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Research Report
Mindfulness-Based Practice for Multicultural Meditation
Practitioners to Develop Mental Well-Being
By
Dr. Narumon Jiwattanasuk
Asst. Prof. Dr. Voranij Vasuratna
Prof. Dr. Mahinda Deegalle
B.E. 2567
Research Project Funded by Buddhist Research Institute
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
MCU RS 800767123
ii
Research Report
Mindfulness-Based Practice for Multicultural Meditation
Practitioners to Develop Mental Well-Being
By
Dr. Narumon Jiwattanasuk
Asst. Prof. Dr. Voranij Vasuratna
Prof. Dr. Mahinda Deegalle
B.E. 2567
Research Project Funded by Buddhist Research Institute
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
MCU RS 800767123
(Copyright Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University)
iii
Research Title : Mindfulness-Based Practice For Multicultural
Meditation Practitioners to Develop Mental
Well-Being
Researcher : Dr. Narumon Jiwattanasuk, Asst. Prof. Dr. Voranij
Vasuratna, Prof. Dr. Mahinda Deegalle
Department : Buddhist Research Institute
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
Fiscal Year : 2024
Research Scholarship Sponsor: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya
University
Abstract
This study aimed to study 1) To study the mental well-being circumstances
and analyze the problems of multicultural meditation practitioners, 2) To develop the
process of mindfulness-based practice for the mental well-being of multicultural
meditation practitioners, and 3) To evaluate the process of mindfulness-based practice
for the mental well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners. The research utilizes
a mixed-methods approach structured across three phases. 1) qualitative research, 2)
qualitative research, and 3) quantitative research(questionnaires for pre-test and post-
test to measure the mental well-being of multicultural practitioners) and qualitative
research (in-depth interview). There were 30 participants who represent various cultural
backgrounds, including different religions, languages, and ethnicities.
The research results were as follows:
This study aimed to study 1) To study the mental well-being circumstances
and analyze the problems of multicultural meditation practitioners, 2) To develop the
process of mindfulness-based practice for the mental well-being of multicultural
iv
meditation practitioners, and 3) To evaluate the process of mindfulness-based practice
for the mental well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners. The research utilizes
a mixed-methods approach structured across three phases. 1) qualitative method, 2)
action research, and 3) quantitative research method with questionnaires for pre-test
and post-test of multicultural practitioners and qualitative research method with in-
depth interview. The key informants, population, and sample group consist of 30
individuals selected through purposive sampling. This group is diverse, representing
various cultural backgrounds, including different religions, languages, and ethnicities.
The research results were found that
1. The mental well-being circumstances and the problems of multicultural
meditation practitioners, faced various personal challenges, including anger, stress, job
instability, and relationship issues, leading to mental distress and self-doubt. Despite
having good health or finances, many struggle with worries about their children's
futures and their own life direction. Each participant sought relief and improved mental
well-being through the course.
2. The process of developing mindfulness-based practices for the mental
well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners stemmed from action research
conducted during a one-day course. This study created a culturally sensitive
mindfulness course, addressing key informants' empathy on comfort, inclusivity, and
diverse activities. The course featured short, accessible sessions with effective language
support, leading to the "Mindfulness Wisdom and Loving-kindness" (MWL) program,
which aims to enhance mental health and inner peace in multicultural settings.
3. The process of mindfulness-based practices for the mental well-being of
multicultural meditation practitioners’ assessment is assessed through questionnaires
and in-depth interviews. Questionnaires are developed based on WHO-5 (World Health
Organization), GHQ (General Health Questionnaire) and Oxford Happiness
Questionnaire. The data analysis showed that key informants their experienced
improved mental well-being. The findings confirm that mindfulness-based practices
can improve mental well-being. Such mindfulness activities are modified to
accommodate various cultures, religions, languages, and ethnicities.
v
Acknowledgement
I would like to dedicate this research to the memory of His Majesty King
Chulalongkorn (King Rama V, r. 1868–1910), the founder of Mahachulalong-
kornrajavidyalaya University (MCU). I also extend my gratitude to all individuals who
aided me in facilitating the completion of this research.
I would like to convey my genuine gratitude to Prof. Dr. Phra
Medhivajarapundit, Director of International Buddhist Studies College at MCU. Not
only he grants me the opportunity to work at MCU but also provided invaluable
guidance, shared extensive knowledge and significantly enhanced my professional
skills, thereby improving the quality of this thesis and broadening my perspectives
substantially.
My appreciation also goes to Phrakhruwinaithorn (Kittiched Siriwattago),
PhD, President of the Buddhamahametta Foundation, where I reside and receive
teachings in meditation, who constantly guides me on the path to nirvāna in this present
life.
Lastly, I extend my profound and sincere thanks to my parents for their
unwavering love, support and assistance. Their support and sacrifices have played a
crucial role in shaping my identity, allowing me to explore new opportunities and pave
a useful path for me. Without their steadfast support, I would not have been able to
achieve the position I hold today.
Narumon Jiwattanasuk
11 July 2024
vi
Table of Contents
Title Page
Abstract iii
Acknowledgement v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables ix
List of Figures x
List of Abbreviations xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Significance of the Problems 1
1.2 Objectives of the Research 3
1.3 Statement of the Problems Desired to Know 4
1.4 Scope of the Research 4
1.5 Research Hypothesis 6
1.6 Definition of the Terms Used in the Research 7
1.7 Conceptual Framework 8
1.8 Advantages Expected to Obtain from the Research 8
Chapter 2 Literature Review and Research Works 10
2.1 Concepts of Mindfulness-based Practice 10
2.2 Concepts and Theories of Multicultural 38
2.3 Concepts of Peaceful Well-Being 59
2.4 Research Works related to the Cultivation of Mindfulness and
Peaceful Well-beings in the sight of Mental Well-being 64
vii
2.5 Research Works related to the Cultivation of Mindfulness for
Multicultural Practitioners 70
2.6 Concluding Remarks 75
Chapter 3 Research Methodology 77
3.1 Phase 1: Qualitative Reseache Design 77
3.2 Phase 2: Action Research Design 78
3.3 Phase 3: Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research Design 78
3.4 Research Process 80
3.5 Concluding Remarks 81
Chapter 4 Result of Research 82
4.1 General Datas of Sampling Group 82
4.2 Research Findings According to the Research Objectives. 83
4.3 Knowledge gained from the research 143
4.4 Concluding Remarks 144
Chapter 5 Conclusion, Discussion, Recommendation 146
5.1 Conclusion 146
5.2 Discussion 148
5.3 Recommendation for Further Research 151
Bibliography 153
Appendix 163
Appendix A: In-depth Interview Form 164
Appendix B: In-depth Interview (Photo) 168
Appendix C: Focus Group Discussion (Photo) 171
Appendix D: Mindful Activities (Photo) 172
viii
Appendix E: 1-day mindfulness-based practice 177
Appendix F: 15-item Mental Health Well-being Questionnaire 178
Appendix G: The Items-Objective Congruence (IOC) Form 179
Appendix H: Research Ethics 188
Appendix I: Table of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient and
pre-test & post-test comparison 189
Biography 192
ix
List of Table
Tables Page
Table 1: The demographic of the sample group, comprising 30 practitioners 82
residing in Australia
Table 2: The result of comparing the difference in average scores of mental 106
health status before and after practicing mindfulness
xi
List and Abbreviations
A. Abbreviations for the Original Texts
A AṅguttaraNikāya
Dh Dhammapada
M MajjjimaNiakāya
Ps Paṭisambhidāmagga
S SaṃyuttaNikāya
Sn SuttaNipāta
Vin Vinaya Piṭaka
B. Scholarly Abbreviations
Assoc. Associate
Asst. Assistant
et al. Et alii or et alia, and others
GHQ General Health Questionnaire
Ibid. In the same source
MCU Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University
OHQ Oxford Happiness Questionnaire
p. Page
pp. Pages
Prof. Professor
tr. Translated by
vol. Volume
WHO The World Health Organization
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background and Significance of the Problems
Aspects of modern daily life have made the practice of mindfulness,
meditation and peaceful well-being essentially required. In various forms of Buddhism,
today numerous studies focus on the potential benefits of mindfulness meditation.1 This
research recognizes the significance of meditation practice for those who work or live
abroad for extended periods. Since some of them do not engage in mindfulness
meditation consistently, they may undergo suffering; they may also seek alternative
ways to relieve their inner suffering. In search of solutions to their emotional distress,
some might convert even to non-Buddhist religions. In the light of troubling issues
today, some researchers have conducted research emphasizing the importance of
mindfulness meditation to support the inner peace and happiness of practitioners from
diverse multicultural backgrounds.2
Understanding the relationship between mindfulness meditation and the
peaceful well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners is of great importance for
several reasons. First, the peace and well-being of meditation practitioners from diverse
cultures are crucial for their overall development and success in life. Exploring how
mindfulness practice contributes to their happiness can provide valuable insights to
enhance support systems for practitioners and create an environment conducive to
living a joyful life. This research can offer valuable information to strengthen support
1 Tamara Ditrich et. al., Mindfulness and Education: Research and Practice,
(UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2017), p. 3-5.
2 Alexander J. Hilert and Camila Tirado, “Teaching Multicultural Counseling with
Mindfulness: a Contemplative Pedagogy Approach,” International Journal for the
Advancement of Counselling, Vol. 41 No. 4 (August 28, 2018): pp. 469–80.
2
systems for meditation practitioners and create an environment that provides a life filled
with happiness.3
Second, the mindfulness meditation and peaceful well-being of multicultural
meditation practitioners often take different forms. The examination of the impact of
mindfulness meditation on the peaceful well-being of multicultural meditation
practitioners within specific cultural contexts provides unique opportunities to explore
the relationship between Buddhist principles and methods of promoting peaceful well-
being in the modern world.4
Third, the adoption of meditation across the world has increased significantly
the popularity of mindfulness meditation. The exploration of the impact of mindfulness
meditation and the peaceful well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners can
become instrumental in advancing a general understanding of happy living. Our
research findings can provide practical recommendations for integrating mindfulness
meditation into contemporary life while enhancing the peaceful well-being of
multicultural meditation practitioners.5
Finally, this research sheds some light on understanding the Buddhist
practice of mindfulness meditation when we study the process of mindfulness
meditation and the peaceful well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners. This
provides valuable insights into aligning mindfulness meditation with the core principles
of Buddhist philosophy. It can also play a significant role in the overall development of
multicultural meditation practitioners.6
3 Dessa Bergen-Cico and Jeffrey Proulx, “Mindfulness and Contemplative Practices
for Diverse Cultures”, Empirical studies of contemplative practices, (December 2018):
pp.147-148.
4 Charles Bradley Freligh, “Mindfulness and Its Impact on Adaptive Coping and
Psychological Well-Being: An Intervention for Undergraduate Students”, PhD
dissertation, (Philosophy in Clinical Psychology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk
State University), 2020, pp. 1-3.
5 IIse Blignault et al., “Effectiveness of a Community-based Group Mindfulness
Program tailored for Arabic and Bangla-speaking Migrants”, International Journal of Mental
Health Systems, Vol. 15 No. 1 (April 2021): pp. 9-11.
6 Samuel Christopher Tourek, “A Case for Mindfulness Practice in Fostering
Multicultural Competence in Counseling”, PhD dissertation, (Philosophy, Graduate School,
University of Minnesota), 2014), pp. 22-26.
3
The early research conducted by Jiwattanasuk (2021) focused on the
difficulties that persons in leadership positions encounter within their organizations.
The study included specifically personal challenges like stress, overthinking, managing
emotions, seeking approval, dealing with external factors, holding back in speech, and
changes in body weight. Additionally, the investigation found that a mindfulness-based
program had the potential to help leaders overcome the challenges they face. The
present research builds upon the concept of a mindfulness-based program as already
discussed in Jiwattanasuk’s study (2021). However, the present research centers on a
diverse group of individuals from different cultural backgrounds who are engaged in
meditation practices. This study provides a deep insight into how mindfulness
meditation enables achieving a sense of tranquility and well-being.7 This research work
emphasizes mental well-being as a primary area of focus. Accordingly, the
development of psychological health within multicultural communities holds
significant social implications, influencing the overall quality of life, social
interactions, and the productivity of individuals. This progress can contribute to
substantial social impact and the establishment of a more sustainable society.
1.2 Objectives of the Research
1.2.1 To study the mental well-being circumstances and analyze the
problems of multicultural meditation practitioners.
1.2.2 To develop the process of mindfulness-based practice for the mental
well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners.
1.2.3 To evaluate the process of mindfulness-based practice for the mental
well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners.
7 Narumon Jiwattanasuk, “A Process of Development for Peaceful Well-Being of
Meditation Practitioners Through Buddhist Peaceful Means; A Case Study of
Buddhamahametta Foundation, Chiang Rak Noi, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya”, (PhD
dissertation, (Philosophy in Peace Studies, Graduate School,
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2021).
4
1.3 Statement of the Problems Desired to Know
1.3.1 What are the mental well-being circumstances and the problems of
multicultural meditation practitioners?
1.3.2 What is the process of the mindfulness-based practice for the mental
well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners?
1.3.3 What is the evaluation outcome of mindfulness-based practice for the
mental well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners?
1.4 Scope of the Research
The scope of this research in specified in the following five scopes:
1.4.1 Scope of Data:
This research will primarily rely on both primary and secondary sources of
data. Primary data will be collected through Pāli text society (PTS), Comon Buddhist
Text (CBT), and structured surveys and interviews conducted with multicultural
meditation practitioners.
Additionally, secondary sources such as academic journals, books, relevant
reports, and scholarly articles will be consulted to provide a comprehensive theoretical
foundation and contextual understanding of mindfulness meditation for the peaceful
well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners.
1.4.2 Key Informants:
The target key informants for this research selected from multicultural
meditation practitioners in various countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom
who practice in the meditation course which set up by Buddhamahametta Foundation,
Chiangraknoi, Ayutthaya province.
1.4.3 Scope of Area:
The research will be conducted as the mindfulness-based course in various
countries such as Australia. The course will be set up by Buddhamahametta Foundation
in the meditation environment which will be setting for data collection, meditation
rooms, and other relevant spaces where mindfulness meditation activities take place.
5
Brisbane, the capitals of Queensland, Australia, respectively has been chosen
to conduct mindfulness-based course for the research study, primarily due to their
multicultural characteristics. This city, rich in diversity and inclusivity, offers unique
perspectives shaped by historical, social, and economic factors.
Historical and Demographic Diversity: The diversity of Brisbane's
population is a result of both current global migration trends and previous immigration
patterns, featuring European, Asian, Pacific Islander, Middle Eastern, and Indigenous
Australian communities with significant contributions from people of former colonies.
Immigration and Settlement: Australia's immigration policy has significantly
shaped the multicultural landscapes of Brisbane. Brisbane has experienced waves of
immigration, contributing to its cultural mix, particularly from the Caribbean, South
Asia, and Africa.
Economic Attractiveness and Employment Opportunities: Australia is
economic giant, it draws workers from all over the world. Brisbane offers diverse
employment opportunities across various industries, making it a destination for
professionals worldwide and reinforcing its multicultural workforce.
Inclusivity and Cultural Tolerance: Brisbane's environment promotes
harmonious coexistence among diverse backgrounds. This demonstrates a deep-rooted
tolerance and acceptance of different cultures.
Global City Status: Brisbane, though smaller in global influence, mirrors this
characteristic by being a hub for education and professional growth, appealing to an
international community.
In conclusion, the multicultural dynamics of Brisbane is characterized by the
rich historical immigration backgrounds, economic opportunities, and cultural
inclusivity. In Brisbane, the community of meditation practitioners mirrors the cities'
multicultural dynamics. This community offers a rich background that is perfect for
studying the process of mindfulness-based practice and peaceful well-being of
multicultural meditation practitioners.
6
1.4.4 Scope of Time:
The temporal scope of this research will be between January 2024 -
December 2024. The study will be conducted within a specific time frame to ensure
data collection and analysis remain relevant to the current state of mindfulness
meditation and multicultural meditation practitioners' well-being in the context of
Buddhamahametta Foundation.
1.4.5 Scope of Variables:
The research will focus on investigating the relationship between
Mindfulness-based practice and multicultural meditation practitioners' peace well-
being. Mindfulness-based practice will encompass various techniques such as
meditation, meditation through Dhamma songs, and contemplative practices taught
within the meditation course that arranged by Buddhamahametta Foundation.
Mental Well-being will be assessed through psychological indicators,
including measures of emotional well-being, stress levels, happiness levels, and overall
life satisfaction among the multicultural meditation practitioners’ participants.
By describing these five scopes, the research aims to provide a
comprehensive and focused exploration of how mindfulness meditation influences the
peace well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners within the unique context of
Buddhamahametta Foundation, Chiangraknoi, Ayutthaya Province.
1.5 Research Hypothesis
"The implementation of mindfulness meditation among multicultural
meditation practitioners in various countries such as Australia organized by
Buddhamahametta Foundation in positively correlates with an improvement in their
overall peace well-being."
The hypothesis for this research will consist of independent variables, such
as basic demographic data of the sample group, including gender, age, experience, and
duration of meditation practice. Another variable is the consistency in meditation
practice, which will affect the dependent variable, namely, the state of peace well-
being. The study will focus on mental well-being.
7
The hypothesis posits that engaging in Mindfulness-based Practice, taught in
a Buddhist context, can enhance the peace well-being of multicultural practitioners in
Australia organized by the Buddhamahametta Foundation. The assumption is that
consistent mindfulness meditation leads to improved emotional well-being, reduced
stress, increased happiness, and higher life satisfaction. The research plan involves
collecting and analyzing data to validate this hypothesis through a structured
methodology. The outcome will determine if there is a significant link between
mindfulness meditation and enhanced peace well-being in these multicultural settings.
