic experiences signif-
icant cooking loss the product it is a part of could end up lacking its
desired juiciness. In the breakfast sausage study there was no cooking
loss experienced in any of the treatments. The sausages were able to bind
the fat and water, even when cooked, due to the addition of rusk to the
batters (Barbut et al., 2016). All three oleogel varieties in the study by
Alejandre et al. (2019) lost less water than the beef fat control. Both the
beef fat control and the oleogel samples showed no oil loss. It is not only
Table 1 (continued )
Type of
Adipose
Tissue
Mimetic
Oil/Fat Phase Gelling agent(s) Methods Application References
The samples were heated at 90 ◦C for 30 min and
then refrigerated for 20 h.
Sunower oil Kappa carrageenan (1.5
%)
The oil phase, containing sunower oil and
Polysorbate 80, as well as the aqueous phase, water
and carrageenan, were heated separately to 70 ◦C
before being homogenized. The mixture was cooled
overnight to form gels.
Pork back-fat
replacement for half
beef, half pork burger
patties.
Poyato et al.
(2015)
Fig. 3. Texture Prole Analysis versus Sensory Panel results: Hardness values of pork breakfast sausages containing canola oil organogels prepared with 8, 10, 12 and
14% ethylcellulose (EC) with 3.0% sorbitan monostearate (SMS) in replacement of pork fat. Left side shows hardness I values (determined by the instrumental texture
prole analysis test). Right side shows sensory analysis scores (0 =very soft; 10 =very hard).
a-c
Bars with different superscripts are different (P <0.05). Extracted
with permissions from Barbut et al. (2016).
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
7
important to consider how much uid is lost from a gel but also how
much it ends up with after being cooked. All treatments of canola oil
oleogels in this study were able to match the fat content (23.29 ±1.03
%) of meat batters made with beef fat after cooking (Alejandre et al.,
2019). None of the other three studies accounted for cooking loss but
should consider doing so in the future.
Another interesting trait to consider is the melting behaviour
compared to that of animal AT which is notoriously slow-rendering. The
melting proles of the glycerolysis product oleogels, made using shea
olein and palm olein, were able to approximate those of beef and lamb
AT (showing peaks at about 25 and 45 ◦C). The differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) for these oleogels had very similar major peaks and
the solid fat content curves were both very similar to those of beef AT
especially (Soleimanian et al., 2024). These tests indicate great promise
for the use of glycerolysis products oleogels as AT mimetics. The other
groups should consider investigating the melting behaviour of their
samples as well moving forward.
2.4.1.3. Challenges and outlook. Oleogels encounter several challenges
that impede their integration into PBMA formulations. One primary
concern lies in achieving the desired textural properties, especially once
the gels are cooked. The oleogel studies in Table 1 demonstrated that
typically some, but not all, textural features of AT could be mimicked in
a sample simultaneously. This is not to say it cannot be accomplished
though, one group was able to replicate the texture of frankfurters
containing animal fat with their oleogels (Zetzl et al., 2012). Zetzl’s
research tested their product after it had been incorporated into the
frankfurters and had success. If other groups would consider testing
their gels in a similar fashion, perhaps their results would better match
those of products containing animal AT. Additionally, the stability of
oleogels during processing and storage remains a critical issue. The
susceptibility of certain structuring agents to environmental factors,
such as temperature uctuations and shear forces, may compromise the
integrity of the oleogel matrix, leading to undesirable changes in texture
and appearance (Barbut et al., 2019). Finding food grade, label-friendly,
and low cost gelators is another big issue for oleogels in general but in
this instance the gelators must also be able to produce a gel that mimics
AT. For now, EC is denitely the most popular choice despite any re-
strictions it might have.
While there are some challenges, oleogels also offer a range of
promising advantages when employed as fat mimetics in PBMAs. One
key benet is their potential to enhance the nutritional prole of these
products. By incorporating oleogels, manufacturers can control the type
and amount of fats used, allowing for the selection of healthier options
with favorable lipid proles (Franco et al., 2020).
Oleogels are able to imitate some of the fundamental behaviours of
animal AT such as thermal behaviour and mechanical traits. However, it
is critical that the studies conducting TPA do so with both cold and
cooked samples moving forward to more realistically demonstrate how
the AT mimetics would be consumed. There is not however much
research (or any) that shows positive sensory data regarding oleogels.
