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Pak. J. Biotechnol. Vol. 21(2),494-500, 2024. http://doi.org/10.34016/pjbt.2024.21.02.953
494
Research Article
MORPHOLOGICAL AND YIELD-RELATED POMOLOGICAL
CHARACTERIZATION OF INTRODUCED OLIVE (OLEA EUROPEA)
CULTIVARS IN RAINFED AREA OF POTHOWAR PUNJAB
Uzma Javed1, Ayesha Manzoor1, Ruqeah Mustafa1, Tanveer Hussain2*, Irfan Ali2, Muhammad Tahir
Akram2, Mehwish Liaquat2, Laiba Satti2, Asfa Quddus2, Ijaz Ahmad3
1Barani Agricultural Research Institute, Chakwal, Pakistan
2Department of Horticulture, Mahr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture, Pakistan, University of Pir Mahr Ali Shah Arid
Agriculture Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
3Department of Botany, Govt. Post Graduate College Gujranwala, Pakistan
Corresponding author: dr.tanveer005@uaar.edu.pk
Article Received 19-07-2024, Article Revised 30-08-2024, Article Accepted 11-09-2024.
ABSTRACT
This study aims at pomological characterizing of 09 olive cultivars planted in the field area of Barani
Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Chakwal to estimate genetic variability in Ottobratica, Hamdi, FS-17,
Gerboi, Arbequina, Persia, Nabali, Koroneiki and Earlik. Following pomological traits: fruit and stone weight
(g), fruit and stone size (cm), fruit and stone shape index (length/width) and flesh to stone ratio were studied.
Data for studied traits were collected in 2019 according to the International olive council descriptor. A
significant genetic difference was noticed in the morphological characteristics of both fruit and stone. Different
pomological characters were expressed by each cultivar. A wide range of variation was noticed in fruit weight
(1.33-5.57g), stone weight (0.20-0.63g) and flesh/stone ratio (0.90-4.96). Based on their fruit shape, studied
cultivars were classified into two groups i.e., ovoid and elongate. However, no significant difference was
recorded for the stone shape, as all the studied cultivars had the same elongated stone shape. Concerning the
fruit size, high fruit size (4-6g) was observed in FS-17, Hamdi, Earlik and Persia whereas Koroneiki, Nabali and
Gerboi had the smallest ones (>2g). Based on our results, Earlik, Hamdi and FS-17 are suggested to be more
appropriate for table olive production. Thus, an evaluation of genetic diversity through this study can help in the
varietal development of olive for table and oil purposes.
Keywords: Flesh/stone ratio, Fruit weight, Olive, Pomological characterization, Stone weight
INTRODUCTION
Olive (Olea europea) belongs to the
dicotyledonous family Oleaceae, and is considered
one of the main growing oil crops in the world
(Khadivi et al., 2022). It is cultivated on more than 12
million hectares worldwide showing wide variability
in the form of 2600 different varieties for table and oil
purposes conserved at the World Olive Germplasm
Bank (Debbabi et al., 2022). Originally it is growing
in the Mediterranean basin (representing 29% of the
world supply) but now it is expanding to different
areas of North America, South America, Oceania and
South-Western Asia (Mousavi et al., 2019). Olive is
currently growing commercially in 37 countries with
Spain being top producer followed by Italy and
Morocco. Other countries include Turkey, Greece,
Egypt, Tunisia, Portugal etc (Atlasbig, 2019;
Gulcemal et al., 2022). Olive is unique among other
oil crops due to the presence of rich compounds such
as phytosterols and polyphenols in its fruits and a
well-balanced nutrient composition, including high
levels of monounsaturated fatty acids in its oil (Cheng
et al., 2017). Diverse climatic conditions ranging from
warm humid, subtropical to cold temperate in
different areas benefited olive farming in Pakistan
(Ali et al., 2024). Approximately, 85 million wild
olive trees are present in different provinces of a
country (Jan et al., 2021). In Pakistan, olive
cultivation is started both in arid and semi-arid areas
but their adaptation rate is high in arid zone where a
suitable climate is available for olive growth and
development (Raza et al., 2021). About 45 million
olive trees are commercially grown in these areas (Jan
et al., 2021) with 1500 tons of olive oil and 830 tons
of table olives are produced (Ali et al., 2024).