1.6 Definition of the Terms Used in the Research
The defined terms within the research study titled "Mindfulness-based
Practice for Multicultural Meditation Practitioners to Develop Peaceful Well-being"
facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental concepts and variables
incorporated in the study. The terms utilized in this research are precisely defined as
follows:
Mindfulness-based Practice refers to a mental practice and meditation
technique that involves paying focused and non-judgmental attention to the present
moment. It is often used to cultivate mindfulness, which is a state of heightened
awareness and presence.
Mental Well-Being denotes a state of inner calm, contentment, and overall
harmony in a person's life. It encompasses mental aspects of well-being, emphasizing
not just the absence of stress or discomfort but the presence of tranquility, peace, and a
sense of fulfillment.
Multicultural Meditation Practitioners is defined as a group of people who
come from diverse cultural backgrounds and engage in the practice of meditation. These
practitioners may have different ethnic, religious, or cultural identities, and they
participate in meditation techniques and practices for peaceful well-being.
The Process of Mindfulness Meditation refers to involves a systematic and
intentional approach to cultivating mindfulness, which is the practice of being fully
present and aware in the present moment without judgment.
8
Buddhamahametta Foundation is the Buddhist foundation located in
Chiangraknoi, Ayutthaya province. This foundation offers a mindfulness meditation
course for Buddhist practitioners including arrangement the mindfulness meditation in
various countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom, and Japan. This course likely
teaches meditation techniques and practices rooted in Buddhist traditions, emphasizing
mindfulness and inner development.
1.7 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
1.8 Advantages Expected to Obtain from the Research
1.8.1 Evidence-Based Peace Well-Being Enhancement: The research will
provide empirical evidence of the positive impact of mindfulness meditation on the
peace well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners. This evidence can serve as
a foundation globally, particularly those with a focus on spiritual and holistic learning,
to incorporate mindfulness programs that enhance emotional resilience, stress
management, and overall peace well-being.
9
1.8.2 Tailored Mindfulness Programs: Findings from the research can guide
the design and implementation of mindfulness programs that are specifically tailored to
the needs and aspirations of multicultural meditation practitioners. This customization
ensures that mindfulness techniques align with the college's ethos and philosophy,
offering multicultural meditation practitioners a more meaningful and relevant practice.
1.8.3 Holistic Student Development: By integrating mindfulness practices
into the meditation environment, the multicultural meditation practitioners' outcomes
can promote a holistic approach to practitioners’ development. Mindfulness techniques,
aligned with Buddhist teachings, can foster emotional intelligence, self-awareness, and
compassion to success personal growth and ethical development.
1.8.4 Contributions to Educational Research: The research will contribute
to the field of educational research by shedding light on how mindfulness practices,
grounded in Buddhist traditions, can positively impact multicultural meditation
practitioners’ peace well-being. This study can inspire further exploration of how
diverse meditation contexts can integrate mindfulness into meditation programs.
These advantages collectively demonstrate the potential for the research
study to enhance peace well-being strategies in higher meditation settings, contribute
to the discourse on mindfulness, and inspire institutions to incorporate practices that
promote multicultural meditation practitioners ' overall flourishing and personal
development.
10
Chapter 2
Literature Review and Research Works
In this chapter, the researcher would like to clarify the definition of the
learning Process in accordance with dictionaries, encyclopedia and concerned article.
In addition, the problems of the learning process in modern education would be focused
including the impacts and implementation with explained descriptions accordingly.
2.1 Concepts of Mindfulness-based Practice
2.2 Concepts and theories of Multicultural
2.3 Concepts of Peaceful Well-Being
2.4 Research Works related to the Cultivation of Mindfulness and Peaceful
Well-beings in sight of Mental Well-being
2.5 Research Works related to the Cultivation of Mindfulness for
Multicultural Practitioners
2.1 Concepts of Mindfulness-based Practice
2.1.1 Definition of Mindfulness-based Practice
Mindfulness-based practices in Buddhism are deeply rooted in the concept
of “sati”. The Pāli technical term, sati, we translate for our purposes as ‘mindfulness’.
Mindfulness-based practices cultivate non-judgmental awareness of thoughts, feelings,
bodily sensations and the surroundings. Awareness is often developed through
meditation and other contemplative practices. A significant resource for developing
mindfulness teachings in Buddhism is the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (M.I.55). The ‘Discourse
on Establishing Mindfulness” is a well-known Pāli canonical discourse, very much
central in establishing ‘mindfulness’ in the Buddhist traditions.1 It provides the
Buddha’s guidelines in cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness: (a) mindfulness
1Majjhima Nikāya, Vol. 1, Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (MN 10), ed. V. Trenckner (London:
Pali Text Society, 1888), p. 55-63.
11
of the body, (b) mindfulness of feelings (or sensations), (c) mindfulness of the mind,
and (d) mindfulness of mental objects (or phenomena). The practice aims to develop a
clear and focused awareness. It enables individuals to observe the nature of their
experiences without attachment or aversion.
In contemplative traditions, the “practice” refers to active engagement in
meditation. Mindfulness emphasises the importance of living in the present moment
rather than dwelling on the future. The practice includes various formal and informal
techniques that cultivate continuous awareness in daily activities. In mindfulness
meditation, specific techniques are essential tools. Rather than becoming the primary
focus, they serve as platforms for attention cultivation. A word of caution is necessary
here. One should not mistake or miscomprehend these techniques as the essence of the
practice. They perform like a menu or map. One must not get confused with the finger
pointing at the moon with the moon itself.2
Phramaha Hansā Dhammahāso3 has highlighted that peace experts within
Thai society have articulated the concept of “peaceful means” as a nuanced approach
that encompasses various facets of a multi-dimensional society, blending diverse
situations into a cohesive understanding. In essence, the term “peaceful means” denotes
the comprehensive interpretation of conflicting interests, needs, relationships,
information, values, and structures between two distinct groups—namely, the “state”
and the “citizens.” This involves fostering an environment where both parties are
afforded the rightful opportunity for expression and are encouraged to adopt a
constructive attitude towards one another.
Mindfulness includes an intentional focus. In the practice, one becomes
aware of one’s present environment. It also emphasises a non-judgmental thought
process. The linguistic origin of the term “sati” in Pāli is considered as originating from
“smrti” (memory) in Sanskrit. It includes the meaning of remembering. Its roots lie in
Buddhist meditation and yoga. The early Buddhist thought developed the practice of
2 Jon Kabat-Zinn, “Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Context: Past, Present, and
Future”, American Psychological Association (2003): pp. 144-145.
3 Phramaha Hansā Dhammahāsō, Buddhist Peaceful Means: Integration of
Principles and Tools for Managing Conflict, (Bangkok: 21 Century Limited, 2011), pp. 195-
202.
12
mindfulness to develop wisdom within oneself so that one can realize the ways of
comprehending the lack of substance in immense suffering that one goes through. In
the process of popularization of mindfulness in the twenty-first century in addressing
mundane issues that wider society faces, the concept and practice of mindfulness have
gone through a process of evolution by embracing an ethos of happiness that it
generates through practice. In Western society and cultural adaptations, mindfulness
has gained popularity. Studies suggest that mindfulness practice can generate
emotional, social and physical benefits, particularly among students.4 Over the last two
or three decades, mindfulness has gained considerable recognition for its benefits in
enhancing mental well-being.5 Mindfulness-based practices, which emphasize
cultivating present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of thoughts,
feelings, and bodily sensations have been integrated into modern psychological
treatments to address a range of mental health challenges—stress, anxiety, depression,
and substance abuse.6
The World Health Organization (WHO) has discussed how it conceptualizes
mental health. It has highlighted a shift from the absence of mental illness to a broader
definition that includes positive emotions and functioning. It has identified social
isolation as a significant factor affecting mental health, which has implications for
cardiovascular issues and mortality rates. Mindfulness can be explored through various
perspectives, including Buddhist theory, clinical interventions, and positive
psychology. Mindfulness has been defined as a process of consciously recognizing and
attending to present circumstances, integrating thoughts, emotions, sensations, and
actions. Ritchie and Bryant’s expansive definitions and Brown and Ryan’s focus on all-
encompassing awareness are relevant here. The study conducted by Lomas, et al. has
4 Alicia Cooper Stappa and Ashley Berry Lambert, “The Impact of Mindfulness-
Based Yoga Interventions on Fifth-Grade Students’ Perceived Anxiety and Stress”,
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, Vol. 12 No. 5 (June 2020): 471.
5 Narumon Jiwattanasuk, Kittiched Premasakul, Woraponte Tanpoonkiat and
Mahinda Deegalle, “Cultivating Mindfulness Activities to Develop Peaceful Well-
Being”, Journal of International Buddhist Studies, Vol. 15 No. 1 (February 2024): pp. 69-
87. 6 Andrea E. Cavanna et al., “The Western Origins of Mindfulness Therapy in
Ancient Rome,” Neurological Sciences, Vol. 44 (2023): pp. 1861–1869; Jon Kabat-Zinn,
“Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Context: Past, Present, and Future,” American
Psychological Association (2003): pp. 144–145.
13
examined the association between mindfulness and well-being among medical
professionals using Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs). After mindfulness
practice, the results have indicated increased awareness and effective coping
mechanisms with anxiety, depression, and stress. The study on an eight-week mindful
walking program conducted by Teut, et al. shows a significant decrease in physical
stress symptoms among individuals who report high levels of mental distress while
improving their quality of life. Jiwattanasuk’s findings are based on mindfulness-based
practices involving a variety of activities such as sitting, walking, bowing, sleeping,
speaking, listening, and eating. Mindfulness-based courses encompass both formal and
informal components, while integrating structured program activities into daily life
routines.7
Recent research has widely acknowledged the usefulness of the concept of
mindfulness. Nevertheless, various interpretations and definitions exist. In general,
researchers agree that mindfulness involves non-judgmental awareness, whereas the
practitioner consciously pay attention to present-moment experiences in the mind and
body with acceptance and gratitude (Baraz & Alexander, 2010; Davis & Hayes, 2011;
Ancona & Mendelson, 2014; Roeser et al., 2012; Jennings & Greenberg, 2009;
Albrecht et al., 2012; Weiss, 2004). Kabat-Zinn (1994) defines mindfulness succinctly
as “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and
nonjudgmentally.” The practice of mindfulness is considered an innate human quality,
often lost in a fast-paced and quantity-driven society (Kabat-Zinn, 1994; Albrecht et
al., 2012). Roeser, et al. (2012) provide a comprehensive understanding of mindfulness,
describing it as involving three interconnected mental skills and characteristics: (i)
intentionally transferring attention to the present moment; (ii) approaching the present
moment with clarity, calmness, and openness; and (iii) being present without judgment
or mental reactions. As a practice, mindfulness enhances awareness of one’s thoughts,
7 Narumon Jiwattanasuk et al., “Mental Health in Practitioners through
Mindfulness-Based Practices”, Eur. Chem. Bull, Vol. 12, No. 7 (2023): 5007.
14
emotions, and behaviors, allowing individuals to observe, accept, and regulate their
responses in various environments (Brown et al., 2007).8
2.1.2 Practice of Mindfulness-based Practice
Mindfulness-based practices are rooted in mindfulness meditation, which has
its origins in Buddhist traditions. Jon Kabat-Zinn, a pioneer in the field, is credited with
adapting mindfulness meditation into a secular form known as Mindfulness-Based
Stress Reduction (MBSR) in the late 1970s.
Mindfulness practices, when applied in a secular context, offer an alternative
approach to alleviating stress, anxiety, and negative emotions while promoting overall
well-being. These practices involve observing experiences without attempting to
change them. The Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, developed
by Jon Kabat-Zinn and researchers at the University of Massachusetts, focuses on stress
reduction. Participants are encouraged to establish a new relationship with their
thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations, fostering a non-judgmental and non-reactive
stance towards experiences. The program aims to enhance present-moment awareness,
steering individuals away from dwelling on the past or worrying about the future.9
Effects of Mindfulness on self-regulation of the practice of mindfulness,
particularly through yoga, is shown to foster thoughtful responses and improve
reactions to daily stressors among students at school (Parker et al., 2014; Pepping et al.,
2013). Mindfulness strategies enhance self-control and self-regulation, steering
students away from poor decisions (Parker et al., 2014). Yoga, as a physical element of
mindfulness, aids in self-regulation by enabling students to step back, focus, and
understand situations before reacting (Razza et al., 2013). In a study of 29 preschool
students, those who received yoga instruction demonstrated increased attention and
inhibitory control, highlighting the positive impact of mindfulness-based yoga on self-
regulation (Razza et al., 2013). This approach helps students maintain calmness,
8 Jenna Trumbower, “A Qualitative Investigation of Mindfulness-Based Practice
with K-12th Grade Teacher”, Master Thesis, (Social Work, St. Catherine University and
University of St. Thomas), 2015, pp. 17-18.
9 Mariana Fernandes et al., “Effects of a mindfulness-based intervention on the
functional status and mindfulness of primary health care professionals: a before and after
study”, Arch Clin Psychiatry, Vol. 46 No. 5 (2019): pp. 115.
15
alertness, and focus on tasks (Blair & Razza, 2007). Ultimately, mindfulness practices
heighten awareness of thoughts and emotions, empowering students to respond
positively to various situations (Parker et al., 2014).10
Mindfulness, as introduced by Jon Kabat-Zinn in the late 1970s through the
mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, is defined as the practice of
cultivating moment-to-moment awareness of thoughts, emotions, and bodily sensations
in a non-evaluative and accepting manner (1, 2). In the early 2000s, mindfulness-based
cognitive therapy (MBCT) was developed as an adaptation, incorporating cognitive
therapy elements to address depression (3). These mindfulness programs, typically
structured as eight-week courses with weekly group sessions led by trained instructors,
have demonstrated strong evidence, particularly in the treatment of recurrent depression
(4, 5) and chronic pain (6). The MBSR and MBCT approaches offer promising avenues
for investigation beyond their traditional contexts, with potential applications in diverse
populations (1, 3).11
The Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, designed to
address stress, pain, and illness, was conceived as a universal training vehicle for
medical patients. Emphasizing mindfulness meditation and mindful hatha yoga, it
aimed to be free of cultural and religious affiliations, focusing on relieving suffering at
both physical and mental levels. The program encouraged individuals to take an active
role in their well-being, complementing medical treatments with transformative
meditative practices (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).12
Situated within the Stress Reduction Clinic, the MBSR program, as an 8-
week outpatient course, served as an educational platform for patients not responding
to conventional treatments. Instructors, selected based on their extensive grounding in
mindfulness practice, faced the ongoing challenge of translating meditative challenges
10 Alicia Cooper Stappa and Ashley Berry Lambert, “The Impact of Mindfulness-
Based Yoga Interventions on Fifth-Grade Students’ Perceived Anxiety and Stress”,
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, Vol. 12 No. 5 (June 2020): 472.
11 Shannon Maloney et al., “The How, Why, and for Whom Mindfulness-based
Programs and Practices Produce Change in the General Population: A Scoping Review
Protocol”, Research Square, (September 2020): pp. 1-2.
12 Jon Kabat-Zinn, Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body
and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness, (New York: Bantam Books, 2013), pp. 37-39.
16
into a relevant vernacular without compromising the essential mindfulness dimension
(Santorelli, 2014).13
Ultimately, the MBSR program empowered participants to cultivate attention
and deep awareness, fostering a holistic approach to health. By integrating mindfulness
practices, individuals were invited to explore the interconnectedness of their
experiences, contributing actively to their unique journey towards well-being (Kabat-
Zinn, 1990; Kabat-Zinn, 1993; Santorelli, 1999). The hiring criteria for MBSR
instructors underscored the importance of a comprehensive understanding of
mindfulness practice, ensuring standards for teaching readiness and competency
(Santorelli, 2001).14
2.1.3 Benefits of Mindfulness-based Practice
The benefits of mindfulness-based practice can be noted accordingly.
1) Effects of Mindfulness on Anxiety
Meditation is a widely used treatment for anxiety disorders, based on
attentional and arousal theories of anxiety. Anxious individuals often scan for threat-
related information and interpret ambiguity as threatening. Meditation interventions,
similar to cognitive therapy, train individuals to nonjudgmentally observe thoughts and
sensations, promoting acceptance and objective examination of physiological
symptoms (Barlow, 1991). Unlike cognitive therapy, mindfulness training in
meditation does not directly connect physical sensations and thoughts but teaches
attending to them as they occur (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Despite not targeting over-arousal
directly, meditation significantly reduces muscle tension and overall physiological
symptoms of anxiety (Marks, 2000; Mogg & Bradley, 2005). This underscores the
effectiveness of meditation in managing anxiety by addressing the interplay between
thoughts and physical sensations.15
13 Saki F. Santorelli, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (Mbsr): Standards of
Practice, Research Work, (The Center for Mindfulness in Medicine, Health Care, And Society
University of Massachusetts Medical School, 2014): pp. 1-3.
14 Ibid.
15 Istvan Schreiner and James P. Malcolm, “The Benefits of Mindfulness
Meditation: Changes in Emotional States of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress”, Behaviour
Change, Vol. 25 No. 3 (2008): 157.
17
(2) Effects of Mindfulness on Stress
Mindfulness training, often linked to stress reduction, addresses diverse
physiological and cognitive states associated with chronic stress (Lovibond &
Lovibond, 1995). Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs, initially
designed for chronic pain, have shown success in various settings (Shapiro et al., 2005;
Speca et al., 2000; Bishop, 2002; Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Delivered in group-based sessions
over 8 to 10 weeks, MBSR includes the ‘body scan’ exercise to reduce physiological
symptoms linked to high arousal and stress (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). From a cognitive
perspective, mindfulness meditation for stress reduction parallels approaches used in
treating depression and anxiety, fostering cognitive change and adaptive self-
management skills (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Kristeller & Hallet, 1999). Regular practice
enhances metacognitive insight, aiding in recognizing warning signs of tension and
gaining control over challenging behaviors and cognitions (Kristeller & Hallet, 1999).16
(3) Physical Benefits of Mindfulness-Based Yoga
The practice of yoga in school benefits students by generating their body
awareness and motor development. Broderick and Metz (2009) found mindfulness in
an all-girls school reduced tiredness and aches. Folleto et al. (2016) reported positive
changes in balance, strength, and flexibility after a 12-week yoga program for first-
graders. Donahoe-Fillmore and Grant (2019) observed significant improvements in
balance and flexibility for students aged 10-12 following an eight-week yoga
intervention.17
4) Cognitive Benefits of Mindfulness
In a study by Hanson (2011), mindfulness practitioners were found to have
thicker brains in the insula, prefrontal cortex, and somatosensory cortex compared to
non-practitioners who experienced cortical thinning typical of aging. A cohort study
demonstrated that mindfulness practitioners maintained consistent brain thickness with
age, while non-practitioners exhibited cortical thinning (Hanson, 2011). A systematic
16 Ibid, p. 158.
17 Alicia Cooper Stappa and Ashley Berry Lambert, “The Impact of Mindfulness-
Based Yoga Interventions on Fifth-Grade Students’ Perceived Anxiety and Stress”,
International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, Vol. 12 No. 5. (June 2020): 472.