This could be primarily due to the lack of sensory trials performed by the
studies discussed in this paper. More research is needed to determine if
perceived textural properties match those measured as the two do not
always agree (Barbut et al., 2016). The available research currently
shows that oleogels as AT mimetics can reproduce some important
features but there has yet to be a perfect match based on the current
data.
2.4.2. Emulsion gels
Emulsion gels, characterized by their gel-like network structure
made from a stabilized oil-in-water emulsion (typically protein stabi-
lized) (Cîrstea Laz˘
ar et al., 2023), can exhibit structural and textural
similarities to traditional fats. This has positioned them as promising
candidates for mimicking the mouthfeel, stability, and sensory attributes
associated with fats in various food formulations. While oleogels typi-
cally consist of primarily oil and a gelator, emulsion gels contain oil and
water, an emulsion stabilizer, and a gelator. Similarly to oleogels, the
ability to nely control the composition and structure of emulsion gels
offers food scientists a versatile platform to tailor the sensory properties
of fat mimetics, contributing to the creation of palatable and environ-
mentally conscious fat mimetics. However, due to the addition of water
to the gels it can be more challenging to obtain a high oil content. To
fully understand the potential of emulsion gels as AT mimetics an
exploration of the current research and formulation strategies is pro-
vided below.
2.4.2.1. Physical and sensory properties of emulsion gels. Similarly to the
oleogels research discussed before, most of the TPA done with the
emulsion gels in Table 1 were done either at room temperature or cold.
One of these studies conducted TPA at both 20 and 80 ◦C, however their
results after being heated were not a match to pork back fat in any of the
categories being compared (hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness,
springiness, and chewiness). The cold and ambient temperature results
were better able to mimic pork back fat, but even then none were able to
form a hard enough gel (Jeong et al., 2023). The samples in the study by
Alejandre et al. (2019) were incorporated into meat batters and cooked
prior to analyzing their texture proles, however they were cooked the
day before and were tested cold (4 ◦C). The two variations of emulsion
gels made by this group were able to match all the TPA results, except for
springiness, of the meat batters prepared using beef AT. The springiness
of the beef fat meat batters was 0.62 ±0.05 cm while the springiness
values of the batters made with the two emulsion gels (1.5 and 3 %
carrageenan) were 0.82 ±0.43 and 0.77 ±0.01 cm, respectively. Since
one was too springy, and the other not enough, perhaps an intermediate
amount of carrageenan could be used moving forward (Alejandre et al.,
2019).
There were some issues as well with the ambient or cold gels. Agar
emulsion gels, tested at 25 ◦C were able to replicate the adhesiveness
and cohesion of beef AT but were much too soft (their complex moduli
differ by at least 1000-fold Pa) to be considered a good match (Hu &
McClements, 2022). The agar and alginate hybrid gels were also lacking
gel strength compared to porcine AT (Choi et al., 2023). The curdlan
based emulsion gels were able to match the hardness, as well as chew-
iness and springiness, of pork back fat at various concentrations of oil.
Unfortunately, none of the variations were able to match the cohesive-
ness of pork back fat (Cui et al., 2022). Paglarini et al. (2019) were also
able to match the hardness of sausages prepared using 20% pork fat with
all of their fat mimetic variations. Chewiness of 20 % pork fat sausages
was also matched by two of their formulations but the AT mimetics were
not directly compared to AT at any point (Paglarini et al., 2019).
As mentioned before, TPA does not always match the perceived
sensory prole of a food which is why it is important to include a sensory
trial. Of these emulsion gel experiments only two groups conducted a
sensory trial in their research, one group with great success and the
other with none at all. The carrageenan-based pork fat replacements
formulated by Poyato et al. (2015) were greatly successful in their
sensory trial where their samples were perceived as having no difference
in odour, colour, taste, hardness, juiciness, or fatness when used as a
substitute for pork fat in burgers (beef and pork patties). On the other
hand, the pork fat mimetic for frankfurters produced by another group
was found only to have the same aroma and no taste traits be perceived
the same as the animal fat-based controls (avour, juiciness, and texture
were considered) (Paglarini et al., 2019). While the juiciness and texture
are important aspects to be improved upon, the avour of the fat
mimetic is not critical as it could be masked by seasoning in the meat
products.
