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Protocol: The Word and the Concepts
Abstract
This chapter draws a genealogy of the word ‘protocol’ and its various meanings. It shows that this word, since its origins, has meant both a material object and the function of certifying the authenticity of something or someone. A typology of the varieties of protocols made of five types is then proposed, which shows that the different items called ‘protocols’ historically appear as alternative expressions of normative power. In order to grasp these expressions and their implications, the ways protocols regulate several spheres of social life are explained in their main features. As will emerge, the ‘essence’ of the function of protocollary devices is basically made of three actions: formalising, standardising, and certifying.
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This article serves as the general introduction by the guest editors to the first of two thematic issues ofArchival Science that will explore the theme, “archives, records, and power.” Archives as institutions and records as documents are generally seen by academic and other users, and by society generally, as passive resources to be exploited for various historical and cultural purposes. Historians since the mid-nineteenth century, in pursuing the new scientific history, needed an archive that was a neutral repositories of facts. Until very recently, archivists obliged by extolling their own professional myth of impartiality, neutrality, and objectivity. Yet archives are established by the powerful to protect or enhance their position in society. Through archives, the past is controlled. Certain stories are privileged and others marginalized. And archivists are an integral part of this story-telling. In the design of record-keeping systems, in the appraisal and selection of a tiny fragment of all possible records to enter the archive, in approaches to subsequent and ever-changing description and preservation of the archive, and in its patterns of communication and use, archivists continually reshape, reinterpret, and reinvent the archive. This represents enormous power over memory and identity, over the fundamental ways in which society seeks evidence of what its core values are and have been, where it has come from, and where it is going. Archives, then, are not passive storehouses of old stuff, but active sites where social power is negotiated, contested, confirmed. The power of archives, records, and archivists should no longer remain naturalized or denied, but opened to vital debate and transparent accountability.
The SAGE Handbook of Diplomacy provides a major thematic overview of Diplomacy and its study that is theoretically and historically informed and in sync with the current and future needs of diplomatic practice . Original contributions from a brilliant team of global experts are organised into four thematic sections:
Section One: Diplomatic Concepts & Theories
Section Two: Diplomatic Institutions
Section Three: Diplomatic Relations
Section Four: Types of Diplomatic Engagement
Territorial Pacts (TP) aim to improuve those elements of the social context, which can help generalized cooperation and local development processes. The systematic empirical research has pointed to two typical configuration of the local level concertation processes of the TP: the "integrative" TP and the "distributive" TP. This article has two main aims: (i) to argue that public policies can positively increase the social capital and trust of the local production systems, and (ii) that public policies can have positive effect also where the inherited social capital is a very low level. The major analytical framework used in this article tries to combine insights from game theory and network analysis, in the resolution of real world collective action dilemmas. To support the analytical schema, four case studies of TP in the same territorial area, will be sketched.
This special issue of Social Studies of Science centers on the topic of regulation in medicine and, in particular, on the notion of regulatory objectivity, defined as a new form of objectivity in biomedicine that generates conventions and norms through concerted programs of action based on the use of a variety of systems for the collective production of evidence. The papers in the special issue suggest ways in which the notion of regulatory objectivity can be tested, extended, revised, or superseded by more appropriate notions. They insist on the need to examine more closely clinical-therapeutic (and not just clinical-research) ,activities, and to pay more attention to the activities of regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration and to standard-setting organizations. They call attention to the professional and organizational activities surrounding the mobilization of conventions for regulating clinical practices. Finally, they provide material that can help us to think about how analytical notions such as regulatory objectivity may or may not inform interventionist research projects.
This article serves as the general introduction by the guest editors to the first of two thematic issues ofArchival Science that will explore the theme, “archives, records, and power.” Archives as institutions and records as documents are generally
seen by academic and other users, and by society generally, as passive resources to be exploited for various historical and
cultural purposes. Historians since the mid-nineteenth century, in pursuing the new scientific history, needed an archive
that was a neutral repositories of facts. Until very recently, archivists obliged by extolling their own professional myth
of impartiality, neutrality, and objectivity. Yet archives are established by the powerful to protect or enhance their position
in society. Through archives, the past is controlled. Certain stories are privileged and others marginalized. And archivists
are an integral part of this story-telling. In the design of record-keeping systems, in the appraisal and selection of a tiny
fragment of all possible records to enter the archive, in approaches to subsequent and ever-changing description and preservation
of the archive, and in its patterns of communication and use, archivists continually reshape, reinterpret, and reinvent the
archive. This represents enormous power over memory and identity, over the fundamental ways in which society seeks evidence
of what its core values are and have been, where it has come from, and where it is going. Archives, then, are not passive
storehouses of old stuff, but active sites where social power is negotiated, contested, confirmed. The power of archives,
records, and archivists should no longer remain naturalized or denied, but opened to vital debate and transparent accountability.