18
review by Zenner et al. (2014) involving 1,348 students from first to twelfth grade
revealed statistically significant cognitive performance differences (p < .05) between
those practicing mindfulness and those who did not. Additionally, a study by Bellinger
et al. (2015) with undergraduate students showed that mindfulness interventions,
including mindful breathing exercises, reduced test anxiety, leading to increased
accuracy in math problem-solving. Furthermore, Napoli et al. (2005) conducted a study
with first to third-grade students participating in a 24-week Attentive Academy
Program focused on mindfulness. The results demonstrated statistically significant
improvements in selective attention (p = .001) and test anxiety (p = .007), suggesting
potential benefits of mindfulness in educational settings.18
(5) Evidence for the Effectiveness of Mindfulness-based programs (MBPs)
However, in the general population, there is a limited understanding of how,
why, and for whom these programs work. To address these questions, it is crucial to
employ research designs and analytical approaches that reveal potential mediators,
mechanisms, and moderators. Mediators/mechanisms explain how treatments induce
change, while moderators identify contexts where programs are most effective. The
current literature often analyzes these factors in pre-post studies of MBPs, but
alternative approaches, such as dismantling trials, can isolate core components (e.g.,
mindfulness practice) to identify active ingredients. This scoping review aims to
comprehensively assess studies exploring pathways of change in MBPs and individual
mindfulness practices, contributing to a better understanding for program adaptation
and maximizing benefits across diverse populations.19
2.1.4 Nine Activities of Mindfulness-based Practice
This study concentrates on nine activities of mindfulness-based Practices.
1) Mindful Walking and Sitting
18 Ibid, p.473.
19 Shannon Maloney et al., “The How, Why, and for Whom Mindfulness-based
Programs and Practices Produce Change in the General Population: A Scoping Review
Protocol”, Research Square (2020): 1-2.
19
The literature and article relating to Mindful Walking and Sitting Actitivities
can be indicated that Dustin W. Davis et al. studied in the title of “The Effects of
Meditative and Mindful Walking on Mental and Cardiovascular Health” which shown
that Meditative and mindful walking represent promising, innovative approaches for
enhancing mental and cardiovascular well-being. Robust randomized controlled trials,
with minimal bias, are essential to elucidate the effectiveness of these practices
compared to conventional methods like traditional, non-mindful walking.20 And they
studied in the topic of “A Systematic Review of the Effects of Meditative and Mindful
Walking on Mental and Cardiovascular Health” which noted that Establishing the
impact of meditative and mindful walking on mental and cardiovascular health
necessitates randomized controlled trials with meticulous designs, clear protocols, and
outcome measures reflecting physical function, mental well-being, morbidity, and
mortality.21
Moreover, Marcelo Bigliassi et al researched in the title of “Effects of
mindfulness on psychological and psychophysiological responses during self-paced
walking” which noted that the brain mechanisms involved in the effects of mindful
walking on exercise seem linked to increased inter-hemispheric connectivity of high-
frequency waves between the right frontal and left temporo-parietal areas of the
cortex.22
In addition, Wei Lin et al. (2020) studied about Sitting or walking? Analysing
the neural emotional indicators of urban green space behaviour with mobile EEG. This
study aimed to investigate the emotional effects of walking versus sitting in urban green
spaces. Forty college students participated, randomly assigned to either a walking or
sitting group. Both groups engaged in an 8-minute high-pressure learning task indoors
20Dustin W. Davis et al., “The Effects of Meditative and Mindful Walking on Mental
and Cardiovascular Health”, International Journal of Exercise Science Conference
Proceedings, Vol. 14 (2021): pp. 1.
21 Dustin W. Davis et al., “A Systematic Review of the Effects of Meditative and
Mindful Walking on Mental and Cardiovascular Health”, International Journal of Exercise
Science Conference Proceedings, Vol. 15 (2022): pp. 1692.
22 Marcelo Bigliassi et al, “Effects of mindfulness on psychological and
psychophysiological responses during self-paced walking”, Psychophysiology, Vol. 57 (2020):
pp.1.
20
followed by 8 minutes of recovery activities in a simulated bamboo-lawn space.
Emotional parameters were measured using the emotive EPOG+EEG headset, focusing
on six neural emotional parameters. Analysis revealed significantly higher valence and
meditation values in the walking group compared to the sitting group. Short-term
walking in urban green spaces was found to be more effective in reducing stress, while
short-term sitting was more effective in restoring attention. These findings offer
valuable insights for urban green space planning and design, contributing to health
guidance for urban populations. Suggestions for future research include conducting
long-term experiments or secondary validation studies, implementing crossover
experiments with multiple variables, and exploring additional psychophysiological
indicators such as blood pressure and brainwave index.23
(2) Mindful Discussion: Law of Karma
For the Mindful Discussion: Law of Karma Activity, the concerned literature
are as follows:
Justin DeMaranville et al. studied in the title of Meditation and five precepts
mediate the relationship between attachment and resilience and found that this study
explores the correlation between meditation and precept practices and their impact on
attachment and flexibility among teenagers. A total of 453 participants, predominantly
female (87.9%) and Buddhist (89.2%), comprising 10th to 12th grade boarding school
students with a mean age of 16.35 ± 0.96 years, were involved. Participants completed
assessments including the Close Relationship Questionnaire (revised), Resilience
Inventory, Inner Strength-Based Inventory, and Precept Practice survey. A parallel
mediation model was employed to analyze the indirect effects of attachment and
resilience. Results revealed significant indirect effects of attachment anxiety (β = -
0.086, 95% CI = -0.125, -0.054, p < 0.001) and avoidance (β = -0.050, 95% CI = -0.088,
-0.021, p = 0.006) on resilience. Meditation practice significantly outweighed precept
23 Wei Lin et al., Sitting or walking? Analyzing the neural emotional indicators of
urban green space behavior with mobile EEG. Journal Urban Health. Vol.97 (2020): pp. 191-
203.
21
observance. In conclusion, both meditation and precept practices significantly influence
the relationship between attachment and resilience among teenagers.24
Qianguo Xiao, Chunmei Hu and Ting Wang studied about Mindfulness
practice makes moral people more moral which this research aimed to deepen our
understanding of the relationships between mindfulness, moral judgment, and prosocial
behavior, alongside various moral variables. Ninety-nine participants, all
undergraduate students enrolled in an optional 11-week mindfulness-based self-
exploration course, were recruited through the campus network system and divided into
two studies. Study 1 investigated potential connections between mindfulness, moral
sensitivity, moral identity, and prosocial behavior. Study 2 explored the impact of a
mindfulness intervention on moral identity and prosocial behavior. The results revealed
positive correlations among mindfulness, moral sensitivity, moral identity, and
prosocial behavior. Dispositional mindfulness showed significant direct and indirect
effects on prosocial tendencies. Furthermore, engaging in mindfulness practices led to
notable improvements in participants’ levels of mindfulness and self-compassion.
However, its impact on willingness toward prosocial behavior was significant primarily
for participants with already high moral identity. The anticipated relationships between
mindfulness, moral sensitivity, moral identity, and prosocial behavior were validated,
indicating that moral identity moderates the influence of mindfulness practice on the
inclination toward prosocial behavior. Consequently, further research is warranted to
unravel the underlying mechanisms and implications of this effect.25
In addition, Eid Abo Hamza et al. studied in the topic of The Relationship
between Mindfulness and Readiness to Change in Alcohol Drinkers which this study
enhances our understanding of alcohol addiction and mindfulness by providing
empirical evidence on how trait mindfulness relates to readiness to change drinking
behaviors in non-treatment seeking university students. It builds upon existing research
by delving into how different facets of mindfulness are linked to readiness to change,
24 Justin DeMaranville et al., “Meditation and five precepts mediate the relationship
between attachment and resilience”, Children, Vol. 9 No. 3 (March 2022): pp. 371.
25 Qianguo Xiao, Chunmei Hu and Ting Wang, “Mindfulness practice makes
moral people more moral”, Mindfulness, Vol. 11 (2020): pp. 2639-2650.
22
revealing that aspects like Acting with Awareness and Non-Judgmental attitudes are
associated with motivation to change drinking habits. Interestingly, facets like
Observing and Non-Reactivity may not play a significant role in motivating behavioral
change. Moreover, the study underscores the importance of considering readiness to
change when exploring the connection between mindfulness and alcohol use,
potentially influencing the development of mindfulness-based interventions for alcohol
addiction treatment. Additionally, it points out the limitations of stage models like the
Transtheoretical Model in capturing individual differences and behavior complexities,
suggesting the need for alternative models. By focusing on non-treatment seeking
university students, the study fills a gap in the literature and suggests avenues for future
research to delve deeper into the mechanisms of mindfulness in alcohol treatment
programs. Overall, it underscores the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness-
based interventions in addressing alcohol use disorders.26
(3) Mindful Bowing
In Mindful Bowing, the researcher studied the related literature and found
that Phra Nicholas Thanissaro Studied about the Buddhist bowing in the title of
‘Buddhist teen bowing to parents : straddling the border between private and public
religion’ which has the details like as Bowing to parents is a Buddhist tradition observed
within households, but its influence extends beyond the private realm into the broader
lives of young Buddhists, intersecting with societal attitudes. A recent quantitative
study aimed to explore the attitudes associated with bowing to parents among self-
identifying teenage Buddhists in the UK. Through surveys conducted via post and
online platforms, 417 individuals aged 13 to 20 provided insights. Among them, 56%
reported practicing bowing to parents. The study revealed that those who engaged in
this practice exhibited stronger attitudes in the public domain, such as a strong work
ethic, resilience against substance use, and a heightened appreciation for academic
pursuits and Religious Education. Privately, they displayed a more positive outlook
towards family dynamics and their Buddhist faith. Furthermore, the significance of
26 Eid Abo Hamza et al., The Relationship between Mindfulness and Readiness to
Change in Alcohol Drinkers, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, Vol. 20 (2023): pp. 9-11
23
bowing varied with age: in early teens, it correlated with enhanced subjective well-
being, while in late teens, it reflected acceptance of hierarchy and parental influence.
Moreover, the study highlighted differences based on religious orientation. Bowing was
associated with Asian values and a heightened sense of religiosity among convert
Buddhist teens, while heritage Buddhist teens viewed it more in terms of group identity.
Unlike their non-Buddhist counterparts, Buddhist adolescents who practiced bowing
expressed a desire to care for their parents in old age. The article argues that bowing to
parents serves a cultural role in promoting positive societal values rooted in Buddhism.
It fosters cohesion within the Buddhist community, promotes respect for authority
figures, and reinforces social hierarchies. Thus, it should be recognized as an integral
aspect of Buddhist religiosity. 27
And another research in the title of ‘Heaven starts at your parents’ feet’ :
adolescent bowing to parents and associated spiritual attitudes. This study has the
details as follows:- In a quantitative survey examining religious attitudes and practices
among a diverse sample of 369 school pupils aged 13 to 15 in London, it was found
that 22% of adolescents, representing various religious affiliations and ethnic
backgrounds, practiced bowing to parents. This practice was particularly prevalent
among Buddhists, Hindus, and individuals of Indian, African, and ‘Other Asian’
descent. The decision to bow correlated significantly with spiritual beliefs, such as a
desire to abstain from alcohol, engaging with religious narratives, finding inspiration in
religious festivals, and embracing the concept of seeing divinity in all aspects of life.
These findings suggest that bowing to parents holds religious significance across all
dimensions of Jackson’s Interpretive Approach, challenging the notion that it is merely
a cultural artifact. Understanding this practice could serve as a unifying exercise in
exploring shared values within the study of religion in diverse classrooms. Additionally,
it has the potential to foster community cohesion within certain religious groups.28
27 Phra Nicholas Thanissaro, “Buddhist teen bowing to parents : straddling the
border between private and public religion”, Usuteaduslik Ajakiri, Vol. 69 No. 1 (2016) : pp.
110-126. 28 Phra, Nicholas Thanissaro. 'Heaven starts at your parents' feet' : adolescent
bowing to parents and associated spiritual attitudes”, International Journal of Childrens
Spirituality, Vol.15 No.4 (2010) : pp.295-305.
24
(4) Mindful Eating
In the Mindful Eating activity, there are the concerned literatures as follows:
Christian Erik Preissner et al. studied in the title of “Consistency between
definitions and measurement of mindfulness in eating and physical activity behavior”
which this study aimed to scrutinize existing conceptualizations of mindfulness in the
context of health promotion, with a focus on delineating its various components. This
scoping review seeks to offer an overview of how mindfulness is utilized in health
promotion literature, highlighting divergent applications not standardized in existing
frameworks. The methodology and structure of the review followed a pre-defined
protocol registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF). Adherence to the reporting
standards outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews was maintained. The review
identified a notable discrepancy in the specificity of mindfulness definitions employed
in promoting physical activity and healthy dietary habits. Many definitions lack
precision in delineating different forms of mindfulness and overlook attitudinal
elements beyond non-judgment. Furthermore, there exists inconsistency between the
facets of mindfulness as defined and those measured in empirical studies. To address
these gaps, the paper suggests that health promotion initiatives adopt a formative
mindfulness framework. This entails establishing explicit operational definitions for
different types and facets of mindfulness, while ensuring alignment between
measurement instruments and the chosen framework. Such an approach holds promise
for fostering more meaningful and standardized investigations into the relationship
between mindfulness and health-related behaviors among diverse populations in future
research endeavors.29
And Efstratios Christodoulou, fostering resilience and wellness researched
about the synergy of mindful eating and the Mediterranean lifestyle and found that the
aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between mindful eating, adherence
to the Mediterranean lifestyle, psychological resilience, and maintenance of a healthy
29 Christian Erik Preissner et al., “Consistency between definitions and measurement
of mindfulness in eating and physical activity behavior: a scoping review”, Health Psychology
Review, (February 2024): pp.1-25.
25
weight. Participants were recruited from Greek social media platforms. The results
indicated significant correlations between mindful eating, adherence to the
Mediterranean diet, and psychological resilience. Those with a normal Body Mass
Index (BMI) demonstrated stronger adherence to both mindful eating and the
Mediterranean lifestyle. Furthermore, individuals classified in the overweight and
obesity BMI categories who maintained weight loss after a diet exhibited higher
mindful eating scores compared to those with lower scores. The study suggests that
finding meaning in life may serve as a connecting factor between mindful eating, the
Mediterranean lifestyle, and psychological resilience, potentially facilitating weight
loss maintenance on a reduction diet. The positive findings of this study underscore the
importance of considering meaning in life in the context of mindful eating and
Mediterranean lifestyle adherence for maintaining a healthy weight. Future research
endeavors could benefit from incorporating randomized controlled trials to delve
deeper into these relationships.30
(5) Mindful Walking with Dhamma Songs
For the Mindful Walking with Dhamma Songs, Samta P. Pandya (2024)
studied the research in the title namely “Older Adults, Well-Being, and Affect: Music
Sessions Vis-à-Vis Music-With-Meditation Sessions and found that This study delves
into the effects of music sessions versus music-with-meditation sessions on the well-
being and emotional balance of older adults. Over a span of six months, participants
engaged in music-with-meditation sessions experienced notable enhancements in
various aspects, including affect balance, psychological resilience, and overall life
satisfaction. These improvements were particularly pronounced among female
participants, individuals with higher levels of education (college or postgraduate
degrees), retirees or homemakers, those currently married or widowed, and older adults
living with spouses and family members, including adult children, or solely with adult
children. Consistent attendance at the music-with-meditation sessions and completion
of associated homework emerged as strong indicators of improved well-being and
emotional balance among older adults. The integration of meditation into music
30 Efstratios Christodoulou, Fostering resilience and wellness: The synergy of
mindful eating and the Mediterranean lifestyle. Applied biosciences, (2024): pp. 59-70.
26
interventions proved effective in reinforcing psychological resources in this
demographic. However, it’s evident that tailored adjustments may be necessary to
optimize the program’s effectiveness for male participants, individuals with lower
educational attainment or professional degrees, those currently employed or self-
employed, never married or divorced/separated older adults, and those residing with
other family members, alone, or in institutional/assisted living settings.31
Moreover, Faulkner Maria et al. studied in the title of The Physiological
Effects of a Walking to Music Intervention in Adults with Intermediate Hyperglycemia
and found that overweight individuals are susceptible to intermediate hyperglycemia
(IHG), elevating the risk of glucometabolic and cardiovascular (CV) complications.
This study examines the efficacy of a 6-month walking to music program in enhancing
moderate-intensity physical activity (PA) and regulating glucometabolic disturbances.
Participants were randomized into either the intervention group (IG) or usual care (UC).
Physiological assessments, including DEXA scans, flow-mediated dilatation (FMD),
and glucometabolic biomarkers, were conducted at baseline, 4, 6, and 9 months. Results
indicate that while walking compliance in the IG decreased over time, a substantial
portion of walking sessions maintained moderate intensity (71.4% at 4 months, 79.5%
at 6 months, and 73% at 9 months). At the 6-month mark, IG exhibited significantly
improved FMD compared to UC, along with a 5% reduction in HbA1C levels.