Seven of the ten emulsion gel studies in this review utilized rheology
to analyze their samples. There are various ways that this can be helpful
by providing information such as if a sample behaves like a liquid or
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
8
solid material under different conditions like a temperature, frequency,
or strain sweep. A strain sweep denes a sample’s linear viscoelastic
region. Once this has been determined a frequency sweep can further
characterize the structure of the sample at a strain below the critical
strain (Franck, n.d.). In this case the frequency sweeps demonstrated
that the emulsion gels were behaving as solid materials (G’>G
″
) at
ambient temperature (Baune et al., 2021; Cui et al., 2022; Jeong et al.,
2023; Paglarini et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2021). The observed results from
the frequency sweeps had G
′
and G
″
values with a vast range of 10◦-10
4
.
At ambient temperatures animal AT tends to have G
′
and G
″
values in a
higher range of 10
4
-10
7
, while cooked AT (80 ◦C) values have been in
the 10
2
-10
5
range (Wijarnprecha, Fuhrmann, et al., 2022). This in-
dicates that the room temperature emulsion gel samples are generally
softer than animal derived AT. Jeong et al. (2023) was the only group to
do their frequency sweep above room temperature (80 ◦C) and their
samples were also softer with G
′
and G
″
values spanning 10
3
-10
4
. As
expected, the general trend associated with these results is that the
higher the concentration of gelling agent, the stronger the gel networ-
k/higher the G
′
values.
2.4.2.2. Thermal behaviour of emulsion gels. Temperature sweeps can
illustrate the thermal resistance possesses. If the G
′
value stays above G’’
(no crossover point) then the sample has maintained its solid-like
behaviour. As in the frequency sweeps, an increased concentration of
the gelling agent was in some cases observed to cause an increased G
′
and G’’ (stronger gel). One example is that a higher potato starch con-
centration was related to a stronger gel which mitigated the deformation
of the 3D printed structures (Wen et al., 2021). 3D-printed potato starch
gels were also able to make a product whose visual melting behaviour
closely resembles that of pork or beef AT with some of their samples. The
second example is that a more pronounced increase in G
′
values
(approaching 10
4
Pa) was associated with the heightened concentration
of methylcellulose in emulsion gels (Jeong et al., 2023). This was not the
case in another study however where the samples did not seem to follow
any trend relating the amount of carrageenan/inulin to the G
′
and G
″
values (Paglarini et al., 2019). Overall, all three studies successfully
demonstrated that their gels were able to maintain their solid-like na-
ture. One even exhibited heightened in G
′
values above 36 ◦C which
could be indicative of thermal hardening (Paglarini et al., 2019) though
the other group’s samples showed that G
′
decreased and tanδ increased
in the samples once they surpassed about 80 ◦C, indicating a loss in their
structural integrity (Wen et al., 2021). Hu and McClements’ formula-
tions resulted in gels with a much higher melting point than that of beef
AT. Based on the complex shear modulus, we see that beef fat is dras-
tically stronger than the gelled emulsions initially. At around 40 ◦C there
was a large decline in the beef fat strength at which point the complex
shear modulus drops to a point where it more closely resembled the
emulsion gels (at 80 ◦C and about 900 Pa there is a crossover point
between beef AT and the gelled emulsion) (Hu & McClements, 2022).
Considering that when cooked the emulsion gels and the beef AT have
similar stiffness, based on rheological data, these samples could make a
good AT mimetic. Similarly, agar-alginate hybrid gels started out as
being weaker than porcine AT but once they were heated past 40 ◦C the
porcine AT softened to a point where it resembled the emulsion gel
sample (Choi et al., 2023).
Findings from two emulsion gel projects saw both inulin and carra-
geenan were able to decrease cooking loss in general. When emulsion
gels were made using inulin and incorporated into frankfurters, they
were able to match the cooking loss (based on weight loss) of frank-
furters made using pork back fat (Paglarini et al., 2019). On the other
hand, carrageenan-based emulsion gels experienced signicant fat loss
compared to beef fat. This fat loss caused cooked samples to have a much
lower overall fat content than beef AT. However, these samples did
experience less water loss than beef fat which could help maintain some
of the perceived juiciness in the product (Alejandre et al., 2019).
