Conference PaperPDF Available
Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational
Games
Olaoluwa Oyedokun
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
ooyedoku@purdue.edu
Syed Tanzim Mubarrat
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
smubarra@purdue.edu
Amogh Joshi
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
joshi134@purdue.edu
Christos Mousas
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
cmousas@purdue.edu
Dominic Kao
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
kaod@purdue.edu
ABSTRACT
The relevance and inuence of self-avatars in virtual environments
have become increasingly evident and widely acknowledged in the
research literature. Studies explore how these avatars inuence user
experiences, engagement, and embodiment across psychological,
social, cognitive, and behavioral domains. As virtual reality (VR)
technologies continue to evolve and become more integrated into
various domains, understanding the role of self-avatars becomes
crucial for designing immersive and eective virtual environments
that cater to the needs and preferences of users. To address this
issue, this study describes a work-in-progress VR educational game.
A fundamental aim of this VR educational game is to understand un-
derrepresented minorities’ players’ learning outcomes when subject
to dierent skin tone avatars in an immersive virtual environment.
This project aims to develop a VR game that allows players to
choose an avatar character from a validated list of characters or
to customize a character with their preferred skin tone that will
self-represent them in a virtual environment. This VR educational
game will serve as an informal learning platform accessible through
VR headsets.
CCS CONCEPTS
Human-centered computing;
KEYWORDS
Programming Education, Stereotype Threat, Educational Game
Design, Avatar Customization, STEM Education
ACM Reference Format:
Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas,
and Dominic Kao. 2024. Exploring the Inuence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR
Educational Games. In Companion Proceedings of the Annual Symposium on
Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY Companion ’24), October
14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland. ACM, New York, NY, USA, 8 pages. https:
//doi.org/10.1145/3665463.3678799
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution International
4.0 License.
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
©2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s).
ACM ISBN 979-8-4007-0692-9/24/10
https://doi.org/10.1145/3665463.3678799
1 INTRODUCTION
Avatars are a self-representation that enables interactions in virtual
environments, fostering signicant connections and resonating
with many individuals [
9
,
13
,
69
,
139
]. Within virtual environments,
avatars are increasingly recognized for their inuential role in shap-
ing player behaviors and attitudes [
144
]. For example, individuals
desire to create avatars that mirror their own appearance [
43
] or
aspire to have avatars, (e.g., role models [
60
,
78
]) that resonate
with them. Virtual avatars nd extensive applications in research
simulations, spanning elds such as training, education, and social
psychology [
31
]. Avatars are crucial in creating immersive environ-
ments [
34
,
47
,
143
]. Past studies have shown that avatars impact
embodiment in VR [
8
,
40
,
68
,
93
,
122
], and enhance emotional ex-
pression [
20
]. However, there is bias towards representations of
skin tones in VR [
126
], which connotes the negative eects of racial
bias [
42
,
76
,
99
,
133
]. For example, a study carried out by Sarah et
al., [
147
] on light and dark skin tones in a virtual world shows that
participants made more errors and took more time triaging dark-
skinned agents than light-skinned agents. Therefore, this makes
the design of virtual avatars important for marginalized groups.
Hence, researching a variety of avatar skin tones that players can
comfortably engage with is essential for gaining deeper insights
into players’ experiences and learning outcomes.
In response to this need, we propose a project focused on cre-
ating and evaluating an educational game. This game aims to in-
troduce players to various skin stereotypes in VR while they learn
programming-related skills (e.g., Java). The focal point of this study
is to explore the inuence of avatar skin tones in an educational
game on players’ relevant knowledge and skills [
125
]. Educational
games are widely studied for their potential to boost learning per-
formance [
52
], problem-solving [
17
], enthusiasm [
27
,
52
,
138
], ver-
satility and adjustability [
108
], and positive emotional encounters
[
84
,
114
]. Yet, while a signicant number of scholars have men-
tioned that exposing players to educational computing games is
crucial and fosters learning [
46
,
49
,
54
,
59
,
73
,
87
,
110
], educational
games in VR have yet to explore dierent avatar skin tones on
programming skills and learning outcomes. Historically, career-
relevant experiences such as internships, practicums, and hobbies,
are heavily biased from self-selection [
56
] and availability of op-
portunities [
53
], catering only to a restricted number of students.
227
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas, & Dominic Kao
Consequently, there is a growing trend among researchers to ex-
plore technologies aimed at bringing learning experiences, such as
the one described in this paper, directly to students.