However, no significant alterations were observed in other physiological markers. In
conclusion, walking to music shows promise in promoting moderate-intensity PA, yet
it did not demonstrate superior efficacy over UC in managing glucometabolic and CV
biomarkers in IHG. Future interventions may benefit from additional support
throughout the study duration, albeit with associated cost implications.32
Sajjad Muhammad et al. studied in the topic of “Meditation music improved
the quality of suturing in an experimental bypass procedure” and noted that The pilot
31 Samta P. Pandya, Older Adults, “Well-Being, and Affect: Music Sessions Vis-
à-Vis Music-With-Meditation Sessions”, Activities, Adaptation & Aging, Vol. 48 No. 2
(2024): pp. 257–288.
32 Faulkner Maria et al., “The Physiological Effects of a Walking to Music
Intervention in Adults with Intermediate Hyperglycemia”, Open Journal of Endocrine and
Metabolic Diseases, Vol.11 No.1 (2021): pp. 43-61.
27
study investigating the impact of meditation music, specifically delta wave meditation
music, on neurosurgeons operating in noisy environments demonstrated promising
results. The main experiment, involving two neurosurgeons with varying levels of
experience, revealed significant improvements in several key metrics when meditating
music was employed during bypass surgeries compared to operating room (OR) noise.
Firstly, the study found a significant reduction in the number of unachieved movements
(N.U.Ms) during suturing tasks when meditation music was utilized. Both novice and
experienced surgeons experienced a marked decrease in N.U.Ms, indicating improved
focus and precision during the surgical procedure. Furthermore, while the total time
taken to complete the suturing task showed only marginal improvement in the novice
surgeon and remained unchanged in the experienced surgeon, the length of thread
consumed for the same number of stitches was significantly reduced with meditation
music in both groups. This suggests greater efficiency and potentially more economical
use of surgical materials when operating in a calmer environment facilitated by
meditation music. Additionally, although the distribution of stitches did not reach
statistical significance, there was a trend towards a more uniform distribution with
meditation music. This implies improved consistency and possibly enhanced surgical
technique under the influence of calming music. Overall, the findings support the notion
that meditation music, tailored to the preferences of individual surgeons, offers a simple
yet effective method for enhancing the quality of surgical performance, particularly in
environments characterized by high levels of noise-induced stress. Further research
with larger sample sizes and diverse surgical procedures may validate and expand upon
these initial observations, ultimately promoting the integration of music-based
interventions as part of comprehensive strategies to optimize surgical outcomes and
surgeon well-being.33
(6) Mindful Discussion: Parent/Family Appreciation
For the Mindful Discussion: Parent/Family Appreciation Activity, Chau-kiu
Cheung and Jerf W. K. Yeung studied in the title of Parental Gratitude and Adolescent
Anomie and Hope and found that the idea that parental gratitude positively influences
33 Sajjad Muhammad et al., “Meditation music improved the quality of suturing in
an experimental bypass procedure”, Acta Neurochir, Vol. 161, (2019): pp.1515–1521.
28
adolescent hope aligns with social integration theory, although it lacks empirical
confirmation. According to this theory, parental gratitude fosters a supportive social
environment that nurtures adolescent hope. Additionally, the theory suggests that
adolescent anomie, characterized by a lack of social norms, acts as a mediator in this
relationship. To investigate these concepts, a study was conducted involving 310 pairs
of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents and their parents. Each adolescent reported their
levels of hope and anomie, while each parent reported their feelings of gratitude. The
results supported the theory, showing that parental gratitude contributes to adolescent
hope through the mediation of adolescent anomie. Specifically, parental gratitude was
negatively associated with adolescent anomie, which in turn negatively influenced
adolescent hope. These findings underscore the importance of promoting parental
gratitude and broader social integration to maintain adolescent hope.34
Moreover, Andrea M. Hussong et al. study, Parents’ Responses to Children’s
Ingratitude, is concerned with children’s gratitude and internalizing three years later.
This study marks the first exploration into how parents react to their children’s
ingratitude and how these reactions influence the children’s subsequent gratitude levels
and internalizing symptoms. We specifically targeted families with children aged 6–9
years, a critical period where gratitude is believed to be developing alongside
socioemotional learning and behaviors focused on others. A total of 101 parent-child
pairs participated in lab-based assessments at the beginning of the study and again three
years later. The sample included 52% females, with the majority being of European
American descent (81%), followed by Asian/Asian American (9%), African American
(5%), and Latino (4%) backgrounds. Our findings reveal that we can effectively
measure and distinguish six distinct parental responses to children’s ingratitude: self-
blame, distress, punishment, instruction, let-it-be, and give-in, utilizing a novel
scenario-based assessment tool. Furthermore, parents of older children reported more
self-blame, distress, and let-it-be responses compared to those with younger children.
We discovered that more frequent expressions of distress by parents, coupled with less
34 Chau-kiu Cheung and Jerf W. K. Yeung, “Parental Gratitude and Adolescent
Anomie and Hope”, Journal of Child and Family studies (Springer US) Vol. 29 No. 3
(2020): pp. 738-746.
29
frequent punishing and giving-in responses to ingratitude, predicted higher levels of
parent-reported child gratitude at the follow-up assessment. Similarly, more frequent
distress and fewer instruction and giving-in responses predicted greater child-reported
gratitude later on. Interestingly, punishing responses from parents were associated with
increased internalizing symptoms in children, whereas self-blame and distress
responses were linked to fewer subsequent symptoms. These results underline the
significant impact of parental reactions to children’s ingratitude on both their gratitude
levels and internalizing symptoms three years later, even after considering other factors
within the parental environment. 35
(7) Loving-kindness Meditation
In Loving-kindness Meditation Activity, Susan Sorensen et al. studied the
research namely Comparing the Effects of Loving-Kindness Meditation (LKM), Music
and LKM Plus Music on Psychological Well-Being and found that Loving-kindness
meditation (LKM) is gaining popularity as a method to cultivate kindness towards
oneself and others, with numerous studies supporting its positive impact on well-being.
Additionally, listening to music is recognized as another effective way to enhance
emotional control and overall well-being. Combining these practices, known as
Convergence, involves the simultaneous use of LKM and classical guitar music.
Research suggests that this approach benefits adults by improving well-being,
mindfulness, compassion, and self-compassion. Studies comparing Convergence with
control groups practicing LKM-only or Music-only have demonstrated significant
positive outcomes in kindness and overall well-being. Participants in these studies, aged
18-69, with a predominantly female demographic, engaged in Convergence workshops
lasting two hours. These workshops included psychoeducation, pre-recorded
meditations, and group discussions. Evaluations were conducted before the study,
immediately after, and at a four-week follow-up. Results indicate that Convergence,
LKM-only, and Music-only conditions were equally effective in enhancing well-being
and LKM practice, despite the small group size not being a primary focus of the study.
35 Andrea M Hussong et al., “Parents' responses to children's ingratitude are
associated with children's gratitude and internalizing 3 years later”, Journal of Family
Psychology, Vol. 36 No.1 (2022): pp.80-91.
30
Furthermore, there was a correlation between the amount of home practice and
improvements in mindfulness and self-compassion at the follow-up assessment. The
findings suggest that LKM, music listening, and Convergence offer viable alternatives
for promoting well-being, though further research is recommended to better understand
their potential benefits.36
Christina Totzeck et al. studied in the title of Loving-Kindness Meditation
Promotes Mental Health in University Students and noted that the rising prevalence of
stress, depression, and anxiety disorders among university students in the USA and
globally underscores the urgent need to address mental health issues on campus. Loving
Kindness Meditation (LKM) has emerged as a promising method to alleviate these
concerns, particularly among university students, with numerous studies demonstrating
its effectiveness in fostering positive emotions. This study draws upon data collected
from participants enrolled in the Bochum Optimism and Mental Health (BOOM)
program at a university. A total of 110 participants, aged 19 to 30 years, were divided
into two groups: a sample group of 40 participants who completed the program and a
control group of 55 participants matched for age. The control group did not engage in
any meditation practice. The sample group participated in sessions comprising a 15–
25-minute group meditation, followed by a 20-minute check-in on their progress and
discussions on integrating the practice into their daily lives. Participants were required
to meditate at least five days per week, gradually increasing from 15 to 25 minutes per
session. Over the course of several weeks, they focused on cultivating loving-kindness
towards themselves, their loved ones, acquaintances, strangers, and ultimately, all
beings. Various measures were employed to assess short and long-term effects on
mental health, including the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21), Positive
Mental Health Scale (PMH), and Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS), with data analyzed
using SPSS. The results indicate significant short-term improvements in anxiety and
positive mental health among participants practicing LKM. Long-term analyses
revealed reductions in depression and stress levels among LKM practitioners,
36 Susan Sorensen et al., “Comparing the Effects of Loving-Kindness Meditation
(LKM), Music and LKM Plus Music on Psychological Well-Being”, The Journal of
psychology, Vol. 153 No. 3 (2019): pp.267-287.
31
contrasting with increases observed in anxiety, depression, and stress among the control
group. These findings underscore the beneficial impact of Loving-Kindness Meditation
on the mental well-being of university students.37
According to the World Health Organization, among individuals aged 15–
29, annually there are over 700,000 suicide cases. This suggests that college students
are particularly at risk. Chao Liu et al. conducted influential research concentrating on
college students in China, which was published as “The Effects of Short Video App-
guided Loving-kindness Meditation on College Students’ Mindfulness, Self-
compassion, Positive Psychological Capital, and Suicide Ideation”. Chao Liu et al.
recruited initially a total of 80 Chinese College students, but only 74 participants were
eligible for the study. They were divided into two groups, each comprising 37
participants: the app use group and the control group. The app group underwent an 8-
week intervention using the app, while the control group did not receive any
intervention. Four factors—mindfulness, self-compassion, positive psychological
capital, and suicide ideation—were measured before and after the app use. The results
indicated that cultivating a compassionate attitude through LKM led to increased self-
acceptance, social support, and better management of negative emotions. Reduction in
suicidal ideation was associated with improvements in positive psychological capital,
including hope, optimism, self-efficacy, and resilience. Optimism and self-assurance
were found to mitigate negative emotions, emotional distress, and the risk of suicidal
ideation. The research demonstrated significant increases in self-compassion and
positive psychological capital, along with a substantial reduction in suicidal ideation,
with the aid of the short video app-guided Loving-Kindness Meditation (LKM).38
Janet Granville studied in the title of Using Kindness as an Intervention for
Mental Health and Well-Being which this research indicates the profound impact of
kindness on mental health and well-being. Utilizing kindness interview questions and
a Theoretical/Conceptual Framework, this study engaged participants from two
37 Christina Totzeck et al., “Loving-Kindness Meditation Promotes Mental Health
in University Students”, Springer Link, Vol.11 (2020): pp.1623-1631.
38 Chao Liu et al., “The effects of short video app-guided loving-kindness
meditation on college students’ mindfulness, self-compassion, positive psychological
capital, and suicide ideation”, Psychology: Research and Review, 2023.
32
churches in the USA, ranging from 18 to 60 years old, and was completed within a span
of two months. Findings suggest a significant correlation between kindness and well-
being, with acts of kindness fostering happiness and positive relationships. This, in turn,
leads to enhanced workplace satisfaction, improved performance, and overall life
contentment, encompassing both internal and external happiness. Resilience emerges
as a key component of kindness, representing a cultivated and fortified attribute.
Kindness, both towards oneself and others, contributes to resilience, manifesting
through acts of generosity, care, and assistance. Notably, the study highlights the
potential for kindness to elevate resilience, thereby enhancing well-being. Moreover,
research on Loving-Kindness Meditation (LKM) reveals promising outcomes in
alleviating symptoms of schizophrenia, as evidenced by a meta-analysis of 23
randomized controlled trials involving 1,268 participants. Cognitive Behavioural
Therapy (CBT) for psychosis has also demonstrated efficacy in reducing negative
symptoms. Additionally, studies on LKM suggest that practices involving touch and
compassion may mitigate illness severity, depression, and social anxiety among
patients, with applications extending to psychotherapy settings. The study underscores
the role of kindness in promoting mental health and overall well-being. Its robust
research design incorporated five questions and self-reports from participants,
examining perspectives on kindness across diverse backgrounds and environments
through Zoom sessions.39
(8) Asking for Forgiveness
“Take a Moment to Apologize: How and Why Mindfulness Affects
Apologies” was the theme of research that Sana Rizvi, et al. conducted to examine the
act of asking for forgiveness. American researchers conducted four studies to explore
the relationship between mindfulness and the act of apologizing:
(i) The first study aimed at investigating how a person’s level of mindfulness
(trait mindfulness) relates to their tendency to apologize.
39 Janet Granville, “Using Kindness as an Intervention for Mental Health and
Well-Being”, Doctor of Applied Clinical Psychology Dissertation, (The Chicago School of
Professional Psychology, USA, 2022, pp. 63-64
33
(ii) The second study focused on determining whether there is a causal link
between being mindful in the moment (state mindfulness) and apologizing after
committing a transgression in a controlled laboratory setting.
(iii) In the third study, researchers aimed to validate their findings by utilizing
online technology to induce mindfulness in participants after they recalled a
transgression they had committed.
(iv) The fourth study delved into understanding how mindfulness influences
the process of apologizing by examining the role of reduced negative emotions and
increased positive emotions in mediating this relationship.
Overall, this research sheds light on the role of mindfulness in promoting
sincere apologies and preventing non-apologies. It highlights the importance of
understanding the offender’s perspective in the apology process, moving away from a
solely victim-centric approach. By emphasizing the offender’s responsibility in the
repair process, the study advocates for mutual compromise and understanding. 40
Moreover, Katelyn N.G. Long et al. studied the research namely Forgiveness
of others and subsequent health and well-being in mid-life: a longitudinal study on
female nurses and found that the research published in BMC Psychology indicates a
positive correlation between forgiveness and enhanced psychosocial well-being. The
study reveals that forgiveness is linked to increased positive emotions, better social
integration, and reduced psychological distress. However, the research did not find a
significant association between forgiveness and health behaviors or physical health
outcomes in the examined sample. Further exploration is necessary to understand its
impact on physical health. The study investigated the relationship between spiritually
motivated forgiveness and various psychosocial, mental health, health behavior, and
physical health outcomes among female nurses aged 43 to 64. Data from the Nurses’
Health Study II in the United States were analyzed using longitudinal methods,
controlling for sociodemographic factors. The implications of this research suggest that
forgiveness could be viewed as a form of love in itself. In times marked by global crises,
40 Sana Rizvi et al., “Take a Moment to Apologize: How and Why Mindfulness
Affects Apologies”, American Psychological Association, (2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/
xap0000387> , 3 March 2024.
34
division, inequality, and uncertainty, fostering forgiveness may contribute to our
collective mental and social well-being.41
And Khurram Shahzad and Muhammad Qaiser Shafi conducted a study in
the topic of ‘Impact of Sense of Belonging on Forgiveness and Gratitude among
Muslim Students Mediating Role of Collectivism and Moderating Role of Religiosity’
in order to explore the connections between a sense of belongingness, forgiveness, and
gratitude among Muslim students, with a particular focus on the role of collectivistic
orientation as a mediator. The study analyzed data from 13,023 students across 15
countries with predominantly Muslim populations. The findings revealed a positive
correlation between a sense of belongingness and both forgiveness and gratitude, with
collectivism playing a mediating role. However, the study did not find evidence
supporting the moderating influence of religiosity on the relationship between a sense
of belongingness and collectivism among students. The study suggests practical
implications such as the implementation of formal systems, like a buddy mentor
program, to facilitate a sense of belongingness and foster collectivism, forgiveness, and
gratitude among students.42
Agata Kasprzak, Pilar Martinez-Diaz and Clara Molinero Caparros studied
the research in title of ‘Interpersonal forgiveness: validation of the Enright Forgiveness
Inventory (EFI-30) in a Spanish sample’ by undertooking a study to adapt the Enright
Forgiveness Inventory (EFI-30), a questionnaire based on a well-established theoretical
model in the field of forgiveness. Their goal was to make it applicable for research and
clinical purposes in Spain. The study focused on assessing the psychometric properties
of the adapted EFI-30 using a sample of 426 undergraduate and graduate students aged
between 18 and 30 years. Participants completed the adapted EFI-30 along with other
relevant measures. The findings of the study indicate that the adapted EFI-30 is a
41 Katelyn N.G. Long et al., “Forgiveness of others and subsequent health and well-
being in mid-life: a longitudinal study on female nurses”, BMC Psychology, (2020): pp.1-2
42 Khurram Shahzad and Muhammad Qaiser Shafi, “Impact of Sense of Belonging
on Forgiveness and Gratitude among Muslim Students Mediating Role of Collectivism and
Moderating Role of Religiosity”, Journal of Education in Muslim Societies, Vol. 5 No. 1
(2023): pp. 1-3.
35
suitable instrument for evaluating interpersonal forgiveness among Spanish university
students. This suggests its potential utility for both future research endeavors and
clinical interventions aimed at understanding and promoting forgiveness within the
Spanish context.43
Alexis D. Abernethy et al. studied the research of Perceptions of Divine Forgiveness,
Religious Comfort, and Depression in Psychiatric Inpatients: A Mixed Methods Study as a
clinical study conducted across various psychology departments in the United States
investigated the correlation between forgiveness, religious comfort (RC), religious
strain (RS), and changes in depressive symptoms among 248 adult psychiatric
inpatients enrolled in a Christian-based psychiatric inpatient program. The findings
indicated a direct link between experiencing divine forgiveness and self-forgiveness
with RC, while inversely related to RS. Moreover, qualitative insights underscored
patients’ shifting perspectives on the benefits of forgiveness during their
hospitalization. The outcomes underscore the significance of divine forgiveness in
mitigating depression severity and amplifying divine comfort throughout treatment.