This book is a comparative investigation of different regional histories of registration - a feature of societies common across Asia, Europe, and the Americas, but poorly understood in contemporary social science. Identity recognition of individuals by the groups they are born into or wish to affiliate themselves with has been a ubiquitous phenomenon of human experience. It has left widespread records in the form of legal, civic, and religious registration documentation. Yet, unlike the proliferation of censuses and state enumeration exercises of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, registration has attracted remarkably little scholarly attention. This volume provides an introduction to this new subject and presents a wide-ranging set of original studies of registration processes, offering a comparative conspectus across a time-span of over two thousand years. Registration has typically been viewed as coercive, and as a product of the rise of the modern European state. This book shows that the registration of individuals has taken remarkably similar, and interestingly comparable, forms in very different societies across the world. The book also suggests that registration has many hitherto neglected benefits for individuals, and that modern states have frequently sought to curtail, or avoid responsibility for, it. The book shows that the close study of practices of registration provides a tool that supports analytical comparisons across time and region, raising a common, limited set of comparative questions that highlight the differences between the forms of state power and the responsibilities and entitlements of individuals and families.
La confiance permet de transformer les engagements problématiques en engagements crédibles. Pour supprimer l'opacité qui domine l'économie de la qualité, pour neutraliser l'opportunisme qui menace l'économie conventionnelle, et qui, tous deux, interdisent la formation et la continuité de l'échange économique, deux ensembles de dispositifs sont respectivement à l'œuvre. Les dispositifs de jugement permettent de réduire l'ignorance ; ils sont fondés soit sur la confiance personnelle (le réseau) soit sur la confiance impersonnelle (classements, appellations, guides). Les dispositifs de promesse permettent de contrecarrer le risque d'opportunisme ; ils englobent la qualité des personnes, le réseau ou des ensembles normatifs comme la norme unilatérale des avocats, la norme coproduite du partenariat ou la norme technique. Ainsi, là où menacent l'opacité et l'opportunisme, là ou l'échange ne peut se soutenir de la seule convergence des intérêts, les dispositifs de confiance, cet univers de délégués personnels ou impersonnels, servent de points d'appui à la coordination de l'action.
The term ‘archives’ first refers to a building, a symbol of a public institution, which is one of the organs of a constituted state. However, by ‘archives’ is also understood a collection of documents — normally written documents — kept in this building. There cannot therefore be a definition of ‘archives’ that does not encompass both the building itself and the documents stored there.
A burst of intensive documentation activity related to the formation of the Crown of Aragon in northeastern Spain and the extension of the Reconquest south into Valencia during the twelfth century is explored to reveal the dramatic growth of medieval archives; archival management systems and records centers; the development of sophisticated methodologies such as simultaneous registration and formalized document production; indexing, tagging, heading, and classification techniques; rudimentary records management and conservation programs; and experimentation in codification, supraregional standardization, format control, multimedia, and improved communications through courier service, addressing, notarization, posting, and proclamation. The institutionalization of increasingly specialized archives distinct from libraries and other scribal enterprises is illustrated by early formation of the Archivo de la Corona de Aragón in Barcelona, and the transition between information technologies is shown in the famous royal cartulary, the Liber Feudorum Maior. Conclusions are drawn from this medieval information revolution about lasting contributions to Western information programs and documentation systems.
The ethnographic study performed by Bruno Latour engaged him in the world of the scientific laboratory to develop an understanding of scientific culture through observations of their daily interactions and processes. Latour assumed a scientific perspective in his study; observing his participants with the "same cold, unblinking eye" that they use in their daily research activities. He familiarized himself with the laboratory by intense focus on "literary inscription", noting that the writing process drives every activity in the laboratory. He unpacked the structure of scientific literature to uncover its importance to scientists (factual knowledge), how scientists communicate, and the processes involved with generating scientific knowledge (use of assays, instrumentation, documentation). The introduction by Jonas Salk stated that Latour's study could increase public understanding of scientists, thereby decreasing the expectations laid on them, and the general fear toward them. [Teri, STS 901-Fall; only read Ch. 2]
This article challenges the predominant occupation with documents as text in international relations theory and critical geopolitics and advances a new understanding of documents. First, it unpacks the manifold practical and material entanglements of documents that are crucial for their production. Second, it discloses the political dimensions of routinised action and its supporting infrastructures by shedding light on the conflicting practices behind agreed documents. Third, it reconsiders the role of documents as neutral media in politics by paying tribute to the performative role they play in organisational action. By regarding documents as ‘effects of organisational practice’ and as having ‘effects in organisational practice’, the article grounds international politics at its site of production, points to the mundane practices and tacit politics of policy-making, and thus goes beyond explanations referring to realpolitik based on manifest interests or poststructuralist constructivism. The empirical background that illustrates the argument derives from the 2012 Doha Conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), with a special focus on the National Adaptation Plans. The paper concludes by arguing that documents are not only the necessary condition for international politics but might also inform a social ontology called ‘documentality’, as developed by the new realism philosopher, Maurizio Ferraris.