2.4.2.3. Challenges and outlook. The use of emulsion gels as fat mi-
metics exhibits several challenges. The susceptibility of emulsion gels to
phase separation or breakdown during storage and thermal processing
poses a formidable obstacle in achieving consistent texture and sensory
properties in PBMAs (Dickinson, 2012; Hu et al., 2022). The potential
for development of lipid oxidation in the dispersed oil phase (especially
with increased concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids) raises quality
issues as well, necessitating careful selection of antioxidants and
formulation strategies (Delgado-Pando et al., 2011). The integration of
emulsion gels can also impact the mouthfeel of PBMAs, as the presence
of water in the gel phase may alter the perception of juiciness and
tenderness (Cîrstea Laz˘
ar et al., 2023). Many fat mimetics made with
emulsion gels also had G
′
and G
″
values greatly lower than animal fat
(Teng & Campanella, 2023; Xie et al., 2023). Overcoming these chal-
lenges requires further development of robust formulations and pro-
cessing methods to ensure the successful application of emulsion gels as
effective fat mimetics in PBMAs.
While there are some hurdles, emulsion gels present several advan-
tageous features when applied as AT mimetics as well. The emulsion gels
can simulate the fat globules found in animal meats which can enhance
the juiciness and succulence of the gels allowing for the replication of
diverse avor proles associated with different meat types (Cîrstea
Laz˘
ar et al., 2023; Xie et al., 2023). To best match the nutritional prole
of animal AT, consideration of including more than one plant-oil would
be encouraged. The controlled release of fat during cooking or con-
sumption can also be achieved through the structured nature of emul-
sion gels, providing a satisfying sensory experience for consumers. 3D
printed emulsion gels could provide a distinct advantage in products
seeking to imitate a fat marbling pattern as well (Wen et al., 2021).
Emulsion gels were able to maintain their solid-like form upon cooking
in multiple studies (Hu & McClements, 2022; Jeong et al., 2023;
Paglarini et al., 2019; Wen et al., 2021). Hu and McClements were able
to create an emulsion gel which demonstrated similar hardness based on
G’ values at 80 ◦C. Emulsion gels could become promising tool for
research groups seeking to enhance the overall sensory appeal and
nutritional prole of PBMAs. For emulsion gels to be a successful AT
mimetic, methods and formulations need continue to develop so that
emulsion gels can exhibit more, or all, of the features above simulta-
neously to replicate adipose tissue as closely as possible.
3. Future work
While there is still plenty of room to improve, a lot of progress has
been made in the past few years in the eld of AT mimetics. Now we see
more and more research groups starting to investigate methods for
formulating a plant-based AT mimetic, especially using oleogels and
emulsion gels, however there is still a need for these products to be
improved and then used in the industry. A better understanding of the
composition and structure of AT could help researchers to better repli-
cate animal fat with their products. In addition to how better AT mi-
metics can benet PBMAs, cell-based fat remains a critical challenge as
well (Su et al., 2024). A hybrid approach to cell-based meats, incorpo-
rating AT mimetics could be another effective solution for improving
meat alternatives.
Both Oleogels and emulsion gels exhibit distinct properties that make
them promising candidates as AT mimetics. However, each also poses
particular challenges. The examples of each fat mimetic we investigated
in this paper utilized oleogels or emulsion gels in their formulations and
the major takeaways are featured in Fig. 4, below.
Many fat analogues have relied on EC to help structure their oil
(Soleimanian et al., 2024; Woern et al., 2021; Zetzl et al., 2012; Zhang
et al., 2022) but EC is a “non-label-friendly” ingredient and can deter
consumers. Approaches used in the emulsion gels in Table 1, such as
using a starch or carrageenan to structure oil (Alejandre et al., 2019;
Paglarini et al., 2019; Poyato et al., 2015; Wen et al., 2021), could be a
good solution in terms of limiting the use of ingredients which are less
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
9
widely accepted by consumers. Finding a label-friendly oleogelator is
additionally of interest as oleogels had more promising results than
emulsion gels overall. However, this is partly due to the lack of TPA data
for cooked emulsion gel samples.
Furthermore, it is important that AT mimetics be tested with both
TPA and sensory panels to better understand the textural properties of
the products. It is critical that moving forward, research groups focus on
testing their samples “cooked” in a similar fashion to how they would be
when incorporated into the desired product, e.g., if acting as a beef fat
replacement in a burger you would need to heat the sample to an in-
ternal temperature of 71 ◦C. It can also be helpful to add the AT mimetics
to their meat or PBMA system before comparing to their animal AT
counterparts. Overall, it is important to not only nd a formulation with
similar oil quantity and fatty acid proles but to create a sample that
behaves similarly to its animal-based archetype after heating, chewing,
and incorporation into a PBMA.