Recognizing these dynamics could enhance integrated treatment methods incorporating
spirituality and foster culturally sensitive care, underscoring the importance of
evaluating forgiveness towards oneself and others.44
Sadaf Akhtara, Alan Dolan and Jane Barlow studied the research of
‘Understanding the Relationship Between State Forgiveness and Psychological
Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study’ and found that the researchers at the University of
Warwick, United Kingdom, conducted a study to explore the correlation between
perceptions of forgiveness and various mental well-being outcomes. Using in-depth
semi-structured interviews, they engaged 11 adults from England and Ireland,
representing religious/spiritual and secular/atheist backgrounds. The study revealed
that unforgiveness had adverse effects on mental health, such as heightened negative
43 Agata et al., “Interpersonal forgiveness: validation of the Enright Forgiveness
Inventory (EFI-30) in a Spanish sample”. Anales de Psicologia, Vol. 39 No.3 (2023): pp. 364-
373. 44Agata Kasprzak, Pilar Martinez-Diaz and Clara Molinero Caparros,
“Interpersonal forgiveness: validation of the Enright Forgiveness Inventory (EFI-30) in a
Spanish sample”, Anales de Psicologia, Vol. 39 No.3 (2023): pp.364-373.
.
36
emotions and hindrances to personal growth. Conversely, forgiveness was associated
with positive mental well-being indicators, including decreased negative emotions,
enhanced positive feelings, improved relationships, spiritual development, and a sense
of purpose. Several factors influenced these perceptions, including similarity to
offenders, personal beliefs regarding responsibility and karma, desire for apologies, and
engagement in spiritual practices like meditation and prayer. The findings suggest that
forgiveness of interpersonal grievances may significantly impact psychological well-
being, particularly among religious/spiritual individuals. The study underscores the
importance of recognizing diverse perspectives on psychological health among
participants. Therapists may need to tailor interventions to accommodate clients’ beliefs
and practices, facilitating their journey toward overcoming interpersonal wounds and
achieving forgiveness.45
Jichan J. Kim, Erika S. Payne, and Eunjin Lee Tracy conducted a study of
‘Indirect Effects of Forgiveness on Psychological Health Through Anger and Hope: A
Parallel Mediation Analysis’ by aiming to explore the mediating roles of anger and hope
in the connection between forgiveness and psychological well-being. Their research
involved 202 college students from a non-profit university, who completed self-report
assessments measuring forgiveness, anger, anxiety, depression, hope, and self-esteem.
Additionally, a parallel mediation analysis was employed to investigate how anger and
hope mediate the relationship between forgiveness and psychological well-being. The
findings supported the notion of an indirect effect, indicating that forgiveness impacts
psychological well-being through both anger and hope. The process of forgiveness may
lead individuals to experience reduced anger, subsequently fostering feelings of hope
and other positive outcomes. Conversely, some individuals may first experience a
restoration of hope, leading to diminished anger and subsequent improvements in
psychological well-being.46
45 Alexis D Abernethy et al., “Perceptions of Divine Forgiveness, Religious
Comfort, and Depression in Psychiatric Inpatients: A Mixed Methods Study”, Journal of
religion and health, Vol. 61 No.5 (2022): pp.3710-3728.
46 Sadaf Akhtara, Alan Dolan and Jane Barlow, “Understanding the Relationship
Between State Forgiveness and Psychological Wellbeing: A Qualitative Study”, Journal of
Religion and Health, Vol. 56 (2017): pp. 450-463.
37
Anne Haikola’s (2023) recent study conducted in Finland focused on
examining the emotional journey of forgiveness and how narratives express it. Using
McAdams’s life story interview method, 22 Finnish adults shared their personal
experiences of forgiveness. The analysis revealed two main themes: empowerment and
pain, each with five subthemes that illuminated various aspects of the forgiveness
process. These included forgiveness as a form of liberation, relief from burdens, the
release of pent-up energy, forgiveness through vulnerability, and forgiveness despite
harboring feelings of hate. The findings underscore forgiveness as a complex process
that encompasses emotional, sensory, and embodied dimensions. While some
participants experienced forgiveness relatively quickly, for most, it was a gradual
process. Interestingly, the study suggests that unforgiveness and forgiveness may not
always be distinct processes; instead, they can sometimes overlap and occur
simultaneously.47
Justyna Mroz and Kinga Kaleta studied in the topic of ‘Forgive, Let Go, and
Stay Well! The Relationship between Forgiveness and Physical and Mental Health in Women
and Men: The Mediating Role of Self-Consciousness’ which the details as follows:-
A team of researchers from the University of Kielce in Poland conducted a study to
investigate whether self-consciousness plays a mediating role in the relationship
between dispositional forgiveness and the health outcomes of Polish adults. Using the
Heartland Forgiveness Scale and the Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire, they
examined how forgiveness, self-consciousness, and health are interconnected. The
study discovered that self-consciousness acted as a mediator between positive
forgiveness and mental health, as well as between reduced unforgiveness and physical
health. Moreover, both rumination and reflection played mediating roles between
reduced unforgiveness and mental health, as well as forgiveness and physical health.
Interestingly, the mediation of rumination was more frequently observed among female
participants. However, the study acknowledged limitations regarding generalizability
due to its exclusive focus on Poland. Future research endeavors should aim to
47 Jichan J. Kim, Erika S. Payne and Eunjin Lee Tracy, “Indirect Effects of
Forgiveness on Psychological Health Through Anger and Hope: A Parallel Mediation
Analysis”, Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 61 No. (2022): pp. 3729–3746.
38
encompass diverse cultural contexts and include participants from various countries to
gain a more comprehensive understanding of the interplay between forgiveness, self-
consciousness, and health across different populations.48
Juan Pablo Pizarro-Ruiz et al. studied re Influence on Forgiveness, Character
Strengths and Satisfaction with Life of a Short Mindfulness Intervention via a Spanish
Smartphone Application and noted that during the Covid-19 pandemic quarantine in
Spain, a research initiative aimed to assess the impact of a mindfulness-based
intervention (MBI) delivered through a smartphone application named “Aire Fresco”
(Fresh Air) on various factors influencing job performance. The study involved 164
Spanish participants who were assessed both before and after a 14-day intervention
period, with participants divided into control and experimental groups. Results revealed
a significant positive effect of the intervention on the evaluated variables, including an
increase in mindfulness trait, reduction in negative affect, and enhancement in life
satisfaction and forgiveness, among others. This study marks a significant contribution
as it potentially represents the first demonstration of the effectiveness of a brief
mindfulness intervention conducted via a smartphone application in the Spanish
context. The findings suggest that organizations could potentially benefit from
implementing similar interventions to foster employees’ work-related well-being and
improve job performance. 49
(9) Mindful Listening: Dhamma Talk
Mindful listening, stemming from mindfulness practices often linked with
Buddhist teachings, profoundly enriches one’s capacity to engage with and comprehend
spoken material, such as a Dhamma talk. Studies suggest that mindful listening entails
complete presence and attentiveness to the speaker, potentially resulting in enhanced
48 Anne Haikola, “I Felt Like I Wanted to Hug the Whole World: Forgiveness as
an Embodied Emotional Narrative Process”, Springer Link, (2023)
<https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42087-023-00390-2> , 4 March 2024].
49 Justyna Mroz and Kinga Kaleta, “Forgive, Let Go, and Stay Well! The
Relationship between Forgiveness and Physical and Mental Health in Women and Men: The
Mediating Role of Self-Consciousness”, International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health, Vol. 20 No. 13 (2023): pp. 6229.
39
cognitive and emotional benefits. For example, research indicates that mindful listening
can heighten sensitivity and enjoyment when listening to music, implying similar
advantages may arise from engaging in a Dhamma talk.50 This practice fosters
receptivity to new experiences, attentiveness to nuances, and awareness of diverse
contexts, all crucial for understanding the subtle teachings presented in a Dhamma
talk.51 Moreover, mindful listening has the potential to decrease reliance on
pharmaceutical treatments in psychiatric settings by fostering a calming influence,
which could be advantageous for sustaining concentration and serenity during a
Dhamma talk.52 This approach adheres to the principles of mindful awareness, proven
to mitigate the detrimental impacts of wandering thoughts and uplift mood, thereby
enriching the overall listening experience during a Dhamma talk.53
2.2 Concepts and theories of Multicultural
The researcher searched the information of the concepts and theories of
multicultural as the following information: -
2.2.1 Definition of Multicultural
For this field research on mindfulness for multicultural practitioners,
concepts and theories of multicultural that circulate in academy are extremely important
and relevant. Thus, in this chapter, we begin with some relevant definitions of
multicultural. The prevalence of several definitions of ‘multicultural’ reflect the very
50 Juan Pablo Pizarro-Ruiz et al., “Influence on Forgiveness, Character Strengths
and Satisfaction with Life of a Short Mindfulness Intervention via a Spanish Smartphone
Application”, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol.
18 No. 2 (2021): pp. 802.
51 Trevor Scudamore et al., “Mindful Melody: feasibility of implementing music
listening on an inpatient psychiatric unit and its relation to the use of as needed medications for
acute agitation”, BMC Psychiatry, Vol. 21 No. 1 (2021): pp 132.
52 Orion Taraban et al., “The Effects of a Mindful Listening Task on Mind-
Wandering”, Mindfulness, Vol. 8 No. 2 (2017): pp. 433-443.
53Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (Springfield, MA: Merriam-
Webster, 2003),<https://www.merriam-webster.com/> , 5 May 2024.
40
existence of distinct cultural or ethnic groups within any given society.54 We can also
maintain that a society or organization often comprises and/or recognizes the existence
of multiple cultures.55
A related term, “multicultural education”, UNESCO has defined in following
terms: “Multicultural education is a transformative approach to education that aims to
empower learners to critically examine and challenge the dominant cultural narratives
and perspectives that shape their understanding of the world. It seeks to create a more
just and equitable society by promoting respect and appreciation for diversity”
(UNESCO, 2009).
The concept of multiculturalism encompasses individuals with diverse
backgrounds and experiences, and various definitions exist, ranging from demographic
characteristics to psychological perspectives. Broadly speaking, multicultural
individuals include those who are mixed-race, mixed-ethnic, have lived in multiple
countries (e.g., expatriates, international students, immigrants, refugees), those reared
in additional cultures, and individuals in intercultural relationships (Berry, 2003;
Padilla, 2006). In the United States, this may encompass foreign-born individuals
(13%), nonwhite individuals (34%), and those who speak a language other than English
at home (20%) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2006). Similarly, high numbers of multicultural
individuals can be found in other nations with strong migration or colonization
histories. Psychologically, multiculturalism is loosely defined as the experience of
being exposed to and internalizing two or more cultures (Hong et al., 2000; Nguyen &
Benet-Martínez, 2007). Multicultural individuals exhibit multicultural competence,
displaying behaviors such as language use, choice of friends, media preferences, and
values representative of multiple cultures (LaFromboise et al., 1993). They may also
self-label as multicultural or engage in group self-categorization reflecting cultural
pluralism. Multicultural identity involves attachments and loyalties to different cultures
(Benet-Martínez & Haritatos, 2005). Additionally, multicultural individuals may report
54 Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed., (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), <
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/>, 5 May 2024.
55 Verónica Benet-Martínez, “Multiculturalism: Cultural, Social, and
PersonalityProcesses”, ResearchGate, (2021): pp. 3-4.
41
acculturation attitudes supporting integration or biculturalism strategies (Berry,
2003).56
In a recent noteworthy “cross-cultural” development, brain activity studies
utilizing EEG, fMRI, and PET scans have focused on the induction of specific
meditative states and positive emotions, such as compassion and devotion. The research
involves a highly skilled, long-term monastic practitioner, a Western Lama in the
Tibetan tradition holding a doctorate in molecular biology. In a departure from
traditional approaches, this practitioner has not only served as the subject but has
actively collaborated in designing and interpreting the investigations alongside
scientific counterparts. Leveraging the practitioner’s advanced ability to articulate
precise accounts of mental activities during various practices, these studies have
unveiled stable patterns of brain activity, referred to as “neural signatures of different
mental states.” Notably, these patterns have never been observed in novice subjects and
can be intentionally reproduced by the practitioner, contingent on their choice of
meditative practice.57
2.2.2 The Concept and Theories of Multicultural
The concept of multicultural can be classified as the following items: -
(i) Multiculturalism as a Policy
Multiculturalism as a policy seeks to address the diverse normative
challenges arising from cultural diversity. Its primary objectives include addressing
issues such as ethnic conflict, internal illiberalism, and the need for federal autonomy
in culturally diverse societies. Additionally, multicultural policies strive to provide the
necessary means for individuals to pursue and preserve their cultural differences. This
stands in contrast to assimilation, as multiculturalism emphasizes the recognition,
allowance, and even celebration of the unique identities and traditions of various
56 Jon Kabat-Zinn, “Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Context: Past, Present,
and Future”, Wiley Online Library, Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, Vol. 10 No.
2 (2006): pp. 144-156.
57Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Multiculturalism, <
https://iep.utm.edu/multicul/>, 2 December, 2023.
42
cultural groups within a society. By fostering an inclusive approach, multicultural
policies aim to create a harmonious coexistence that values and respects the richness of
cultural diversity.58
(ii) Multicultural Citizenship
Proponents of multicultural citizenship, including philosophers such as
Charles Taylor, Will Kymlicka, and Ayelet Shachar, share common principles in their
philosophical framework. Firstly, they emphasize the state’s responsibility in
safeguarding the fundamental legal, civil, and political rights of its citizens. Second,
they argue for the active involvement of the state in shaping societal cultural character,
advocating for laws and policies that preserve and protect diverse cultures. Third, these
philosophers assert that cultural norms play a normative role in society. Consequently,
the fourth common feature is the belief that individuals’ profound interest in their
cultures warrants state support. Finally, the fifth point underscores the advocacy for
difference-sensitive or multicultural citizenship policies to ensure the protection of
cultural diversity within the broader societal framework. Overall, these shared
principles form the foundation of a philosophical stance that seeks to reconcile cultural
diversity with the principles of citizenship and the role of the state.59
(a) Taylor’s Politics of Recognition
Charles Taylor’s exploration of recognition underscores the significance of
respecting and preserving individual identities, particularly in the public realm. His
rejection of procedural liberalism in favor of a non-procedural approach emphasizes the
importance of cultural diversity and the need for public policies that accommodate and
protect different communities. Taylor argues for a form of decentralization, particularly
in the Canadian context, through federalism, allowing communities like Quebec to have
self-government rights over certain policies. The emphasis on cultural protection,
however, is constrained by Taylor’s commitment to fundamental rights such as life,
liberty, due process, free speech, and free practice of religion. Therefore, Taylor’s
58 Loc. cit.
59Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Multiculturalism,
<https://iep.utm.edu/multicul/> , 2 December, 2023.
43
nuanced perspective advocates for a delicate balance between promoting difference and
upholding core rights within the context of diverse societies (Taylor, 1994b).60
(b) Kymlicka’s Multicultural Liberalism
Kymlicka argues that group rights, particularly for national minorities, are
justified within a liberal framework. He contends that protecting societal cultures is
crucial for individual autonomy and freedom. Additionally, group rights address
inequalities resulting from state involvement in shaping culture, ensuring fair treatment
for diverse groups. Kymlicka also emphasizes the enrichment of society through the
promotion of cultural variety. Lastly, he advocates for the respect of historical
agreements as a means of treating individuals from different cultures with equal respect.
Overall, Kymlicka sees group rights as essential for upholding liberal values of freedom
and equality in culturally diverse societies.61
(c) Shachar’s Transformative Accommodation
Ayelet Shachar’s model of transformative accommodation is grounded in
four key assumptions about the multiplicity of identities, the normative and legal
interests of both the state and groups, their mutual impact on each other, and their shared
interest in supporting their members. Building on these assumptions, three core
principles of sub-matter allocation of authority, no monopoly, and clearly delineated
options shape Shachar’s vision for a joint governance model. The sub-matter allocation
of authority principle challenges the idea that contested social arenas are indivisible,
suggesting that they can be divided into complementary sub-matters. This allows for
independent decisions on specific issues within each area of law, promoting flexibility
and adaptability. The no monopoly rule advocates for a division of jurisdictional powers
between the state and the group, rejecting absolute control by either party. Instead,
Shachar proposes a cooperative relationship where each entity holds power over
different sub-matters, fostering interdependence in legal decision-making. The
definition of clearly delineated options emphasizes individual choice, allowing people
60 Loc. cit.
61Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Multiculturalism, <
https://iep.utm.edu/multicul/>, 2 December, 2023.
44
to decide whether to abide by state or group jurisdiction. Predefined reversal points
provide exit options, creating a framework for individuals to navigate their affiliations
based on agreements between the state and the group.62
(2) Negative Universalism
Negative universalism, as articulated by philosophers such as Barry and
Kukathas, encompasses four key features. First, they advocate for the state’s neutrality
among various conceptions of the good, allowing individuals the freedom to pursue
their own values. Second, they acknowledge that this impartiality may result in unequal
impacts on citizens’ lives, but they argue that achieving equality of impact is not a
practical or realistic goal within liberal theory. Third, while basic civil and political
rights are upheld, the differentiation in the application of these rights is deemed
justifiable based on fundamental principles such as freedom of thought and association.
Finally, negative universalists express skepticism about the normative value of culture
and resist providing differentiated rights to individuals based on cultural considerations.
These shared features highlight the core tenets of negative universalism,
emphasizing the importance of state neutrality, acknowledging inherent inequalities,
justifying deviations in the application of rights, and maintaining skepticism towards
cultural normativity (Festenstein, 2005, pp. 91–92). This approach, despite differences
in the philosophies of its proponents, underscores a commitment to preserving
individual freedom within a framework that acknowledges and navigates the
complexities of societal diversity and cultural norms.63
(a) Barry’s Liberal Egalitarianism
Barry’s perspective on liberal egalitarianism forms the basis for his
arguments against granting rights to cultural groups. The core values of neutrality,
freedom, and equality underpin his opposition to what he sees as difference-sensitive
policies for cultural groups. According to Barry, such policies violate the principle of
neutrality, as states should refrain from favoring or promoting specific conceptions of
62 Ibid.
63 Loc. cit.
45
the good. Barry’s commitment to freedom emphasizes the absence of paternalistic
restrictions on individuals pursuing their own conceptions of the good. He contends
that unequal impacts of laws on different cultures are not inherently unfair, as laws aim
to protect certain interests against others. Equality, as envisioned by Barry, involves
providing individuals with an equal set of basic legal, political, and civil rights, as well
as promoting equality of opportunity. The latter requires uniform rules that generate the
same choices for all individuals, ensuring that economic or other factors do not hinder
individuals from pursuing their goals. The arguments against cultural group rights
presented by Barry are deeply rooted in his liberal framework. Neutrality, freedom, and
equality are the touchstones of his opposition to difference-sensitive policies.