Moreover, a number of olive plants of several
varieties have been imported and planted in Pakistan
(Iqbal et al., 2019). Punjab being the top province
with 13 thousand acres under olive cultivation, while
in Punjab, Pothowar region proves to be ideal region
with 8615 acres under olive plantation (Jan et al.,
2021). However, the commercialization of olive in
Pakistan is still at its initial stage. To date very few
studies have been performed to estimate the genetic
Pak. J. Biotechnol. Vol. 21(2),494-500, 2024. Javed et al
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variability of introduced olive cultivars through
morphological characterization in Pakistan (Iqbal et
al., 2019; Saqib et al. 2019; Sumrah et al., 2021).
With the emergence of new olive growing areas along
with an increase in the nutritional value of oil in the
market and consumers, urge breeders to develop olive
breeding programs (Dridi et al., 2019). Due to its
cross pollination nature, a wide range of germplasm
diversity exists. This genetic variation could serve as
an important breeding material for the development of
modern olive cultivars (Khadivi et al., 2022).
Characterization of olive varieties’ performance in a
specific region is an important step that helps in
studying varietal behavior and their usage as a table or
oil purpose (Kartas et al., 2016). Furthermore, genetic
characterization in olive helps to select outstanding
cultivars while eliminating genepool that does not
have the potential to the improvement of oil or table
olive. While most olive breeding programs prioritize
improving olive oil quality, few focus on enhancing
fruit characteristics for table olive production
(Ozdemir et al., 2016). Olive plants’ performance is
usually examined by agronomical descriptors and
pomological traits studies. Pomological
characterization of olive fruit not only aids in genetic
improvement programs but also help in the selection
of genotypes suitable for table, oil, or dual purpose
(Kartas et al., 2016). Olive fruit consists of three
parts, exocarp (skin), mesocarp (flesh): edible portion
of olives where olive oil accumulation starts, and
lignified endocarp which surrounds and protects seeds
(Methamem et al., 2015). Variability among cultivars
is easily detected by morphological analysis of fruit,
endocarp size and shape (Blazakis et al., 2017). As
genetic makeup of variety significantly impacts fruit
growth and development. Moreover, the
characterization of fruits in terms of fruit weight, pulp
%, stone size, etc defines its usage. Generally, table
olives have maximum fresh weight content with
minimum oil content for easier preservation, while for
oil purposes, a high oil percentage is favorable
(Kartas et al., 2016). Therefore, morphological studies
are considered as an efficient tool for characterization
and discriminating olive cultivars (Blazakis et al.,
2017). Thus keeping in view the importance of olives,
this study aims at characterizing 9 cultivars of olive
trees cultivated in the field area of BARI, Chakwal to
estimate genetic variability based on pomological
characteristics.
MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY
Experimental site: The present experiment was
conducted at the research area of Barani Agricultural
Research Institute Chakwal in 2019. This area is
located at 32o Latitude and 72o Longitude having
575m altitude. It is arid to semi-arid with annual
rainfall up to 772 mm annual. The climate of the
region is characterized as subtropical with an annual
mean temperature of 22.3oC (Sumrah et al., 2021;
Hassan et al., 2022).
Plant Material: Nine exotic olive cultivars were
selected for pomological characterization on the basis
of their performance and yield. Cultivars selected
were Ottobratica, Hamdi, FS-17, Gerboi, Arbequina,
Persia, Nabali, Koroneiki and Earlik (Table 1). The
studied olive trees were planted at 6 × 6m geometry
on sandy loam soil having less than 1% organic
matter with pH 8.1 and subjected to all common olive
cultivation practices (Iqbal et al., 2019). A
randomized complete block design was used with
three replications per cultivar. The pomological
characterization of olive cultivars was carried
according to olive descriptor [International Olive Oil
Council-IOOC (Barranco et al., 2000)].
Data Collection: After the pit hardening stage (90
days after flowering), the fruit was harvested by hand
from each cultivar from all replicates. To record
pomological data, 50 fruits were sampled from each
replicate of each cultivar (150 fruits per cultivar). The
studied pomological characters were fruit weight (g),
stone weight (g), fruit size (cm), stone size (cm), fruit
shape index (length/width), stone shape index
(length/width) and flesh/stone ratio.
Fruit and stone length and width were measured
through a vernier caliper while single fruit weight was
measured through electronic balance. For stone
weight, fruit was cut and stone were extracted,
washed and weighed. The flesh/stone ratio was
estimated by dividing flesh weight by stone weight.
To determine fruit and stone size and shape, they were
classified into different classes based on weight and
length/width ratio. For fruit shape, fruits were
classified in to spherical (L/W< 1.25), ovoid (L/W =
1.25 – 1.45) and elongated (L/W > 1.45). Categories
of stone shape were spherical (L/W < 1.4), ovoid
(L/W = 1.4 to 1.8), elliptic (L/W = 1.8 - 2.2) and
elongated (L/W > 2.2). Olive fruit size is divided into
low (< 2 g), medium (2- 4 g), high (4 - 6 g) and very
high (> 6 g) while for stone size, classes were low
(<0.3 g), medium (0.3–0.45 g) and high (>0.45
g) (Methamem et al., 2015; Agripoulou et al., 2021).