CRediT statement
Elyse Czapalay: Writing – review & editing; Writing – original draft;
Visualization; Software; Investigation; Conceptualization.
Alejandro Marangoni: Writing – review & editing; Conceptualiza-
tion; Data curation; Funding acquisition; Project administration; Re-
sources; Supervision; Validation; Visualization.
Declaration of generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the
writing process
During the preparation of this work the authors used ChatGPT
developed by OpenAI in order to generate and analyze data to enhance
the readability of this paper. After using this tool/service, the authors
reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility
for the content of the publication.
Funding
This work was supported by grant RGPIN 2020-04983 from the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. Saeed Mirzaee Ghazani for
editing the rst draft of this review.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104753.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
References
Alejandre, M., Astiasar´
an, I., Ansorena, D., & Barbut, S. (2019). Using canola oil
hydrogels and organogels to reduce saturated animal fat in meat batters. Food
Research International, 122, 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodres.2019.03.056
Amplitude sweeps, Anton Paar Wiki. (n.d.). Anton Paar. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from
https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/amplitude-sweeps/.
Amri, I. N. (2011). The lauric (coconut and palm kernel) oils. In Vegetable oils in food
technology (pp. 169–197). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/
9781444339925.ch6.
Fig. 4. Summary of the challenges and advantages that recent oleogels and emulsion gel-based fat mimetics exhibit.
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
10
Bana´
s, K., Piwowar, A., & Harasym, J. (2023). The potential of rapeseed (canola) oil
nutritional benets wide spreading via oleogelation. Food Bioscience, 56, Article
103162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023.103162
Barbut, S., Marangoni, A. G., Thode, U., & Tiensa, B. E. (2019). Using canola oil
organogels as fat replacement in liver pˆ
at´
e. Journal of Food Science, 84(9),
2646–2651. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.14753
Barbut, S., Wood, J., & Marangoni, A. (2016). Quality effects of using organogels in
breakfast sausage. Meat Science, 122, 84–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
meatsci.2016.07.022
Basics of rheology, Anton Paar Wiki. (n.d.). Anton Paar. Retrieved August 30, 2024, from
https://wiki.anton-paar.com/en/basics-of-rheology/.
Baune, M.-C., Schroeder, S., Witte, F., Heinz, V., Bindrich, U., Weiss, J., & Terjung, N.
(2021). Analysis of protein-network formation of different vegetable proteins during
emulsication to produce solid fat substitutes. Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization, 15(3), 2399–2416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00767-9
Chen, Q., Chen, Z., Zhang, J., Wang, Q., & Wang, Y. (2023). Application of lipids and
their potential replacers in plant-based meat analogs. Trends in Food Science &
Technology, 138, 645–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2023.07.007
Choi, M., Choi, H. W., Kim, H. E., Hahn, J., & Choi, Y. J. (2023). Mimicking animal
adipose tissue using a hybrid network-based solid-emulsion gel with soy protein
isolate, agar, and alginate. Food Hydrocolloids, 145, Article 109043. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.109043
Cîrstea Laz˘
ar, N., Nour, V., & Boruzi, A. I. (2023). Effects of pork backfat replacement
with emulsion gels formulated with a mixture of olive, chia and algae oils on the
quality attributes of pork patties. Foods, 12(3), 519. https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods12030519
Cramer, H., Kessler, C. S., Sundberg, T., Leach, M. J., Schumann, D., Adams, J., &
Lauche, R. (2017). Characteristics of Americans choosing vegetarian and vegan diets
for health reasons. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 49(7), 561–567.e1.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2017.04.011
Cui, B., Mao, Y., Liang, H., Li, Y., Li, J., Ye, S., Chen, W., & Li, B. (2022). Properties of
soybean protein isolate/curdlan based emulsion gel for fat analogue: Comparison
with pork backfat. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 206, 481–488.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.02.157
Davidovich-Pinhas, M., Barbut, S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2016). Development,
characterization, and utilization of food-grade polymer oleogels. Annual Review of
Food Science and Technology, 7(1), 65–91. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-food-
041715-033225
Delgado-Pando, G., Cofrades, S., Rodríguez-Salas, L., & Jim´
enez-Colmenero, F. (2011).