Additionally, he introduces two ad hoc arguments—one emphasizing the temporary
nature of economic resource protections and the permanence of cultural rights, and the
other insisting on the consistent application of reasonable arguments without
exceptions.
In summary, Barry’s stance underscores the tension between liberal
principles and the recognition of cultural group rights. He contends that such
recognition could compromise the fundamental values of liberal egalitarianism,
particularly in terms of neutrality, freedom, and equality.64
(b) Kukathas’ Libertarianism
Kukathas’ approach to multiculturalism revolves around two fundamental
ideas: the primacy of individuals’ interest in living according to their conscience and
the defense of freedom of association. He contends that individuals have a fundamental
interest in following their conscience, as moral beings who derive meaning from their
moral evaluations. This interest is crucial, and the state has a duty to protect it. Freedom
of association, according to Kukathas, is defined primarily as the right to exit groups.
Individuals should have the freedom to leave or dissociate from groups they do not wish
to be a part of. For this freedom to be meaningful, individuals must not be physically
64Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Multiculturalism,
<https://iep.utm.edu/multicul/>, 2 December, 2023.
46
barred from leaving, and there should be alternative places (like a market society) where
they can exit.
In Kukathas’ vision, the state’s role is limited. It is not obligated to provide
social welfare services but should intervene to safeguard the right to exit, prevent
physical barriers to leaving, and regulate to prevent aggression between associations.
This leads to a vision of a “society of societies,” where each group has its own
legislation and jurisdictional independence.
Despite the potential imposition of high exit costs, Kukathas argues that this
model best protects individuals’ freedom of conscience by allowing a wide variety of
practices. For him, the emphasis on freedom of association permits diverse
communities, even those with controversial practices, to exist autonomously,
promoting tolerance and avoiding interference by the state in the internal affairs of these
associations.65
(c) The Second Wave of Writings on Multiculturalism
The discourse on multiculturalism has evolved from an initial focus on the
justice of difference-sensitive policies in a liberal context to a second wave that
emphasizes justice within cultural groups. This shift in focus has prompted
contemporary liberal political philosophers to analyze the potential adverse effects of
policies aimed at safeguarding minority cultural groups, particularly concerning the
well-being of individual members within these groups. The current debate revolves
around the practical implications of policies designed to correct inter-group
inequalities, with a heightened concern for how such measures might inadvertently
favor certain members of minority groups over others. The central worry is that efforts
to enable individuals to pursue their cultural identity could inadvertently empower
group leaders to make decisions and institutionalize practices that may lead to the
persecution of internal minorities within these cultural groups.
65 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Multiculturalism,
<https://iep.utm.edu/multicul/>, 2 December, 2023.
47
Philosophers’ express apprehension over the possibility that multiculturalism
policies might grant excessive power to group leaders, reinforcing or facilitating cruelty
and discrimination within the group itself. This concern underscores the need for a
nuanced approach to multicultural policies that carefully considers their potential
impact on intra-group dynamics to avoid unintended consequences.66
(ii) Multiculturalism and its alternatives67
The shift from the nationalist ideal of culturally homogeneous nation-states
in the mid-20th century has led to diverse approaches in managing cultural and ethnic
diversity in Western societies. The aftermath of the Second World War and the
subsequent discrediting of nationalism prompted a reevaluation of political ideologies.
International efforts focused on establishing human, social, political, and cultural rights,
challenging the notion of exclusive, culturally united nation-states. In response to
increasing international migration and the resulting heterogeneity within societies,
European nations have adopted varying strategies. France historically pursued
assimilationist policies, emphasizing the integration of immigrants into the majority
culture. Germany, on the other hand, implemented a guest-worker system that
maintained economic and social rights for immigrants while expecting their eventual
return to their countries of origin.
Multiculturalism emerged as a contrasting approach. Multiculturalism goes
beyond mere acknowledgment of diversity and encompasses a positive or neutral
government stance, public support for the preservation and development of diverse
cultural practices and identities, and efforts to address social inequalities based on
cultural backgrounds. This approach has been embraced by countries like Britain,
Sweden, and the Netherlands. Recent developments demonstrate a degree of
convergence among these models. France has slowly recognized ethnic and cultural
diversity but concurrently restricted citizenship legislation. Germany, acknowledging
the permanence of many immigrants, has witnessed significant changes in its cultural
66 Pasi Saukkonen, “Multiculturalism and Cultural Policy in Northern Europe”,
Nordisk Kulturpolitisk Tidsskrift, Vol. 16 No. 2 (2014): pp. 1-2.
67Multiculturalism, <https://www.hellovaia.com/explanations/ politics/political-
ideology/multiculturalism/>, 2 December, 2023.
48
landscape and citizenship policies. Multiculturalist countries have also undergone
policy revisions.
While there is some congruency, fundamental distinctions persist between
assimilationist and multiculturalist countries. The ongoing discourse reflects the
complex interplay between national identity, cultural diversity, and evolving
citizenship policies in the context of contemporary global migrations (Kymlicka, 2012).
This diversity of approaches underscores the ongoing challenge of balancing national
cohesion with the recognition and celebration of cultural differences within
increasingly heterogeneous societies.
For the theories of multicultural, the researcher has found from the related
document in the types of multiculturalism theory: -
Types of Multiculturalism Theory68
According to multiculturalism there are many types of multiculturalism.
Let’s explore some of them, the theory around them, and their differences.
(i) Liberal Multiculturalism:69
The core of this Theory is to emphasize individualism, freedom, and the right
of individuals to retain, practice, and celebrate their cultural identity. By the key Ideas
as tolerance of cultural differences is promoted, but within the framework of liberal
ideologies. The acceptance may be conditional on aligning with liberal values.
(ii) Conservative Multiculturalism:70
This theory will be advocated for cultural homogeneity and unity, suggesting
that diversity hinders unity. Assimilation is seen as a means to achieve cultural
homogeneity. And the key Idea is to oppose the idea of diverse, hotel-like societies and
may pressure individuals to assimilate to a dominant culture.
68 Loc. cit.
69 Loc. cit.
70 Loc. cit.
49
(iii) Pluralist Multiculturalism71
The theory of pluralist multiculturalism is similar to liberal multiculturalism
but goes beyond accepting cultures aligned with liberal ideologies. It is more inclusive,
accepting competing political ideologies, moral values, and cultural practices without
the biases found in liberal ideologies. By the Key Ideas as Questions arise about the
extent to which certain beliefs can be tolerated, acknowledging that complete civic
cohesion might be unattainable.
(iv) Cosmopolitan Multiculturalism72
The Theory of cosmopolitan multiculturalism conflicts with traditional
multiculturalism as it values cultural diversity but encourages the adoption of
components of cultures for the sake of establishing a unified international identity. And
the Key Ideas are to Involves a “pick and mix” approach to cultures, resulting in a
hybrid of different cultural elements. This approach may lead to the weakening and
blurring of distinctive cultures in favor of a broader, more integrated identity.
It is important to note that these theories are not mutually exclusive, and
elements of one can be found in another. Additionally, the practical implementation of
multiculturalism can vary in different societies based on historical, social, and political
contexts.
Moreover, another document can clarify the theories of multicultural:
Theories of Multicultural
Multiculturalism, the presence and interaction of diverse cultures within a
society, has been explored by numerous theories with varying perspectives.
(1) Assimilation Theory73 attempts to explain how immigrant groups and
their cultures integrate with the dominant society over time. While seemingly
71 Loc. cit.
72 Loc. cit.
73Assimilation and Pluralism from Immigrants to White Ethnics P: 44-48
<https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/43865_2.pdf>, 2 December, 2023.
50
straightforward, the theory presents a complex picture with nuances and controversies.
The core assumptions of this theory can be noted as follows:
(i) to emphasize the absorption of minority cultures into the dominant culture.
(ii) to predict cultural convergence and loss of distinct identities over time.
and
(iii) to criticize for overlooking cultural resistance and the potential for
conflict.
(2) Pluralism Theory74 offers a contrasting perspective to Assimilation
Theory, advocating for the coexistence and mutual respect of different cultures within
a unified society. The significant of this theory are advocating for the co-existence of
distinct cultures with minimal assimilation, emphasizing cultural autonomy and equal
representation for all groups and criticizing for potentially fostering cultural isolation
and hindering social cohesion.
(3) Acculturation Theory75
The concept of acculturation, central to understanding the adjustment of
immigrant children and youth, has been extensively explored, notably through Berry’s
two-dimensional model (Berry, 1980, 2003). Acculturation, at an individual level,
refers to the changes and adaptations individuals undergo due to prolonged exposure to
a new culture (Ward & Geeraert, 2016). Berry consistently emphasized the individual
variations in acculturation strategies, emphasizing the importance of considering nested
contexts – acknowledging that individuals exist within groups, communities, and
countries with diverse national policies and attitudes toward immigration (Berry, 2003,
2008).
Despite Berry’s groundbreaking work, some limitations existed, particularly
in the lack of a robust developmental framework (Titzmann et al., 2014). Recent
74 Loc. cit.
75 Linda P. Juang and Moin Syed, “The Evolution of Acculturation and
Development Models for Understanding Immigrant Children and Youth Adjustment”, SRCD
Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 12 No. 4 (2019): pp. 241-246.
51
developments in acculturation research have addressed these gaps. Firstly, there is a
growing call for greater specificity in acculturation research (Birman et al., 2014).
Many studies tended to focus solely on individual-level strategies, resulting in a lack of
contextual understanding, rendering the strategies acontextual, categorical, static, and
nonspecific.
Simultaneously, there is an emerging trend towards greater theoretical
integration of acculturation and developmental frameworks. This integration opens new
avenues for comprehending the adaptation and adjustment of immigrant children and
youth (Berry et al., 2006). The emphasis on specificity in research and the incorporation
of developmental perspectives contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the
complex processes involved in acculturation. These advancements represent critical
steps forward in the study of acculturation and its impact on the lives of immigrant
children and youth.
(4) Hybridity Theory76: hybridity and multiculturalism, central themes in
post-colonial discourse, are interconnected concepts that shape and reflect the dynamics
of contemporary societies. Hybridity emerges from colonialization and immigration,
while multiculturalism involves the coexistence of diverse cultures within a
community. The impact of these phenomena extends to migration, ethnicity, culture,
and race, influencing both positively and negatively.
Multiculturalism, seen through a post-colonial lens, supports minority
cultural practices but may also serve capitalist interests, potentially eroding national
identities. Critiques highlight challenges in balancing cultural differences, as seen in
instances where attempts to accommodate diverse traditions clash with existing
practices.
The association between multiculturalism and capitalism raises concerns
about the commodification of cultures and its alignment with neoliberalism. This link
reflects broader issues, including individualism, economic hegemony, and unequal
wealth distribution.
76 Thabit Alomari, Critiques of Hybridity, < https://www.academia.edu
/7872610/Critiques_of_Hybridity>, 2 December, 2023.
52
In navigating the complexities of hybridity and multiculturalism, a nuanced
understanding is crucial to discern their impact on societies. Whether contributing
positively to social cohesion or perpetuating power imbalances, these concepts play a
vital role in shaping the cultural landscape (Harvey, 2005, p. 41).
(5) Critical Multiculturalism
The passage you provided discusses the contested nature of the term
“multiculturalism” and the need for a critical approach to its definition. The author
advocates for a “critical multiculturalism” that critiques the ideological apparatuses
distributing power unevenly in multicultural societies. The paper rejects the cooptation
of multiculturalism by neoliberal interests and emphasizes the importance of reclaiming
and defining its terms against such takeovers (Palumbo-Liu 2002, 117). This critical
multiculturalism is characterized by a structural conception of culture, challenging
dichotomies between structure and culture, as well as between the interests of cultural
groups and a “common interest” (Lugones and Price 1995; Palumbo-Liu 1995, 2). The
approach aims to bridge the gap between anthropology and multiculturalism by
providing a nuanced understanding of cultural differences within a democratic
framework (Turner 1993).77
2.2.3 Benefits of Multicultural
The Benefits of Multiculturalism in the Classroom presented by Sasha
Blakeley are as follows.78
(i) Fostering Mutual Respect
• Multicultural education establishes a foundation of respect between
teachers and students, emphasizing the equality of all cultures.
• Students are taught to approach one another with open-minded curiosity,
reducing the likelihood of bullying and discrimination.
77 Isabel Awad, “Critical Multiculturalsm and Deliberative Democracy: Opening
Spaces for More Inclusive Communication”, Javnost - The Public, Vol.18 No. 3 (2011): pp.
39-54. 78 Sasha Blakeley, “The Benefits of Multiculturalism in the Classroom”,
https://teachinglicense.study.com/resources/multicultural-education-benefits-
importance.html , 2 December, 2023
53
(ii) Unlocking Individual Potential
• Departing from the one-size-fits-all model, multicultural teaching
acknowledges diverse learning styles and perspectives.
• Students, including those learning English as a second language, receive
personalized support, ensuring that all have the opportunity to reach their full potential.
(iii) Broadening Horizons
• Multicultural classrooms serve as dynamic learning spaces where
students gain insights into cultures beyond their own.
• This exposure fosters open-mindedness, a willingness to embrace new
perspectives, and a deeper understanding of the incredible diversity of human
experiences.
(iv) Encouraging Critical Thinking
• Multiculturalism encourages students to question and think critically
about what they learn.
• By examining historical events from various perspectives, students
develop nuanced understandings and carry these critical thinking skills into other areas
of their lives.
(v) Building Global Citizens
• Beyond the classroom, multicultural education shapes individuals into
global citizens with a compassionate understanding of diverse cultures.
• This lifelong learning extends into adulthood, influencing career
choices, fostering international friendships, and contributing to a more interconnected
and understanding world.
In essence, multicultural education transforms classrooms into inclusive
environments, where respect, individuality, critical thinking, and global citizenship are
cultivated. These benefits extend far beyond academic settings, impacting individuals
throughout their lives.
54
And another literature in the topic of Challenges and Benefits of
Multicultural Education for Promoting Equality in Diverse Classrooms by Farah Latif
Naz:
Benefits of Multicultural, according to Farah Latif Naz,79 as follows:
(i) Cultural Awareness and Respect:
• Fosters understanding and appreciation of cultural differences.
• Promotes empathy and tolerance among students.
(ii) Reduced Prejudice and Discrimination:
• Contributes to a more inclusive and harmonious classroom environment.
• Mitigates the negative impact of prejudice on academic and social
development.
(iii) Equal Opportunities for All:
• Recognizes and values the strengths and abilities of students from
diverse backgrounds.
• Sets higher expectations, providing opportunities for success regardless
of cultural background.
(iv) Closing the Achievement Gap:
• Addresses disparities in academic performance among students from
different cultural backgrounds.
• Promotes a more equitable learning experience, fostering success for all.
(v) Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving:
• Encourages students to analyze societal issues from various
perspectives.
79 Farah Latif Naz, “Challenges and Benefits of Multicultural Education for
Promoting Equality in Diverse Classrooms”, Journal of Social Sciences Review, Vol. 3 No. 2
(2023): pp. 511-522.
55
• Challenges biases and assumptions, fostering the development of critical
thinking skills.
(vi) Application to Real-World Situations:
• Equips students with problem-solving skills applicable to real-world
challenges.
• Prepares individuals to navigate complex issues in a diverse and
interconnected world.
In conclusion, despite the challenges, multicultural education yields a range
of benefits, including heightened cultural awareness, reduced discrimination, equal
opportunities, closing achievement gaps, and the cultivation of critical thinking skills.
These advantages collectively contribute to creating inclusive and empowered
individuals capable of addressing the complexities of the modern world.
Another Perspective on the Benefits of Multiculturalism80 is as follows.
(i) Economic Advantages
Residing in a multicultural community can yield substantial economic
advantages. When individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds unite, they bring forth
their distinct expertise, insights, and viewpoints to the labor force. This variety boosts
efficiency and stimulates ingenuity, thereby fueling economic advancement. Studies
indicate that heterogeneous teams in enterprises surpass homogeneous ones, resulting
in increased profits and more effective decision-making. The interchange of concepts
and skills among people from varied cultures cultivates an environment conducive to
entrepreneurial endeavors. Diverse outlooks frequently inspire innovative solutions and
reveal unexplored market potentials.
(ii) Cultural Enrichment
80 Exploring the Benefits and Challenges of Multicultural Society, 2023,
https://www.collegenp.com/article/exploring-the-benefits-and-challenges-of-multicultural-
society/, 25 April 2024.
56
Multiculturalism offers a wealth of cultural diversity to society, weaving
together various languages, cuisines, customs, and traditions. Through coexistence with
people from different backgrounds, individuals gain invaluable experiences, fostering
mutual understanding, appreciation, and respect for diverse cultures. This exchange not
only broadens horizons and enriches knowledge but also confronts prejudices and
stereotypes. Immersed in multicultural settings, people are encouraged to celebrate
diversity, cultivating a global mindset and nurturing inclusivity and tolerance.
(iii) Creativity and Innovation
Multicultural societies serve as fertile ground for fostering creativity and
innovation. When individuals from varied backgrounds come together, they bring forth
a plethora of perspectives and experiences, sparking a rich exchange of ideas. This
diverse amalgamation of thoughts ignites creativity and paves the way for
groundbreaking innovations. Studies indicate that teams with diverse compositions are
adept at generating novel solutions to intricate challenges, surpassing the outcomes of
homogeneous groups. Embracing multiculturalism enables societies to harness an
extensive wellspring of creativity and intellectual prowess, propelling advancements
across diverse realms including science, technology, arts, and humanities.