The project consists of two phases with the initial phase ded-
icated to developing the VR computing game itself. Within this
computing game, players will solve short computing programs af-
ter being introduced to the dierent avatar skin tone designs. The
later phase of this project will focus on understanding the eects
of dierent avatar skin tones on learning outcomes and game ex-
periences. This project is guided by the theoretical frameworks of
self-perception theory [
12
], self-association [
76
], avatar and self
[
120
,
132
,
137
], and player identication scale (PIS) [
139
]. The game
design will be based on the Gee’s principles of learning [
37
]. We
will employ triangulation in our methodology that will integrate
multiple sources of data, including game performance, engagement,
and semi-structured interviews. Overall, this project will aim to
explore how VR and games can promote diversity in STEM elds.
2 RELATED WORK
2.1 Signicance and Background
Steele and Aronson coined the term “stereotype threat” which de-
scribes how individuals from negatively stereotyped groups tend
to underperform in certain situations [
126
]. It has been commonly
observed that individuals, particularly racial minorities in academic
settings [
4
,
126
], underperform when a negative stereotype about
their group is emphasized. In the context of STEM-related subjects,
such as computer programming, schools often see underrepresenta-
tion from certain racial minority groups [
103
]. Research has found
a correlation between students’ educational outcomes and their
interactions with faculty members who share their race or gender
[
21
,
106
,
112
]. Although a signicant body of research on stereotype
threat has concentrated on aspects such as gender [
23
,
33
,
64
,
83
,
96
],
voice [
63
], and performance [
65
,
117
,
124
], the impact of dierent
avatar skin tones in virtual reality (VR) educational environments
remains largely unexplored.
Avatars can play a crucial role in facilitating our ability to im-
merse ourselves in alternate identities [
58
]. When using avatars,
individuals often adopt the identity traits of those avatars and con-
form to the stereotypes associated with them [
107
,
143
]. This is
evident in real-world scenarios where individuals readily accepted
a rubber hand as their own [
15
]. Nevertheless, in terms of VR appli-
cations, many avatar customization platforms tend to oer a wider
range of options for avatars with lighter skin tones, reinforcing
socially exclusive norms [24, 79].
Researchers in the eld of VR contend that the wide range of
VR applications holds the potential to eect substantial changes
in society [
98
]. These applications span across various elds, such
as driving simulations [
57
], ight simulations [
25
,
32
,
72
,
94
,
135
],
surgical training [
5
,
19
,
77
,
85
,
95
,
105
], educational games [
70
,
89
,
104
], and physical exercises [
81
,
88
,
146
]. The prospective user
base for these VR applications encompasses people of diverse ages,
genders, racial or ethnic backgrounds, sexual orientations, and
physical capabilities [
9
,
48
,
100
]. This diversity, however, also opens
up the possibility of users experiencing stereotype threats due to
the skin tones of their avatars in VR environments. While there
has been research on the stereotype threats associated with avatars
in both VR and non-VR educational games [
60
,
61
,
96
,
97
], the
impact of dierent avatar skin tones has not been investigated.
Although a study by Do et al. [
30
] highlighted the importance of
avatar matching in a VR environment, this aspect was not explored
within the framework of a VR computing educational game.
2.2 VR Games and Education
The gaming industry is projected to reach a revenue of approx-
imately 196 billion US dollars by 2022 [
141
]. Concurrently, the
inuence of VR technology on this sector is anticipated to es-
calate, with a projected worth of 36 billion US dollars by 2025
[
39
]. Advocates for gaming argue that video games provide an
interactive learning environment that surpasses mere entertain-
ment, underscoring their capacity to improve cognitive abilities,
critical thinking, self-discipline, problem-solving, and creativity
[
11
,
66
,
102
,
111
,
113
]. They highlight the educational content em-
bedded in many games, asserting that gaming can be an engaging
method for gaining prociency in various subjects [
38
]. Educa-
tional games, also known as “serious games” [
86
], “edutainment”
[
18
], and “game-based learning” [
38
], have proven to be eec-
tive in facilitating learning [
36
,
41
,
75
,
128
,
131
]. This approach
has been utilized across a range of disciplines, including com-
puter science [
16
,
55
,
59
,
119
,
121
], civil engineering (construction)
[10, 28, 29, 136], music [101, 127] and medicine [2, 92].
From an educational and pedagogical perspective, interactive 3D
spaces oer numerous advantages over traditional 2D environments
[
26
,
109
]. Research indicates that interactive 3D spaces, such as VR
environments, enhance problem complexity [
90
], promote experi-
ential learning [
7
,
35
,
71
], facilitate collaborative learning [
3
,
45
],
and provide an immersive experience that increases concentration
and motivation for problem-solving [6].