In the modern world, there is no shortage of people who know what is best for others. Self-appointed experts, consultants, and organizations try to convince states, corporations, and individuals that they would be better off if they only followed some specific rules about what to do. These rules are presented as being voluntary and advisory. They are standards, not mandatory directives, and they abound in modern life. Standards may concern what characteristics a telephone should have, how a company should report its financial transactions, how organizations should be managed, how states should treat their citizens, how children should be raised, and so forth. Even organizations as powerful as states and large corporations follow standards on how to organize, which policies to pursue, what kinds of services to provide, or how their products should be designed. Standards enable a higher degree of global order in the modern world than would exist without them. They facilitate coordination and cooperation even among people and organizations that are far apart. The book states that standardization is a much neglected area of social science — an area that has by no means received the attention it deserves in view of its importance to society. This book redresses the balance by providing an in-depth examination of a number of aspects of standardization, how it is formed, and what effects it has on the world in which we live.
John Hartley: Before Ongism: "To become what we want to be, we have to decide what we were" Orality & Literacy: The Technologization Of The Word Introduction Part 1: The orality of language 1. The literate mind and the oral past 2. Did you say 'oral literature'? Part 2: The modern discovery of primary oral cultures 1. Early awareness of oral tradition 2. The Homeric question 3. Milman Parry's discovery 4. Consequent and related work Part 3: Some psychodynamics of orality 1. Sounded word as power and action 2. You know what you can recall: mnemonics and formulas 3. Further characteristics of orally based thought and expression 4. Additive rather than subordinative 5. Aggregative rather than analytic 6. Redundant or 'copious' 7. Conservative or traditionalist 8. Close to the human lifeworld 9. Agonistically toned 10. Empathetic and participatory rather than objectively distanced 11. Homeostatic 12. Situational rather than abstract 13. Oral memorization 14. Verbomotor lifestyle 15. The noetic role of heroic 'heavy' figures and of the bizarre 16. The interiority of sound 17. Orality, community and the sacral 18. Words are not signs Part 4: Writing restructures consciousness 1. The new world of autonomous discourse 2. Plato, writing and computers 3. Writing is a technology 4. What is 'writing' or 'script'? 5. Many scripts but only one alphabet 6. The onset of literacy 7. From memory to written records 8. Some dynamics of textuality 9. Distance, precision, grapholects and magnavocabularies 10. Interactions: rhetoric and the places 11. Interactions: learned languages 12. Tenaciousness of orality Part 5: Print, space and closure 1. Hearing-dominance yields to sight-dominance 2. Space and meaning 3. Indexes 4. Books, contents and labels 5. Meaningful surface 6. Typographic space 7. More diffuse effects 8. Print and closure: intertextuality 9. Post-typography: electronics Part 6: Oral memory, the story line and characterization 1. The primacy of the story line 2. Narrative and oral cultures 3. Oral memory and the story line 4. Closure of plot: travelogue to detective story 5. The 'round' character, writing and print Part 7: Some theorems 1. Literary history 2. New Criticism and Formalism 3. Structuralism 4. Textualists and deconstructionists 5. Speech-act and reader-response theory 6. Social sciences, philosophy, biblical studies 7. Orality, writing and being human 8. 'Media' versus human communication 9. The inward turn: consciousness and the text John Hartley: After Ongism: The Evolution of Networked Intelligence
There are two popular claims about diplomacy in the modern history of international relations. According to the first, World War One constituted a decisive turning point in the modern era, marking the emergence of a new diplomacy, distinct in both essence and style from that which had existed previously. The second maintains that diplomacy is in a state of continuous decline. This study proposes that the distinction between old and new diplomacy is simplistic and inaccurate, and that the argument regarding the decline of diplomacy is not a valid one, Raymond Aron's observation that ‘diplomacy, in the traditional sense of the term, functions up to a certain degree between allies, but hardly any longer among enemies, or even between the blocs and the neutral nations’ is only partially correct, and reflects its time of writing at the height of the cold war.