(iv) Improved Social Cohesion
Multiculturalism serves as a cornerstone for nurturing social cohesion within
a society. When individuals from varied cultural backgrounds coexist peacefully, it
cultivates a shared sense of unity and belonging. Interactions and friendships forged
among people of diverse origins dismantle prejudices and foster social integration. This
inclusive environment fosters a robust community spirit, characterized by mutual
respect and support, transcending cultural divides. Research underscores that
multicultural societies characterized by strong social cohesion witness reduced crime
rates, enhanced mental well-being, and heightened overall quality of life.
(v) Expanded Perspectives and Understanding
Living in a multicultural society provides individuals with an avenue to
encounter a wide range of perspectives and worldviews. Interacting with people from
different cultural backgrounds encourages individuals to examine their own beliefs and
57
biases, promoting personal growth and reflection. Exposure to diverse viewpoints helps
develop a deeper understanding of global issues, fostering empathy and compassion.
This expanded perspective is especially important in a globally connected world, where
cooperation and understanding across borders are crucial for addressing common
challenges.
(vi) Increased Tolerance and Acceptance
Multicultural societies foster tolerance and celebration of diversity. Close
interaction with individuals from varied cultural backgrounds encourages an
appreciation and acceptance of differences. This exposure dismantles stereotypes,
prejudices, and discriminatory beliefs, creating an atmosphere where people are
inclined to embrace others regardless of their cultural or ethnic heritage. Studies
indicate that individuals residing in multicultural settings demonstrate increased
empathy and a greater embrace of diversity, thus promoting inclusivity and equity
within society.
2.2.4 Mindfulness and Multicultural
Literature on mindfulness and multiculturalism is as follows. Iram
Osman, Sduduzo Mncwabe and Veena S Singaram studied the research in the title of
‘Twelve tips for creating a multicultural mindfulness-based intervention in diverse
healthcare settings. The details of this study can be noted that the heightened levels of
stress and burnout, coupled with the reluctance to seek help and reliance on unhealthy
coping mechanisms among healthcare professionals (HCPs), pose significant
challenges worldwide. In response, mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have
gained traction for their ability to alleviate stress and promote healthier coping
strategies, particularly amidst the Covid-19 pandemic. However, the demanding
schedules of HCPs necessitate interventions that are accessible, practical, and tailored
to their specific contexts. Embracing a multicultural perspective is crucial, particularly
in diverse regions like Africa. This paper aims to offer practical guidance for ensuring
the effectiveness of MBIs for multicultural HCPs facing intense stress. It provides four
tips each for curriculum development, implementation, and sustainability. These tips
58
are supported by real-world examples of stress regulation within healthcare settings,
offering a blueprint for culturally and contextually appropriate MBIs in the future.81
Publication of Anum Sarfraz and Salma Siddiqui “Cultural Adaptation of a
Mindfulness-Based Intervention for Young Adults: An Application of Heuristic
Framework” showcases a methodologically robust and culturally sensitive approach to
adapting mindfulness-based interventions for young adults in low-middle-income
countries. Through a systematic four-step process and engagement with stakeholders,
the intervention was tailored to align with the cultural context while preserving core
principles. Surface structure changes, including language adjustments, modification of
reading materials, and the addition of an orientation audio recording, reflect a deep
understanding of cultural nuances and preferences. Despite these adaptations, the
intervention’s core principles remained universal, highlighting its potential
effectiveness across diverse cultural settings. Preliminary testing demonstrated positive
changes in stress, mindfulness, and psychological well-being among participants,
indicating promising outcomes. These findings suggest the feasibility and potential
effectiveness of the adapted intervention, warranting further investigation through
feasibility and effectiveness trials. Overall, this study provides a valuable framework
for future intervention adaptation studies, emphasizing the importance of cultural
relevance and sensitivity in preventive interventions for young adults in challenging
socio-economic and political contexts. By addressing the unique needs of these
populations, such interventions have the potential to make meaningful contributions to
their well-being and resilience.82
Moreover, Llse Blignault et al. studies the research namely ‘Cultivating
mindfulness: evaluation of a community-based mindfulness program for Arabic-
speaking women in Australia’ which the study findings underscore the potential of
culturally tailored interventions in addressing mental health disparities among Arabic-
81 Iram Osman, Sduduzo Mncwabe and Veena S Singaram, “Twelve tips for
creating a multicultural mindfulness-based intervention in diverse healthcare settings”,
PubMed Advanced User Guide, Vol. 46 No. 1 (2024): pp. 40-45.
82 Anum Sarfraz and Salma Siddiqui, “Cultural Adaptation of A Mindfulness-Based
Intervention For Young Adults: An Application Of Heuristic Framework, Pakistan” Journal
of Social Research (PJSR), Vol. 5 No. 02 (2023).
59
speaking communities in Australia. By incorporating culturally and linguistically
appropriate elements such as the Arabic Mindfulness CD and delivering the program
in a community setting with bilingual facilitators, the intervention demonstrated
significant improvements in mental health outcomes among Arabic-speaking Muslim
women. The quantitative analysis revealed statistically significant reductions in
depression, anxiety, and stress levels among participants in the intervention group,
highlighting the effectiveness of the mindfulness program. Additionally, qualitative
insights shed light on the experiential aspects of the intervention, illustrating how
participants benefitted from mastering mindfulness techniques, coping with past
traumas, and integrating mindfulness principles into their daily lives within the
framework of their Islamic faith. These findings suggest that culturally sensitive
interventions like the Arabic Mindfulness CD program hold promise for addressing the
underutilization of mental health services within Arabic-speaking communities in
Australia. Furthermore, the scalability of the group program model indicates its
potential for broader implementation and impact. However, further research is
warranted to explore the effectiveness of similar interventions among Arabic-speaking
men with comparable backgrounds. By expanding the scope of investigation to include
diverse demographic groups within the Arabic-speaking population, future studies can
enhance our understanding of how best tailor interventions to meet the specific mental
health needs of these communities. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance
of culturally and linguistically competent approaches in mental health interventions and
highlights the potential of mindfulness-based programs to address disparities in mental
health outcomes among Arabic-speaking populations in Australia.83
2.3 Concepts of Peaceful Well-Being
2.3.1 Definition of Peaceful Well-Being
Essentially, the term "Peaceful Well-Being" is the fusion of two fundamental
concepts, each contributing to a deeper understanding of an individual's life.
83 Llse Blignault et al., “Cultivating mindfulness: evaluation of a community-based
mindfulness program for Arabic-speaking women in Australia”, Current Psychology, (2021):
pp. 1-12.
60
A state of inner serenity and external harmony are at the core of Peaceful
Well-Being. It refers to a state of calm, clarity, and tranquility that is not only free of
stress and conflict, but one that actively cultivates them. Peace can also be static or
dynamic. The concept of static peace refers to a situation where nothing changes and
conflicts are resolved without violence. By contrast, dynamic peace occurs when
disagreements and disputes are resolved non-violently (for details of the UNESCO’s of
Peace Program,1999).84 People seek peaceful well-being by managing and mitigating
life’s pressures, cultivating mental equilibrium and positive emotions. The meaning of
“peaceful” extends beyond the absence of chaos; it refers to cultivating positive
elements that create a sense of inner peace within the mind, which allows one to deal
with life’s complexities in a peaceful manner.
In Peaceful Well-Being, “well-being” refers to an individual’s overall
happiness, health, and prosperity. From a physical perspective, it speaks of a body that
is in a state of vitality and optimal functioning. Achieving emotional resilience involves
navigating challenges, sustaining positive cognitive states, and maintaining positive
moods.
Moreover, well-being is culturally specific, and is an important part of self-
care for a ‘responsible person’; it goes on to state that one experiences well-being as
soon as one wakes up in the morning shower and then has breakfast with consumer
products that promote healthy living.85 A person’s sense of wellbeing extends to their
relationships, emphasizing the significance of harmonious relationships. Additionally,
a sense of accomplishment and clarity of personal goals are important aspects of well-
being. The connection to inner values and beliefs is an important part of spiritual well-
being for some people.
Overall, Peaceful Well-Being is the confluence of tranquility and holistic
prosperity. As it relates to one’s physical, mental, emotional, social, and even spiritual
84 Elsie Boulding, “Peace Culture in Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and
Conflict”, Academic Press, (1999), pp. 654.
85 Christopher Partridge, “The Re-Enchantment of the West, Vol 2: Alternative
Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture and Occulture”, Bloomsbury Publishing, (2006):
pp. 2-3.
61
dimensions, it signifies a level of calm in one’s internal world, as well as a
comprehensive and positive view of one’s life as a whole. By cultivating a peaceful
mindset and fostering well-being in every aspect of one’s life, one can ultimately lead
a fulfilling and peaceful existence.
2.3.2 Significant of Peaceful Well-Being
A life well-lived is characterized by a confluence of tranquility and holistic
prosperity in Peaceful Well-Being. It is the harmonious orchestration of an individual’s
existence that transcends the mere coexistence of peace and well-being.
However, Peaceful Well-Being extends its embrace far beyond the internal
realm. Physical well-being begins with a comprehensive and positive assessment of
life. The health and vitality of the body forms the canvas on which other dimensions of
well-being are painted. The concept of physical well-being is more than just a state of
being healthy; it represents a sense of vitality and energy that propels individuals to
participate fully in life.
The mental and emotional dimensions of Peaceful Well-Being are
interwoven seamlessly. It is essential to cultivate positive cognitive states, emotional
resilience, and the ability to manage stress as part of the overall well-being tapestry.
Individuals create resilient foundations that support a fulfilling life by understanding
and nurturing their mental and emotional landscapes. Peace attitudes appear to be
widespread among happy people, but how peaceful they are depending on which aspect
is emphasized. People’s subjective well-being is associated with trusting others and
valuing freedom.86
Social well-being emphasizes relationships, another thread in this intricate
tapestry. Connecting harmoniously with family, friends, and the larger community
becomes an essential part of wellbeing. Taking this viewpoint into account, wellbeing
focuses on the social duties that adults face in their daily lives and how they balance
86 Ed Diener and William Tov, “National accounts of well-being”, Handbook of
Social Indicators and Quality-of-Life Research, 2012, pp. 137-156.
62
their personal and social lives (Cicognani et al., 2014).87 Human interaction is enhanced
through empathy, effective communication, and a supportive social environment.
Furthermore, Peaceful Well-Being is deeper when it is pursued with purpose and
fulfillment. In pursuit of finding a sense of accomplishment, individuals set meaningful
goals and discover their passions. An enduring sense of purpose is achieved by creating
a life that aligns with personal values.
The spiritual dimension may further enhance well-being for some by
providing solace, guidance, and transcendence. A higher purpose, value, or belief joins
the process of creating peaceful wellbeing.
Overall, Peaceful Well-Being exudes a sense of tranquility and prosperity
that goes beyond surface levels. In some cases, it is a sense of purpose, harmony with
others, and the ability to integrate physical vitality, mental resilience, emotional
balance, and harmony with the environment. Developing a holistic approach to
wellbeing transforms life into a canvas of serenity and prosperity.
2.3.3 Benefit of Peaceful Well-Being
Embracing both inner and outer dimensions, peaceful well-being holds
transformative benefits. Inner well-being cultivates a serene mental and emotional state,
enhancing resilience in the face of challenges. Positive interactions, security, and
supportive environments are all promoted by outer peaceful well-being, creating
harmony externally. Integrating these dimensions increases resilience, grounding, and
fulfillment.
Inner peaceful well-being is a profound state of tranquility and harmony
within oneself. Mental and emotional balance can be achieved through cultivating a
serene and balanced state of mind and body that transcends outside circumstances.
Peace comes from being calm, clear, and content despite life’s challenges. In order to
achieve inner peace, one needs to be mindful, self-aware, and emotionally resilient. An
internal environment where stress is minimized, negative thoughts are minimized, and
87 Elvira Cicognani et al., “Sense of community in adolescents from two different
territorial contexts: The moderating role of gender and age”. Social Indicators Research, Vol.
119 No. 3 (2014): pp.1663–1678.
63
a deep sense of peace and fulfillment is fostered is the goal. Finding and caring for
ourselves makes us resilient and grounded, which leads to a peaceful inner life.
Outer peaceful well-being refers to the state of tranquility and prosperity in
the external aspects of an individual’s life. Essentially, it reflects how well you coexist
with your environment, your relationships, as well as other external factors. External
interactions often influence this form of well-being beyond an individual’s control.
Peaceful living environments are external manifestations of peaceful well-
being, in which individuals feel safe and comfortable. A conflict-ridden environment
could be characterized by stress, disturbances, and conflict. Positive social connections
and relationships foster unity, cooperation, and support, which are essential to
experiencing outer peaceful well-being. Maintaining inner peace requires a positive
attitude and self-determination. Despite terminal illnesses, subjects remained positive
and made their own decisions (Hungelmann, Kenkel-rossi, Klassen, and Stollenwerk,
1985).88
It is possible to enhance well-being on the external level by creating a
harmonious work environment, communicating effectively, and focusing on one’s
professional goals. Subjective well-being and peace attitudes have been linked by
momentary positive emotions as well as by general happiness and satisfaction
(Lyubomirsky et al., 2005).89
In essence, positive and supportive external environments contribute to outer
peaceful well-being. When cultivating a serene and constructive environment in various
areas of life, such as one’s home, community, and work, an individual’s external
surroundings should be peaceful and prosperous.
88 J. Hungelmann et al. “Focus on Spiritual Well-Being: Harmonious
Interconnectedness of Mind-Body-Spirit- Use of the JAREL Spiritual Well-Being Scale”,
Geriatric Nursing, Vol. 17 (1996): pp. 262-266.
89 S. Lyubomirsky et al., “The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness
lead to success?”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 131 (2005): pp. 803-855.
64
2.4 Research Works related to the Cultivation of Mindfulness and
Peaceful Well-beings in the sight of Mental Well-being
Numerous studies have established the positive effects of mindfulness
meditation on overall peace well-being. Research conducted in various meditation
settings has shown that mindfulness interventions contribute to reduced stress levels,
improved emotional regulation, enhanced cognitive functioning, and increased life
satisfaction among Multicultural Meditation Practitioners.
(1) According to the research conducted by Jiwattanasuk (2021), the
investigation pertains to the challenges encountered by individuals in leadership roles
within organizations, specifically encompassing personal struggles such as stress,
cognitive rumination, emotional regulation issues, pursuit of validation, lack of control
over external variables, verbal restraint, and changes in body weight. Furthermore, the
scholarly investigation revealed that the implementation of a mindfulness-based
program demonstrated potential efficacy in addressing the challenges faced by
organizational leaders. Nonetheless, a discernible void exists, suggesting the necessity
for the development of said mindfulness-based intervention grounded in the premise
that the cultivation of loving-kindness could serve as a catalyst in fostering a state of
tranquil well-being among organizational leaders.90
(2) The Benefits of Being Present
Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being by Kirk Warren
Brown and Richard M. Ryan: A study done in America by Brown and Ryan at
University of Rochester found positive impact for both dispositional and state
mindfulness predicate self-regulated behavior and optimistic emotional states. The
development and psychometric properties of the dispositional Mindful Attention
Awareness Scale (MAAS) to measure the experience of mindfulness and mindlessness
90 Narumon Jiwattanasuk, “A Process of Development for Peaceful Well-Being of
Meditation Practitioners Through Buddhist Peaceful Means; A Case Study of
Buddhamahametta Foundation, Chiang Rak Noi, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya.”, PhD
dissertation, (Philosophy in Peace Studies, Graduate School, Mahachulalongkornraja
vidyalaya University), 2021, pp. 159-171.
65
in specific day-to-day circumstances, actions, interpersonal communication, thoughts,
emotions, and physical states.91
(3) The Mindful Hedonist?
Relationships between Well‑Being Orientations, Mindfulness and
Well‑Being Experiences by Nadine Richter and Marcel Hunecke: Another research
study done in Germany to explore relationships between orientations and experiences
of wellbeing as well as the potential moderation effect of mindfulness, two cross-
sectional online studies with German-speaking participants. Follow an integrative
model that comprises three central orientations to happiness (OTH): the life of pleasure,
the life of engagement and the life of meaning. This study is measuring the relationship
among the three central orientations. Another suggested method in this research for
broader research, The Hedonic and Eudaimonic Motives for Activities Questionnaire
(HEMA) assesses motives to engage in activities that are either driven by a hedonic or
eudaimonic approach to well-being. Yet the research method is assessed dispositional
mindfulness based on self-reports, which is a common instrument but has limitations.
In general, the researchers applied an understanding of mindfulness which is adapted
from eastern Buddhist philosophy through western research. Without reliable trainers,
the result may be misleading in this case, because there is no common understanding
of mindfulness in the present literature.92
(4) “Muslim Students’ Dispositional Mindfulness and Mental Well-Being
The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation by Mohammad Saleem, et.al.:
In more related country closely to Buddhism such as India, the researchers conducted
a study examines the meditating effect of core self-evaluation on the association
between dispositional mindfulness and well-being among Muslim students. The result
of core self-evaluation has positive impact between dispositional mindfulness and well-
91 Kirk Warren Brown and Richard M. Ryan, “The Benefits of Being Present:
Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being”, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, Vol. 84, No. 3 (2003): pp. 822-848.
92 Nadine Richter and Marcel Hunecke, “The Mindful Hedonist? Relationships
between Well-Being Orientations, Mindfulness and Well-Being Experiences”, Journal of
Happiness Studies, Vol. 22 (2021): pp. 3111–3135.