Statistical analysis: Data collected for different traits
were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA)
through the statistical software Statistix 10.1 to
ascertain differences among the means of various
genotypes. Where differences among means was
studied through the least significant difference (LSD)
at 0.05% probability level (Steel et al., 1997).
RESULTS
Results of analysis of variance exhibited significant
variation in the pomological traits of different olive
cultivars. According to table 2, the maximum
coefficient of variation (cv) was found mainly for
stone parameters such as stone weight (45.38), stone
index (28.64) and stone width (25.97) which suggests
high variability for stone traits among olive cultivars.
Whereas the minimum coefficient of variation
observed in fruit index (12.54), fruit length (11.07)
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and fruit width (9.56) that showed low amount of
variability in fruits of different olive cultivars.
For fruit related traits, statistical analysis indicated
high genetic variability (Table 3). Means for fruit
weight ranges from 1.33 g in Gerboi to 5.56 g in FS-
17. Similarly, minimum fruit length (1.26 cm) and
width (0.73 cm) were also observed in the variety
Gerboi. Whereas, maximum fruit length was studied
in Hamdi (2.73 cm) while highest fruit width was
found in FS-17, Earlik (1.90 cm) and Hamdi (1.86)
respectively. However for fruit shape index
parameter, the Arbequina variety showed maximum
value (1.89) and Koroneiki had minimum (1.25) fruit
length/width ratio (Figure 1).
Table 1. Brief description of olive cultivars used in this experimental study
Cultivar
Origin
Usage
Size
Planting year
Ottobratica
Italy
Oil
Small to medium
1991
Hamdi
Palestine
Table
Medium
2004
FS-17
Italy
Table
Medium
2005
Gerboi
Italy
Dual
Small
2005
Arbequina
Spain
Table
Small to Medium
2004
Persia
Greece
Oil
Medium
2005
Nabali
Palestine
Dual
Small
2004
Koroneiki
Greece
Oil
Small
2012
Earlik
Israel
Table
Medium
2004
Table 2. Analysis of variance of different pomological traits of olive cultivars
Table 3. Variation in fruit traits among different olive cultivars
Olive variety
Fruit weight (g)
Fruit length (cm)
Fruit width (cm)
Fruit Shape Index
Flesh/stone Ratio
Ottobratica
2.30 c
2.06 cd
1.36 b
1.51 bcd
1.83 c
Hamdi
5.33 ab
2.73 a
1.86 a
1.47 bcd
4.80 ab
FS-17
5.56 a
2.57 ab
1.90 a
1.35 cd
4.96 a
Gerboi
1.33 c
1.26 f
0.73 c
1.72 ab
1.06 c
Arbequina
2.30 c
1.76 de
0.93 c
1.89 a
2.10 c
Persia
4.20 b
2.26 bc
1.46 b
1.54 bcd
3.60 b
Nabali
1.43 c
2.03 cd
1.23 b
1.66 abc
0.90 c
Koroneiki
1.80 c
1.63 ef
1.30 b
1.25 d
1.56 c
Earlik
5.23 ab
2.53 ab
1.90 a
1.36 cd
4.60 ab
Figure 1. Variation among fruits of different studied cultivars
SOV
Fruit
length
Fruit
width
Fruit
weight
Stone
length
Stone
width
Stone
weight
Flesh/stone
ratio
Fruit
index
Stone
index
Genotypes
0.698
0.533
9.532
0.137
0.039
0.088
8.298
0.122
4.414
Reps
0.009
0.004
0.763
0.028
0.007
0.014
0.851
0.002
2.179
Error
0.05
0.018
0.46
0.018
0.009
0.042
0.530
0.036
1.355
CV (%)
11.07
9.56
20.79
10.45
25.97
45.38
25.77
12.54
28.64
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Analysis of variance showed that the differences
among nine studied genotypes were highly significant
(Table 4) for stone parameters. Earlik variety
produced a stone of maximum weight (0.63 g)
followed by FS-17 (0.60 g). While stone of light
weight were observed in the Koroneiki variety (0.23
g). Stone length observation showed that Hamdi,
Ottobratica and Earlik had larger stone of the same
length (1.50 cm) whereas, Koroneiki had stone of
minimum length (1.0 cm). For stone width, Hamdi,
FS-17 and Earlik produced wider stone (0.5, 0.5 and
0.46 cm) but Gerboi had stone of minimum width
(0.16 cm) respectively. Concerning the stone shape
index, Gerboi and Arbequina had the highest value
(5.98 and 4.62) while other cultivars were not
significantly different with shape index ranges from
3.00 in Hamdi to 4.08 in Ottobratica. On the basis of
fruit and stone weight, the difference among means
for flesh/stone ratio revealed that highest flesh/stone
ratios was found in FS-17 (4.96) followed by Hamdi
(4.80) and Earlik (4.60), while the least flesh/stone
ratio was found in Nabali (0.90) (Table 4).