2.3 VR Educational Games and Computer
Programming
Computer programming, a sequence of coded instructions [
14
,
82
],
is recognized as a cognitively challenging task [
50
]. The exploration
of computer programming is theoretically grounded in various the-
ories, which are intrinsically linked with variables that inuence an
individual’s interests, choices, and potential for success [
74
]. These
theories also encompass the identities and roles that individuals
adopt and navigate throughout their lifespan [
12
,
76
,
129
,
130
]. They
also involve instruments designed to measure outcomes related to
the embodiment of these identities and roles [
40
,
123
,
142
]. We
are motivated to explore how avatars’ appearances can inuence
outcomes for users based on their social group.
Numerous scholars have investigated the potential of both VR
and non-VR games (with and without avatars), including simulation
games, role-playing games, and arcade games, to stimulate inter-
est in computational programming [
16
,
55
,
59
,
60
,
62
,
89
,
91
,
119
].
For instance, Mazzy, a non-VR game, allowed players to learn pro-
gramming by using role models as their avatars within the game
environment. This approach demonstrated positive outcomes in
terms of player experience and engagement with their avatars [
60
].
Similarly, in a VR game VR-OCKS, the avatar was designed to be
accessible to all ages, resulting in signicant behavioral changes
among the participants [
119
]. Furthermore, a study carried out
228
Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational Games CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
by Peck et al. [
96
] found a signicant correlation between gender
swapping and cognitive workload during a VR math experiment.
The study revealed that participants’ cognitive demands altered
when they switched genders within the virtual environment, high-
lighting the impact of embodied experiences on cognitive processes
in VR-based learning.
Nevertheless, while a considerable amount of research has been
dedicated to the impact of gender-based stereotype threats on
avatars in gaming contexts [
23
,
33
,
64
,
83
,
96
], there has been lim-
ited research on exploring the stereotype threats associated with
avatar skin tones in computer programming games. In one study
[
60
], a non-VR game centered around computer programming was
developed to evaluate learning outcomes inuenced by role mod-
els. The results of the gameplay demonstrated that players tend to
select role models from their racial group. In a separate study [
96
],
researchers explored the impact of gender body swap embodiment
on working memory in VR and found positive eects.
Researchers have studied the eects of gender-specic and dif-
ferent skin tone avatars on stereotype threat in educational games,
aiming to understand how avatar representation inuences user
experiences and learning outcomes. To the best of our knowledge
not much research has been done in exploring dierent avatar skin
tones. In our research, we are primarily focusing on examining the
inuence of skin tones between users’ persona and their self-avatar
on the sense of embodiment and learning outcomes.
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview
This study’s objective is two-fold: rstly, to develop a VR educa-
tional computing game, and secondly, to examine the eects of
avatar skin tones on gaming experience and learning outcomes. To
understand how skin tones inuence game design, we will conduct
two comprehensive multivariate studies, oering a variety of avatar
skin tones. Through these studies, we will attempt to address the
following research inquiries:
RQ1. How does the representation of avatars with various skin
tones aect the gaming experience and learning outcomes in a
computing game?
RQ2. How does the programming game inuence the players’ ex-
ploration of computing concepts and aect their overall gaming
experience?
We believe this research will provide invaluable insights for ed-
ucational game designers, equipping them with the knowledge to
navigate the intricate landscape of integrating avatar skin tones
within their gaming platforms. By leveraging this information, de-
signers will be able to make informed decisions, creating games that
not only engage players but also facilitate a deeper understanding
of computing through immersive experiences.
3.2 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework to support this project is based on
self-perception theory [
12
], which primarily examines individu-
als’ identities concerning stereotypes, outcome expectations, and
learning objectives. Complementing this, we will also draw upon
self-association theory [
76
], which theorizes that avatars symbol-
izing individuals from outside one’s immediate group or commu-
nity can still bear signicant resemblances to those individuals in
terms of physical appearance, cultural background, or behavioral
patterns. This could foster a sense of connection or identication
between the avatars and the individuals. Furthermore, we will incor-
porate principles from computer programming theory [
44
], which
outlines the signicant impact of programming education and its
potential applicability across various domains. Collectively, these
theories provide invaluable insights into the embodiment of player
experiences within virtual environments. To specically analyze
player-avatar embodiment, we will employ the player identication
scale (PIS) framework [
139
], which oers a structured approach to
understanding these experiences in virtual contexts.