The term 'governance' is popular but imprecise. It has at least six uses, referring to: the minimal state; corporate governance; the new public management; 'good governance'; socio-cybernetic systems; and self-organizing networks. I stipulate that governance refers to 'self-organizing, interorganizational networks' and argue these networks complement markets and hierarchies as governing structures for authoritatively allocating resources and exercising control and co-ordination. I defend this definition, arguing that it throws new light on recent changes in British government, most notably: hollowing out the state, the new public management, and intergovernmental manage-ment. I conclude that networks are now a pervasive feature of service delivery in Britain; that such networks are characterized by trust and mutual adjustment and undermine management reforms rooted in competition: and that they are a challenge to governability because they become autonomous and resist central guidance.
The rise of standardization processes highlights two different paths toward a regulatory state. Within the EU, the New Approach serves as a model for co-regulation, and European standards have become instruments of supranational governance. In France, standardization is much more part of a renegotiation of the state’s role and influence in a changing society. In both cases, standardization was undertaken with other motives; yet it evolved to answer the strains and constraints exerted upon regulatory processes in the two polities. As such, standards are a case for unintentionality in policy instruments.
The electronic version of this book has been prepared by scanning TIFF 600 dpi bitonal images of the pages of the text. Original source: How nations choose product standards and standards change nations / Samuel Krislov.; Krislov, Samuel.; viii, 264 p. ; 24 cm.; Pittsburgh :; This electronic text file was created by Optical Character Recognition (OCR). No corrections have been made to the OCR-ed text and no editing has been done to the content of the original document. Encoding has been done through an automated process using the recommendations for Level 2 of the TEI in Libraries Guidelines. Digital page images are linked to the text file.
Logical empiricism, a program for the study of science that attempted to provide logical analyses of the nature of scientific concepts, the relation between evidence and theory, and the nature of scientific explanation, formed among the famed Vienna and Berlin Circles of the 1920s and '30s and dominated the philosophy of science throughout much of the twentieth century. In recent decades, a "post-positivist" philosophy, deriding empiricism and its claims in light of more recent historical and sociological discoveries, has been the ascendant mode of philosophy and other disciplines in the arts and sciences. This book features original research that challenges such broad oppositions. In eleven essays, leading scholars from many nations construct a more nuanced understanding of logical empiricism, its history, and development, offering promising implications for current philosophy of science debates. Tapping rich resources of unpublished material from archives in Haarlem, Konstanz, Pittsburgh, and Vienna, contributors conduct a deep investigation into the origins and development of the Vienna and Berlin Circles. They expose the roots of the philosophy in such varied sources as Cassirer, Poincaire, Husserl, Heidegger, and Wittgenstein. Important connections between the empiricists and other movements--neo-empiricism, British empiricism--are vigorously explored. Building on these historical studies, a critical reevaluation emerges that shrinks the distance between old and new philosophers of science, between "analytic" and "Continental" philosophy. A number of compelling recent debates, including those involving Kuhn, Feyerabend, Hesse, Glymour, and Hanson, are reopened to show the ways in which logical empiricist theory can still be validly applied. Logical Empiricism is the result of a remarkable conference, convened in the spirit of reflection and international cooperation, that took place in Florence, Italy, in 1999.
How did the fact become modernity's most favored unit of knowledge? How did description come to seem separable from theory in the precursors of economics and the social sciences? Mary Poovey explores these questions in A History of the Modern Fact, ranging across an astonishing array of texts and ideas from the publication of the first British manual on double-entry bookkeeping in 1588 to the institutionalization of statistics in the 1830s. She shows how the production of systematic knowledge from descriptions of observed particulars influenced government, how numerical representation became the privileged vehicle for generating useful facts, and how beliefâwhether figured as credit, credibility, or credulityâremained essential to the production of knowledge. Illuminating the epistemological conditions that have made modern social and economic knowledge possible, A History of the Modern Fact provides important contributions to the history of political thought, economics, science, and philosophy, as well as to literary and cultural criticism.
In this innovative exploration of the concept of formality, or governing by abstraction, Arthur Stinchcombe breathes new life into an idea that scholars have all but ignored in recent years. We have come to assume that governing our social activities by advance planningâby creating abstract descriptions of what ought to happen and adjusting these descriptions as situations changeâis not as efficient and responsive as dealing directly with the real substance of the situation at hand. Stinchcombe argues the opposite. When a plan is designed to correct itself and keep up with the reality it is meant to govern, it can be remarkably successful. He points out a wide range of examples where this is the case, including architectural blueprints, immigration law, the construction of common law by appeals courts, Fannie Mae's secondary mortgage market, and scientific paradigms and programs. Arguing that formality has been misconceived as consisting mainly of its defects, Stinchcombe shows how formality, at its best, can serve us much better than ritual obedience to poorly laid plans or a romantic appeal to "real life."
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