66
being among Muslim Students. Nonetheless, this study only highlights the important of
dispositional mindfulness to the well-being across culture.93
(5) An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic pain patients
based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical considerations and
preliminary results by Kabat-Zinn J. Though promoted for centuries as a part of
Buddhist and other spiritual traditions, the application of mindfulness to psychological
health in Western medical and mental health contexts is a more recent phenomenon,
largely beginning in the 1970s.94
(6) Mindfulness On-the-go:
Effects of a mindfulness meditation app on work stress and well-being by
Sophie Bostock, et. al.: Other than purely study on the effective of mindfulness practice
research, some researchers try to translate into everyday practical of day-to-day
practice. One researcher in England investigated whether a mindfulness meditation
program delivered via an already available smartphone application (app) could improve
psychological well-being, reduce job strain, and reduce ambulatory blood pressure
during the workday. The research method assessed with the Warwick Edinburgh Mental
Well-being Scale (WEMWBS). The result of shown the positive impact to an individual
practitioner well-being as well as to the social well-being related to the individual.95
(7) The Benefits of Being Present
Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being. By Brown, Kirk
Warren, and Richard M. Ryan.
The large number of the literature reviews have been study from different
culture and religion background depict from different understanding of past research of
93 Mohammad Saleem et al., “Muslim Students’ Dispositional Mindfulness and
Mental Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation”, Islamic Guidance and
Counseling Journal, (2022): pp. 2-4.
94 Jon. Kabat-Zinn, “An Outpatient Program in Behavioral Medicine for Chronic
Pain Patients Based on The Practice of Mindfulness Meditation: Theoretical Considerations
and Preliminary Results”, General Hospital Psychiatry, Vol. 4 (1982): pp. 33–47
95 Sophie Bostock, et. al, “Mindfulness on-the-go: Effects of a mindfulness
Meditation App on Work Stress and Well-Being”, Journal of occupational health
psychology, Vol. 24 No. 1 (2019): pp. 127–138.
67
mindfulness. The overall result of mindfulness as a vehicle to well-being has turnout to
be highly effective practice
A study done in America by Brown and Ryan at University of Rochester
(Brown and Ryan 2003) focus on research a theoretical and empirical examination of
the role of mindfulness in psychological well-being on college students and general
adults in America. The development and psychometric properties of the dispositional
Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) was used to measure the experience of
mindfulness and mindlessness in specific day-to-day circumstances, actions,
interpersonal communication, thoughts, emotions, and physical states. The study result
found positive impact for both dispositional and state mindfulness predicate self-
regulated behavior and optimistic emotional states.96
(8) Mohammad Saleem, et al. Study on “Muslim Students’ Dispositional
Mindfulness and Mental Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation.
Saleem, Rizvi, and Bashir’s study (2022) aimed to evaluate the mediating
influence of Core Self-evaluation (CSE) in a more closely related country to Buddhism
such as India. It was on the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and mental
well-being, and to determine the difference between males and females in their
dispositional mindfulness, CSE, and mental wellbeing among Muslim students. The
result of the core self-evaluation has positive impact on dispositional mindfulness and
well-being with no significant difference between male and female students. The result
of the study may potentially aid future psychotherapists and counselors to design
effective interventions to develop the self-evaluative process for Muslim students for
the promotion of well-being.97
(9) The study of Sophie Bostock, et al. on “Mindfulness On-The-Go:
Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App on Work Stress and Well-Being. Other than
96 Brown, Kirk Warren, and Richard M. Ryan. “The Benefits of Being Present:
Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being”, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, Vol. 84 No. 4 (2003): pp. 822–848.
97 Mohammad Saleem, et al., “Muslim Students’ Dispositional Mindfulness and
Mental Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Core Self-Evaluation”, Islamic Guidance and
Counseling Journal, Vol. 5 No. 1 (2022): pp. 1–14.
68
purely study on the effective of mindfulness practice research, some researchers try to
translate into everyday practical of day-to-day practice. In England Sophie Bostock,
Alexandra D. Crosswell, Aric A. Prather and Andrew Steptoec, (Bostock et al. 2019),
conduct a study “Mindfulness On-The-Go: Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App
on Work Stress and Well-Being” with the purpose to examine the effects of a
mindfulness meditation program delivered via smartphone on outcomes related to work
stress.
The research investigated whether a mindfulness meditation program
delivered via an already available smartphone application could improve psychological
well-being, reduce job strain, and reduce ambulatory blood pressure during the
workday. The psychological and physical aspects were measure as below:
1. Well-being: using the Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being
Scale (WEMWBS)
2. Psychological distress: using the Hospital Anxiety and
Depression Scale (HADS)
3. Job strain: using the Whitehall II study questionnaire
4. Workplace social support: using five statements ranked on a 4-
point scale
5. Mindfulness: using the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory
6. Blood Pressure: Self-monitoring blood pressure measuring
device
For 8-weeks daily meditation practice via the app, the result of shown the
positive improvement to an individual practitioner psychological well-being, the
relationship with others, and improve social connection and social support among
others.98
98 Sophie Bostock, et al., “Mindfulness On-The-Go: Effects of a Mindfulness
Meditation App on Work Stress and Well-Being”, Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, Vol. 24 No. 1 (2019): pp.127–138.
69
(10) Mindfulness And Stress: A Quantitative Study of Therapist Trainees by
Umut Arslan. Dr. Umut Arslan, from the University of Montana, conduct a study that
aim to explore the levels of mindfulness and perceived stress of therapist trainees of 80
master’s students in social work and counseling programs at the university. Since the
burnout and stress are major concerns for therapists due to often traumatic nature of the
work, this study will seek if mindfulness practice can help reduce stress and increase
positive feelings and self-compassion to the students.
In conclusion from the research positive findings, Dr. Arslan concluded that
therapist training programs might consider adding mindfulness practice to the
curriculum to the social work and counseling programs, both in the sense of self-care
for students and in how they might utilize mindfulness practices with clients.99
(11) The Role of Mindfulness in The Relationship Between Life Satisfaction
and Spiritual Wellbeing Amongst the Elderly by Edelweiss Bester et al. In South Africa,
a group of researchers have done a social work study of “The Role of Mindfulness on
The Relationship Between Life Satisfaction and Spiritual Well-being among The
Elderly”. With the continuously rise of elderly population worldwide, this study aimed
to investigate whether mindfulness plays a role in the relationship between life
satisfaction and spiritual wellbeing amongst elderly individuals from the negative
effects of common decline of physical and psychological functioning.
The 122 participants were asked to complete a short biographical
questionnaire and three self-report questionnaires. The result showed the mindfulness
has positive impact on the elderly individuals but may vary of life satisfaction and
spiritual wellbeing based on different standards and cultural groups.
Nonetheless, with elderly being more mindful could lead to improvements in
health and well-being. As in this research reference suggested that the improvement of
individual wellbeing could lead to better physical and mental health, in turn can also
99 Umut Arslan, “Mindfulness and Stress: A Quantitative Study of Therapist
Trainees”, The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, Vol. 7 No. 48 (2016): pp. 343-
354.
70
ease the already overburdened health-care facilities as more resource required to care
for the elderly population in South Africa.100
2.5 Research Works related to the Cultivation of Mindfulness for
Multicultural Practitioners
Much of the research on mindfulness have been studied of people from
culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Research has been found the
mindfulness practice to be compatible with the different teachings and beliefs such as
Islamic and Christian, though initially derived from Buddhist meditation practices
(Woodland, L., O’Callaghan, C. 2021).101 Through culturally adapted practice
methods, many researches have shown a significant role in promoting multicultural
understanding, tolerance, and positive intercultural relationships in which often found
in the field of psychotherapy and multicultural counseling. Details as below:
(1) Being Mindful and White in a Multicultural World: Lessons Learned
from Participation in an Interconnected Group was studied by Elisa Audo.102 The article
discusses a group at the East Bay Meditation Center in Oakland, which formed to
explore identity, diversity, and racism through mindfulness, specifically for white
people to understand their racial identity and privilege. By using practices from various
wisdom traditions. Participants were of various genders and nationalities; they paired
up and shared their first memory about recognizing race. With the group main practices
are Breathing meditation, multi-dimensionality (a visualization holding two images of
themselves, one as highest selves or Buddha-nature and the other at a time when acting
unskillfully regarding race), and loving-kindness meditation.
100 Edelweiss Bester et al., “The Role of Mindfulness in The Relationship Between
Life Satisfaction and Spiritual Wellbeing Amongst the Elderly”, Social Work/Maatskaplike
Werk, Vol. 52 No. 2 (2016): pp. 245-248.
101 Blignault, Ilse et al. “Cultivating Mindfulness: Evaluation of A Community-
Based Mindfulness Program for Arabic-Speaking Women in Australia”, Current Psychology.
(2021). <https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2021-73609-001 > , 2 December, 2023.
102 Elisa Audo, “Being Mindful and White in a Multicultural World: Lessons
Learned from Participation in an Interconnected Group”, California Institute of Integral
Studies: Journal of Conscious Evolution, Vol. 4 (2009): pp. 2018.
71
The study has initiated the process of being mindful and white in a
multicultural world. As indicated in the article, it is essential to examine prejudices and
reluctance to relinquish power, fostering compassion for ourselves, in order to cultivate
compassion for ourselves so that we may move beyond the debilitating states of guilt,
anger and defensiveness. We must replace self-hatred with self-love as the first critical
step to loving others and becoming effective allies. Therefore, future research is
recommended to further expand and cultivate strategies aimed to eliminating racism.
(2) A Brief, Digital Music-Based Mindfulness Intervention for Black
Americans With Elevated Race-Based Anxiety and Little-to-No Meditation Experience
(“Healing Attempt”): Replication and Extension Study.103 Racial discrimination
contributes significantly to heightened anxiety among Black Americans, who also face
barriers in accessing effective, culturally appropriate mental health care and anxiety
treatment. This research engaged four Black American adults with substantial race-
related anxiety but minimal meditation experience. Four Black American adults who
had little prior experience with meditation, but significant racial anxiety participated in
this study. The purpose of this study was to examine the feasibility and initial
effectiveness of a short, digital music-based mindfulness intervention called “healing
attempt.” The “healing attempt” is a digital intervention that moves away from
conventional, in-person therapy methods by allowing participants to use Zoom to
complete the intervention in the comfort of their own homes.
Consistent with the research hypothesis, the results show that ‘healing
attempt’ improved participants’ physical and psychological well-being by reducing
their anxiety and fostering their intellectual well-being through increased mindfulness
and self-compassion. Furthermore, the intervention had been assessed strongly for both
feasibility and acceptability. These results are consistent with those of our two previous
feasibility studies of “healing attempt,” which similarly discovered that the intervention
increased mindfulness/self-compassion and decreased state anxiety. Therefore, it is
103 Grant Jones et al. “A Brief, Digital Music-Based Mindfulness Intervention for
Black Americans With Elevated Race-Based Anxiety and Little-to-No Meditation Experience
(“healing attempt"): Replication and Extension Study”, PubMed, (2023).
72
possible that increased self-compassion and mindfulness could operate as pathways for
enhancing physical, psychological, and intellectual well-being.
(3) Effectiveness of a Community-based Group Mindfulness Program
tailored for Arabic and Bangla-speaking Migrants was studied by Ilse Blignault et al.104
The immigration of people from various nationalities to Australia often leads to stress
related to language use, employment, and acceptance in a new society. This stress can
contribute to mental health issues, with high rates of untreated psychological distress.
The study aimed to collaborative education that emphasizes mindfulness
training for Arabic and Bangla speakers in Sydney. There are 15 Arabic speakers and
8 Bangla speakers’ participants. The research was conducted over a 5-week period of a
mindfulness training program, the community-based group mindfulness program was
shown to have high levels of cultural acceptability and relevance. It resulted in
clinically and statistically significant improvements in mental health outcomes,
facilitated access to mental health care and boosted mental health literacy. This
innovative, low-intensity, in-language mental health intervention that was originally
developed for Arabic speakers is scalable. It is also transferable—with cultural
tailoring—to Bangla speakers
The study result showed effective of Mindfulness practices in multicultural
practitioners significantly, which impact to Peaceful Well-being leading to improve
Psychological, Behavioral and Intellectual within society. Thus, further
experimentation with technology-mediated mindfulness interventions in expanding
research is recommended.
(4) “Mindfulness in multicultural education: Critical race feminist
perspectives”105 was studied and authored by Kathryn Esther McIntosh; a book was
104 Ilse Blignault et al. “Effectiveness of a Community-based Group Mindfulness
Program tailored for Arabic and Bangla-speaking Migrants”, International Journal of Mental
Health Systems, (2021): pp. 2-4.
105 Samarnh Pang, “Mindfulness in multicultural education: Critical race feminist
perspectives”. Cambodian Education Forum,
<https://cefcambodia.com/2023/08/13/mindfulness-in-multicultural-education-critical-race-
feminist-perspectives/> , 2 December, 2023.
73
reviewed by Samarnh Pang, Purdue University, Indiana, The United States of America;
on Cambodian Journal of Educational Research (2023). The research result showed
significance of the suggesting cultivation of mindfulness and multicultural meditation
practices in enhancing Psychological, Behavioral and Intellectual effectiveness.
This book presents a unique perspective on academic writing that
incorporates storytelling and emotion in the theoretical, the author explores the
intersection of mindfulness, social justice, and multicultural education by drawing on
personal experiences and evidence from undergraduate students, align with
mindfulness as of “Keeping one’s consciousness alive to the present reality” without
judgment.
The study aimed to empirical research findings based on the Social Justice
and Mindfulness in Multicultural Education project over two years, detailing
experiences practicing mindfulness in multicultural education. As the results highlight
insights from five female participants of color engaged with mindfulness in its within
multicultural education, using counter-story methodologies and critical race-gender
theoretical perspectives. The perceptions of students who experienced mindfulness in
multicultural education, initially iterations of the research, data was collected and
analyzed by the research-instructor team, data was used to redesign and implement a
new critical multicultural/social justice education course that wove mindfulness into its
official curriculum /social justice education course that wove mindfulness into its
official curriculum.
With this integrating mindfulness practices in multicultural education can
help students develop a deeper understanding and appreciation of diverse perspectives
and experiences. By promoting self-awareness and compassion toward oneself and
others, students can develop the skills to navigate complex social issues and work
toward a more equitable society. Teachers, schools, and policymakers can support this
by providing resources and training on mindfulness practices and integrating them into
curricula and pedagogical practices. Therefore, this study benefits for future research
on the well-being of multicultural meditation practitioners.
74
(5) In the study of Rebecca J. Heselmeyer, from James Madison University
(Heselmeyer 2014),106 for purpose to integrate of the two concepts mindfulness and
multiculturalism in counseling and counselor education in order to provide an
innovative conceptual framework that uses mindfulness techniques to enhance
intercultural sensitivity and generate potential for greater multicultural competence.
The study has done on counselor preparation and continued education under
Multicultural counseling competence (MCC) which become gradually more important
due to the increasing population diversification of demographic projections for the
United States.
(6) Through the research contribution by Tourek (2014) on the topic of “A
Case for Mindfulness Practice in Fostering Multicultural Competence in
Counseling”107 in attempt to fulfil the demand of multicultural counseling competence
(MCC) in the medical field of counseling psychology. For the majority of the
population who may never experience the beneficial effects of therapy, this research
offers mindfulness meditation as a potential vehicle to help cultivate multicultural
competence in therapists.
The result from this research clearly identifies a positive relationship
between perceived mindfulness and perceived multicultural competence in counseling.
Thus, multicultural competence is vital to health and well-being. For current and future
therapists can learn, train and explore in the paying attention on being in the moment
by moment, nonjudgmentally, with acceptance.
(7) Another study regarding Mindfulness and Multicultural was done by
Turkish researcher (Zümra Özyeşil 2012) to determine if the mindfulness,
psychological needs, and cross -cultural comparison between American and Turkish
university students significantly different. One significant result from this research is
106 Rebecca J. Heselmeyer, “Review of Using Mindfulness to Explore Worldview
Perspective and Enhance Intercultural Development”, 2014,
Https://Commons.lib.jmu.edu/Cgi/Viewcontent.cgi?Article=1100&Context=Diss201019, 2
December, 2023.
107 Samuel Christopher Tourek, “Review of A Case for Mindfulness Practice in
Fostering Multicultural Competence in Counseling”, PhD dissertation, (Philosophy, Graduate
Schook, University of Minnesota), 2014, pp. 1-5.
75
the study claiming that the mindfulness level of American students is significantly
higher than the mindfulness levels of Turkish students, perhaps from influence of the
society which prevents individuals from practice mindfulness.
(8) Amanda Campbell, Stacy Rademacher Vance, and Shengli Dong
studied about the relationship between mindfulness and multicultural counseling
competencies (MCC) of masters and doctoral students in counseling and therapy-
related fields in counselor trainees in the United State (Campbell, Vance, and Dong
2017).108 This study aimed to prove by examining 1) the relationships among
mindfulness, acceptance, and MCC in a predominately White racial sample and 2) the
association of mindfulness and mindfulness practices on MCC beyond the multicultural
training and demographic variables. The results revealed that students who believed to
be more mindful such as suspending their immediate reaction to potentially distressing
thoughts and feelings might be better equipped to attend to multicultural clients, thus
they tended to be more multiculturally competent.
Although mindfulness can be a valuable tool in promoting multicultural
compassion, understanding and relations, it should be part of a broader effort that
includes dialogue and a commitment to valuing diversity and equality. When combined
with these efforts, mindfulness can help individuals with different background and
society navigate through the complexities of multicultural interactions with greater
awareness and sensitivity.
2.6 Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, mindfulness, rooted in Buddhist traditions and adapted into
secular practices like Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), has demonstrated
significant benefits for mental, emotional, and physical well-being. The practice
involves cultivating non-judgmental awareness in various life aspects. Research
supports its effectiveness, showing reduced anxiety and stress, improved self-
regulation, and cognitive benefits. Mindfulness has transcended cultural boundaries,
108 Amanda Campbell et al., “Examining the Relationship Between Mindfulness
and Multicultural Counseling Competencies in Counselor Trainees”, Mindfulness, Vol. 9
(2018): pp. 79–87.
76
gaining popularity in Western contexts. Ongoing studies aim to