Table 4. Variation in stone traits among different olive cultivars
Olive variety
Stone weight (g)
Stone length (cm)
Stone width (cm)
Stone Shape Index
Ottobratica
0.46 abc
1.50 a
0.36 ab
4.08 b
Hamdi
0.53 abc
1.50 a
0.50 a
3.00 b
FS-17
0.60 ab
1.43 ab
0.50 a
2.90 b
Gerboi
0.26 bc
1.00 c
0.16 c
5.98 a
Arbequina
0.20 c
1.23 bc
0.26 bc
4.61 ab
Persia
0.60 ab
1.46 ab
0.36 ab
3.99 b
Nabali
0.53 abc
1.46 ab
0.30 bc
4.89 ab
Koroneiki
0.23 c
1.00 c
0.30 bc
3.33 b
Earlik
0.63 a
1.50 a
0.46 a
3.21 b
Descriptive studies of olive fruit shape varied between
cultivars and grouped into two form types i.e., ovoid
and elongate. Koroneiki, Earlik and FS-17 were ovoid
(L/W= 1.25-1.45) while Persia, Nabali, Arbequina,
Gerboi, Hamdi and Ottobratica were elongate (L/W >
1.45). Based on fruit weight, studied cultivars were
divided into 3 groups. i.e. in low weight (< 2g),
Nabali, Koroneiki and Gerboi fall; for medium fruit
weight (2-4g), Ottobratica and Arbequina came; and
for high fruit weight (4-6g), three cultivars “Hamdi,
FS-17, Persia and Earlik” were found in this category.
However for stone shape; no difference in shape were
observed as all cultivars had elongated stone shape
(L/W: 1.8-2.2, > 2.2). But for stone size, two classes
were observed; Low (< 0.3g): Gerboi, Arbequina and
Koroneiki and for high stone size (> 0.45 g);
Ottobratica, Hamdi, FS-17, Persia, Nabali and Earlik
falls. While no cultivar comes in low and very high
shape size class (Table 5).
Table 5. Classification of olive fruit and stone shape and size
Category
Fruit shape
Stone shape
Spherical
-
-
Ovoid
Earlik, Koroneiki, FS-17
-
Elongate
Ottobratica, Hamdi, Gerboi, Arbequina,
Persia, Nabali
Earlik, Koroneiki, FS-17, Ottobratica, Hamdi, Gerboi,
Arbequina, Persia, Nabali
Fruit Size
Stone Size
Low
Nabali, Koroneiki, Gerboi
Gerboi, Arbequina, Koroneiki
Medium
Ottobratica, Arbequina
High
Hamdi, FS-17, Persia, Earlik
Ottobratica, Hamdi, FS-17, Persia, Nabali, Earlik
Very
high
-
-
DISCUSSION
Olive cultivars are usually characterized by
morphological, pomological, and oil parameters and
through molecular markers. But plant description
through morphological traits is easy to examine
variability as these traits are influenced by genotype,
environment and their interaction (Brkljaca et al.,
2018). Pomological characteristics of olive fruits are
mainly influenced by soil conditions, climatic (rainfall
and temperature), fertilizer, cultivar, location,
elevation and ripening stage (Kong et al., 2020;
Gulcemal et al., 2022).
Fruit weight parameters are used as an indicator to
determine plant yield. It determines the productivity
potential and decides its use for different value added
products (Sumrah et al., 2021). In the present
research, difference between fruit length, width
among studied cultivars was may be due to growing
site and moisture conditions. As potential water
requirement of olive trees depends upon the soil and
climate of the area and water availability at the end of
winter season. While varieties with lowest fruit
weight was may be due to a lack of irrigation water.
Similarly, variations in fruit weight and size among
olive varieties were also studied due to differences in
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the geographical site and hydrous conditions in Beni-
Mellal region of Morocco (Farssi et al., 2019).