A healthier oil combination and konjac gel as functional ingredients in low-fat pork
liver pˆ
at´
e. Meat Science, 88(2), 241–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
meatsci.2010.12.028
Dickinson, E. (2012). Emulsion gels: The structuring of soft solids with protein-stabilized
oil droplets. Food Hydrocolloids, 28(1), 224–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2011.12.017
Differential Scanning Calorimetry. (2013). Chemistry LibreTexts. https://chem.li
bretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/S
upplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Ca
lorimetry/Differential_Scanning_Calorimetry.
Dopelt, K., Radon, P., & Davidovitch, N. (2019). Environmental effects of the livestock
industry: The relationship between knowledge, attitudes, and behavior among
students in Israel. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
16(8), 1359. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16081359
Dreher, J., Blach, C., Terjung, N., Gibis, M., & Weiss, J. (2020). Formation and
characterization of plant-based emulsied and crosslinked fat crystal networks to
mimic animal fat tissue. Journal of Food Science, 85. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-
3841.14993
Fan, L., Cai, Y., Wang, H., Zhang, H., Chen, C., Zhang, M., Lu, Z., Li, Y., Zhang, F.,
Ning, C., Wang, W., Liu, Y., Li, H., Li, G., Peng, J., Hu, K., Li, B., Huang, C., Yang, X.,
… Tian, J. (2023). Saturated fatty acid intake, genetic risk and colorectal cancer
incidence: A large-scale prospective cohort study. International Journal of Cancer, 153
(3), 499–511. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.34544
Ferro, A. C., De Souza Paglarini, C., Rodrigues Pollonio, M. A., & Lopes Cunha, R. (2021).
Glyceryl monostearate-based oleogels as a new fat substitute in meat emulsion. Meat
Science, 174, Article 108424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2020.108424
Franck, A. (n.d.). Understanding Rheology of Structured Fluids. TA Instruments.
Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.tainstruments.com/pdf/literature/
AAN016_V1_U_StructFluids.pdf.
Franco, D., Martins, A. J., L´
opez-Pedrouso, M., Cerqueira, M. A., Purri˜
nos, L.,
Pastrana, L. M., Vicente, A. A., Zapata, C., & Lorenzo, J. M. (2020). Evaluation of
linseed oil oleogels to partially replace pork backfat in fermented sausages. Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 100(1), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1002/
jsfa.10025
Ghazani, S. M., & Marangoni, A. G. (2013). Minor components in canola oil and effects of
rening on these constituents: A review. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society,
90(7), 923–932. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-013-2254-8
Glorieux, S., Steen, L., Van de Walle, D., Dewettinck, K., Foubert, I., & Fraeye, I. (2018).
Effect of meat type, animal fat type, and cooking temperature on microstructural and
macroscopic properties of cooked sausages. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 12,
16–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11947-018-2190-6
Gravelle, A. J., Blach, C., Weiss, J., Barbut, S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2017). Structure and
properties of an ethylcellulose and stearyl alcohol/stearic acid (EC/SO:SA) hybrid
oleogelator system. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 119(11), Article
1700069. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201700069
Gunstone, F. D. (2008). Physical properties. In Oils and fats in the food industry (pp.
59–70). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444302424.ch5.
He, J., Zhao, Y., Jin, X., Zhu, X., & Fang, Y. (2021). Material perspective on the structural
design of articial meat. Advanced Sustainable Systems, 5(8), Article 2100017.
https://doi.org/10.1002/adsu.202100017
Hu, X., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Construction of plant-based adipose tissue using high
internal phase emulsions and emulsion gels. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 78, Article 103016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2022.103016
Hu, X., Zhou, H., & McClements, D. J. (2022). Utilization of emulsion technology to
create plant-based adipose tissue analogs: Soy-based high internal phase emulsions.
Food Structure, 33, Article 100290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foostr.2022.100290
Jeong, H., Lee, J., Jo, Y.-J., & Choi, M.-J. (2023). Thermo-irreversible emulsion gels
based on deacetylated konjac glucomannan and methylcellulose as animal fat
analogs. Food Hydrocolloids, 137, Article 108407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2022.108407
Li, P., Kierulf, A., & Abbaspourrad, A. (2021). Application of granular cold-water-
swelling starch as a clean-label oil structurant. Food Hydrocolloids, 112, Article
106311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.106311
Lian, F., Cheng, J.-H., & Sun, D.-W. (2023). Insight into the effect of microwave
treatment on fat loss, fatty acid composition and microstructure of pork
subcutaneous back fat. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und -Technologie, 187, Article
115297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115297
Machovina, B., Feeley, K. J., & Ripple, W. J. (2015). Biodiversity conservation: The key is
reducing meat consumption. The Science of the Total Environment, 536, 419–431.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022
Marangoni, A. G. (2005). Fat crystal networks. New York, NY, USA: Marcel Dekker Inc..
ISBN: 0-8247-4075-0.
Marangoni, A. G., Acevedo, N., Maleky, F., Co, E., Peyronel, F., Mazzanti, G., Quinn, B., &
Pink, D. (2012). Structure and functionality of edible fats. Soft Matter, 8(5),
1275–1300. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1SM06234D
Marangoni, A. G., & Wesdorp, L. H. (2013). Structure and properties of fat crystal networks.
Boca Raton, FLA, USA: CRC Press. ISBN-13: 978-1-4398-8764-6.
Mazzanti, G. (2004). X-ray diffraction study on the crystallization of fats under shear.
McClements, D. J., Weiss, J., Kinchla, A. J., Nolden, A. A., & Grossmann, L. (2021).
Methods for testing the quality attributes of plant-based foods: Meat- and processed-
meat analogs. Foods, 10(2), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10020260
Nicholson, R. A., & Marangoni, A. G. (2023). Overview of the structure-property
relationship in fat mimetics. In Fat mimetics for food applications (pp. 7–19). John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119780045.ch2.
Noci, F., Monahan, F. J., French, P., & Moloney, A. P. (2005). The fatty acid composition
of muscle fat and subcutaneous adipose tissue of pasture-fed beef heifers: Inuence
of the duration of grazing. Journal of Animal Science, 83(5), 1167–1178. https://doi.
org/10.2527/2005.8351167x
Okuro, P. K., Martins, A. J., Vicente, A. A., & Cunha, R. L. (2020). Perspective on
oleogelator mixtures, structure design and behaviour towards digestibility of
oleogels. Current Opinion in Food Science, 35, 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cofs.2020.01.001
Paglarini, C. D. S., Martini, S., & Pollonio, M. A. R. (2019). Using emulsion gels made
with sonicated soy protein isolate dispersions to replace fat in frankfurters.
Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und -Technologie, 99, 453–459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lwt.2018.10.005
Patel, A. R., & Dewettinck, K. (2016). Edible oil structuring: An overview and recent
updates. Food & Function, 7(1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5FO01006C
Poore, J., & Nemecek, T. (2018). Reducing food’s environmental impacts through
producers and consumers. Science (New York, N.Y.), 360(6392), 987–992. https://
doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0216
Poyato, C., Astiasar´
an, I., Barriuso, B., & Ansorena, D. (2015). A new polyunsaturated
gelled emulsion as replacer of pork back-fat in burger patties: Effect on lipid
composition, oxidative stability and sensory acceptability. LWT - Food Science and
Technology, 62(2), 1069–1075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.02.004
Ren, Y., Huang, L., Zhang, Y., Li, H., Zhao, D., Cao, J., & Liu, X. (2022). Application of
emulsion gels as fat substitutes in meat products. Foods, 11(13). https://doi.org/
10.3390/foods11131950. Article 13.
Shao, M., Li, S., Huang, S., Junejo, S. A., Jiang, Y., Zhang, B., & Huang, Q. (2023). Oil
structuring from porous starch to powdered oil: Role of multi-scale structure in the
oil adsorption and distribution. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules,
253, Article 126968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126968
Silva, R. C. da, Ferdaus, M. J., Foguel, A., & da Silva, T. L. T. (2023). Oleogels as a fat
substitute in food: A current review. Gels, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/
gels9030180. Article 3.
Singh, A., Auzanneau, F.-I., & Rogers, M. A. (2017). Advances in edible oleogel
technologies – a decade in review. Food Research International, 97, 307–317. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2017.04.022
Singh, M., Trivedi, N., Enamala, M. K., Kuppam, C., Parikh, P., Nikolova, M. P., &
Chavali, M. (2021). Plant-based meat analogue (PBMA) as a sustainable food: A
concise review. European Food Research and Technology, 247(10), 2499–2526.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-021-03810-1
Smith, S. B., Lunt, D. K., Chung, K. Y., Choi, C. B., Tume, R. K., & Zembayashi, M. (2006).