Differences in single fruit weight among five olive
varieties in China were attributed due to tree vigour,
crop density, soil moisture, availability of nutrients
and fruit to leaf ratio. As shaded fruits tend to develop
at a slower rate with reduced size because light act as
an important factor in fruit growth (Kong et al.,
2020). Highest fruit weight (6.5g) of table variety
“Ascolana” and minimum weight (1.0g) of the oil
variety “Chemlali” were studied by Dridi et al.
(2019). On the basis of fruit weight, germplasm
planted in South of Tunisia had fruits divided into two
categories, low (>2g) and average (2-6g) (Jaouadi et
al., 2009). The Fruit shape index parameter
determines olive usage as a table or oil purpose.
Furthermore, these traits also play an important role in
the trade of olive fruits (Acila et al., 2017). As in this
study, highest fruit shape index of Arbequina variety
makes it an ideal table variety.
The olive endocarp is the woody internal part of the
fruit that encloses the seed. Usually, the term stone
describes both endocarp and seed together.
Morphological study of endocarp for cultivar
identification is more suitable than fruit or other
organs because it is less affected by the environment
due to its woody nature and protection from the pulp
limits its exposure to environmental conditions
(Blazakis et al., 2017). Seed size is an important
quality factor as it determines flesh to seed ratio,
particularly for table olive (Gulcemal et al., 2022). Pit
weight of table olive must be in the range of 0.5-0.8 g
and for edible oil weight has to 0.3-0.5 g respectively
(Tanilgan et al., 2007). In the studied cultivars, stone
weight of Hamdi, FS-17, Persia and Nabali was
higher than 0.5g, identifying as table varieties.
Maximum endocarp weight were observed in
Karbuncela variety growing in Croatia (Brkljaca et
al., 2018). Under the agro-climatic conditions of
Tunisia, Tounsi cultivar had a very high stone size as
compared to Chemlali whose stone was of the
smallest size (Methamam et al., 2015). In the present
study, the elongate stone shape of all studied cultivars
suggested little to no influence of environment on
stone parameters. Adakalic and Lazovic, (2018)
studied the olive endocarp of both old olive and
Zutica (commercially grown cultivar) in Montenegro
which was elliptical and had medium size, but the old
olive endocarp is wider at the base.
Flesh to stone ratio is an important quality parameter
and the cultivar with the highest fruit to stone ratio
had more economic value (Acila et al., 2017). Large
size with desirable shape, color and high stone to flesh
ratio was considered an ideal characteristics for
varieties to be used as table purposes (Ozdemir et al.,
2018). High percentage of pulp ensures high
commercial value for both table and oil production
(Dridi et al., 2019). Criteria regarding the selection of
fruit for table purpose are proper size and shape, high
flesh/stone ratio, and texture with ease in releasing of
seed. According to research, flesh to seed ratio must
be at least 5 for new table olive cultivars (Ozdemir et
al., 2020). According to IOOC, for table and dual
purpose, fruit weight must be more than 2.43 g and
pulp to pit ratio of more than 5 is considered suitable
(Padula et al., 2008). Pulp to seed ratio is an
important traits in olive breeding and it must be high
for table olives (Gundogdu and Kaynas, 2016). Flesh
to seed ratio mainly depends on genotype despite
being based on fruit weight which is usually
influenced by the environment (Padula et al., 2008).
The high fruit weight and flesh to stone ratio of FS-17
Variety suggested that it can be used as dual purpose.
Flesh to stone ratio in range of 4-8 were studied by
Kartas et al. (2016) in olive cultivated varieties
planted in Ouazzane area of Morocco. While
evaluating candidate line and cultivated variety ratio
in the range of 3.2-4.5 were observed by (Ozdemir et
al., 2018).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Genetic variability evaluation is the first and most
important step in any breeding program. The present
study is a primary approach for the characterization of
olive cultivars. Through pomological characterization,
FS-17, Hamdi and Earlik produced larger sized fruit
and proved to be more appropriate for table olive
production due to maximum fruit weight and
flesh/stone ratio. However, along with morphological
studies, it would be desirable to utilize biochemical
methods and molecular markers for characterization
purposes, to exploit the results of the present study in
genetic improvement programs.
NOVELTY STATEMENT
Determination of genetic diversity among
existing germplasm is the most important step in any
breeding program. Thus in present research,
estimation of variability through pomological
characterization help breeders to select these studied
cultivars as a parent in varietal developmental
program to improve local production of table and
edible oil that would eventually lead to lessen the
import of olive. Furthermore, this research would
also help farmers for the commercialization of these
cultivars at larger scale.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have declared no conflict of interest
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