Adiposity, fatty acid composition, and delta-9 desaturase activity during growth in
beef cattle. Animal Science Journal, 77(5), 478–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-
0929.2006.00375.x
Soleimanian, Y., Ghazani, S. M., & Marangoni, A. G. (2023). Enzymatic glycerolysis for
the conversion of plant oils into animal fat mimetics. Food Research International,
174, Article 113651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113651
Soleimanian, Y., Ghazani, S. M., & Marangoni, A. G. (2024). Ethylcellulose oleogels of oil
glycerolysis products as functional adipose tissue mimetics. Food Hydrocolloids, 151,
Article 109756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2024.109756
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
11
Stark, A. H., Crawford, M. A., & Reifen, R. (2008). Update on alpha-linolenic acid.
Nutrition Reviews, 66(6), 326–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-
4887.2008.00040.x
Su, L., Jing, L., Zeng, S., Fu, C., & Huang, D. (2024). 3D porous edible scaffolds from rye
secalin for cell-based pork fat tissue culturing. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 72(20), 11587–11596. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.3c09713
Szender´
ak, J., Fr´
ona, D., & R´
akos, M. (2022). Consumer acceptance of plant-based meat
substitutes: A narrative review. Foods, 11(9), 1274. https://doi.org/10.3390/
foods11091274
Teng, C., & Campanella, O. H. (2023). A plant-based animal fat analog produced by an
emulsion gel of alginate and pea protein. Gels, 9(5), 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/
gels9050393
Texture Prole Analysis, Texture Technologies. (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2024, from
https://texturetechnologies.com/resources/texture-prole-analysis.
Tordjman, J. (2013). Histology of adipose tissue. In Physiology and physiopathology of
adipose tissue (pp. 67–75). Paris: Springer.
Wen, Y., Che, Q. T., Kim, H. W., & Park, H. J. (2021). Potato starch altered the
rheological, printing, and melting properties of 3D-printable fat analogs based on
inulin emulsion-lled gels. Carbohydrate Polymers, 269, Article 118285. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118285
Wijarnprecha, K., Fuhrmann, P., Gregson, C., Sillick, M., Sonwai, S., & Rousseau, D.
(2022a). Temperature-dependent properties of fat in adipose tissue from pork, beef
and lamb. Part 2: Rheology and texture. Food & Function, 13(13), 7132–7143.
https://doi.org/10.1039/D2FO00582D
Wijarnprecha, K., Gregson, C., Sillick, M., Fuhrmann, P., Sonwai, S., & Rousseau, D.
(2022b). Temperature-dependent properties of fat in adipose tissue from pork, beef
and lamb. Part 1: Microstructural, thermal, and spectroscopic characterisation. Food
& Function, 13(13), 7112–7122. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2FO00581F
Woern, C., Marangoni, A. G., Weiss, J., & Barbut, S. (2021). Effects of partially replacing
animal fat by ethylcellulose based organogels in ground cooked salami. Food
Research International, 147, Article 110431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodres.2021.110431
Wood, J. D., Richardson, R. I., Nute, G. R., Fisher, A. V., Campo, M. M., Kasapidou, E.,
Sheard, P. R., & Enser, M. (2004). Effects of fatty acids on meat quality: A review.
Meat Science, 66(1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1740(03)00022-6
Xie, F., Ren, X., Zhu, Z., Luo, J., Zhang, H., Xiong, Z., Wu, Y., Song, Z., & Ai, L. (2023).
Tamarind seed polysaccharide-assisted fabrication of stable emulsion-based oleogel
structured with gelatin: Preparation, interaction, characterization, and application.
Food Hydrocolloids, 142, Article 108761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2023.108761
Zetzl, A. K., Marangoni, A. G., & Barbut, S. (2012). Mechanical properties of
ethylcellulose oleogels and their potential for saturated fat reduction in frankfurters.
Food & Function, 3(3), 327. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2fo10202a
Zhang, R., Zhang, Y., Yu, J., Gao, Y., & Mao, L. (2022). Rheology and tribology of
ethylcellulose-based oleogels and W/O emulsions as fat substitutes: Role of glycerol
monostearate. Foods, 11(15), 2364. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11152364
E. Czapalay and A. Marangoni
Trends in Food Science & Technology 153 (2024) 104753
12