3.3 Game Design
The game will be set in a VR environment where players can en-
hance their programming skills by solving levels through the cre-
ation of short computer programs. It will challenge players to de-
velop their coding skills by navigating through 12 levels of program-
ming puzzles, with a focus on object-oriented programming (OOP)
concepts, such as objects, methods, setters, getters, method argu-
ments, and garbage collection, using Java as the primary language.
The initial levels, numbered 1 to 5, will introduce basic commands
to establish a strong foundational understanding of the players.
As players advance to levels 6 to 9, the game will introduce more
intricate challenges that incorporate loops, encouraging players to
apply logical and iterative problem-solving techniques. The nal
stages, levels 10 to 12, will require players to synthesize all previ-
ously learned commands and techniques, with the introduction of
conditionals. This structured progression will ensure that players
have a comprehensive understanding of essential programming
principles by the end of the game. The OOP concepts and their cor-
responding exercises within the game are detailed in Table 1 of the
online Appendix
1
. Players will encounter these concepts through
interactions with both familiar and stereotype-threat avatars.
At the start of the game, players will be presented with the oppor-
tunity to choose a character from a wide variety of options, allowing
them to choose one that they feel comfortable with, identify with,
or even one that resembles them [
21
,
106
,
112
]. The avatar of these
characters will be selected from a study by Tiany et al. [
31
] (Figure
1). These characters will serve as guides, providing players with
basic information, instructions, and explanations of the command
prompts. In addition, the initial setup phase will also allow players
to customize the landscape by determining the placement and quan-
tity of elements like houses and trees, aligning the virtual world
with their personal goals and the activity’s requirements.
3.4 Research Design
Our proposed research plan is structured into two sequential phases.
The initial phase is dedicated to the development of a computing ex-
ploration game for VR, employing an iterative design methodology.
This approach allows for the creation of preliminary prototypes,
which can be evaluated and rened or discarded promptly, thereby
1
A full list of gures and mock-ups pertaining to the game design can be found in the
online Appendix: https://osf.io/zw3bq/.
229
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas, & Dominic Kao
Figure 1: Example of avatars that we will use in our study
(taken from [31]).
facilitating rapid progress and renement of the game’s mechanics
and features [51].
In the second phase, we will carry out two distinct studies. The
rst study (Study A) will investigate the impact of avatar customiza-
tion options, specically skin tone, on players’ gaming experience
and decision-making processes. The second study (Study B) will ex-
amine the eects of the computing game on participants’ learning
outcomes. The entire project is anticipated to span two years, with
a detailed timeline presented in Figure 3 of the online Appendix1.
3.4.1 Phase 1: Game Development. This phase will involve a com-
prehensive examination of the game’s design, mechanics, and over-
all structure. We aim to create a compelling and immersive gaming
experience through meticulous attention to detail and iterative
renement. In addition, the game’s design has been thoughtfully
informed by relevant theoretical frameworks (see Figure 1 of the
online Appendix
1
). Furthermore, Phase 1 will encompass rigorous
testing and evaluation, with a focus on usability and learnability, to
ensure that the computing game adheres to the desired standards
of quality and functionality [
22
]. We believe this dedicated focus on
designing the game will lay a solid foundation for the subsequent
phases of the project.
3.4.2 Phase 2A: Avatar Skin Tone Choices in the Computing Game.
RQ1. How does the representation of avatars with various skin tones
aect the gaming experience and learning outcomes in a computing
game?
Intervention: In this study, we aim to investigate how the pres-
ence or absence of relatable avatar skin tones aects the gaming
experience and learning outcomes. We will conduct an experiment
where participants will interact with avatars that reect their self-
identied skin tone, as well as variations of this tone. Please refer
to Table 1 in the online Appendix1for further details.
Participants: For this study, we aim to recruit young adults aged
18 to 25 from our university who self-identify as Black, Hispanic, or
female. We chose this demographic based on prior research, which
suggests that individuals within this age group, regardless of gender
and race, are more receptive to interventions that may inuence
their decision-making process regarding a career in computing
[145].
Procedures: Each participant will be instructed to select an
avatar that best represents their self-identied skin tone from a
range of available avatars. Subsequently, four additional avatars,
each representing a variant of the chosen skin tone, will be automat-
ically selected (Table 1 in the online Appendix
1
). Each participant
will then play the game for 30 minutes under each of the ve skin
tone conditions:
MD - Much Darker Skin Tone
SD - Slightly Darker Skin Tone
NO - No Change condition (Self Identied)
SL - Slightly Lighter Skin Tone
ML - Much Lighter Skin Tone
Qualitative and Quantitative Measures: Data will be gath-
ered through a combination of surveys administered to participants
and the analysis of in-game metrics and behaviors, known as game
analytics. Moreover, we will investigate the predictive capacity of
various factors, including but not limited to the virtual environment,
in forecasting the outcomes of computational exploration. We will
conduct a thorough analysis of how design features, interactivity,
and environmental cues within the virtual setting inuence the ex-
ploration process and ultimately shape the results obtained through
computational methods. By incorporating these additional variables
into our analysis, we aim to gain a comprehensive understanding
of the complex dynamics involved in computational exploration.
Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the various tools,
techniques, and methodologies that we will utilize to gather data
and assess the variables under investigation. The validation proce-
dures for these survey instruments have been meticulously designed
by previous researchers, ensuring their reliability and accuracy in
capturing relevant data. To illustrate, we will employ statistical
tests, such as Cronbach’s alpha, to evaluate the internal consistency
and reliability of the survey items before incorporating them into
the research framework.
Analysis: We will primarily be studying dierences across the
ve skin tone conditions using ANOVA. We will compare the col-
lected survey data and the insights derived from game analytics
across dierent experimental conditions. Additionally, these data
will serve as predictor variables in regression analyses, enabling a
deeper investigation of the relationship between game design deci-
sions and participant responses. These predictor variables (collected
as post-test variables) will include: self-representation in the avatar
skin tone conditions, self-association and player identication with
the avatar, and relatedness with in-game avatar skin tone design.
3.4.3 Phase 2B: Eects of the Computing Game Exploration on Play-
ers’ Experience. RQ2. How does the programming game inuence
the players’ exploration of computing concepts and aect their overall
gaming experience outcome?
Intervention: In this study, we will undertake a comprehensive
examination of the impact of our computing game over six months.
Throughout this time-frame, each participant will be assigned a
personalized avatar to accompany them through their gaming expe-
rience. Following the conclusion of the extended gameplay period,
we will conduct an extensive survey to assess the enduring eects
and impressions of the computing game. This longitudinal approach
230
Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational Games CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
Table 1: Measurement instruments in Study A.
Conceptual Group Instruments Time
Avatar Embodiment Avatar Embodiment. A
Standardized Questionnaire [40]
Pre/Post
Game Experience
Outcomes
Player Experience of Need
Satisfaction [115]
Player Experience Inventory [1]
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory
[80]
Post
Avatar Identication Player Identication Scale [139] Post
Measure of Immersion
A questionnaire to measure the
user experience in immersive
virtual environments [134]
Presence questionnaires in virtual
reality [118]
Pre/Post
Performance,
Engagement, and
Persistence (game
analytics)
Player Data (progress, in-game
scores, time played, successes and
failures)
During
will provide insights into how the game inuences various aspects
of the participants’ experiences and perceptions over time.
Participants: The same group of participants from Study A.
Procedure: Each participant will select their preferred familiar
avatar. Subsequently, they will be instructed to play the game for
30 minutes daily for four months. After this period, participants
will complete various questionnaires and undergo a brief semi-
structured interview to gather their insights and experiences (Table
2).
Qualitative and Quantitative Measures: Data will be col-
lected through a series of surveys and questionnaires (Table 2)
administered to the participants conducted both before and after
the gameplay sessions. Participants assigned an avatar will take
part in a 15-minute follow-up interview during the post-test phase.
The interviews will investigate participants’ perspectives on the
eectiveness of dierent avatar skin tones in a VR educational
game.
Analysis: To characterize participants’ perceptions of comput-
ing activities within various game-problem conditions from inter-
view data, we will employ the established grounded theory method-
ology by Saldana [
116
], which involves segmenting the transcripts
into thematic codes and identifying patterns [116].
4 CONCLUSION
The objective of this study is to gain meaningful insights into how
avatar skin tones aect participant experiences and behaviors. This
methodological approach aims to provide researchers with a de-
tailed understanding of the inuence of dierent game components
on all participants. Single-session user studies will assess the ef-
fectiveness of avatar skin tone choices in creating stereotypes and
inuencing player outcomes. Comprehensive data from exploratory
studies will help understand the impact of various avatar skin tone
options on learning outcomes. Using multiple data sources in a
Table 2: Measurement instruments in Study B.
Conceptual Group Instruments Time
Avatar Embodiment Avatar Embodiment. A
Standardized Questionnaire [40]
Pre/Post
Game Experience
Outcomes
Player Experience of Need
Satisfaction [115]
Player Experience Inventory [1]
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory
[80]
Post
Interest in Computing
Computing Interests Survey
(adapted from [67]
Pre/Post
Computing
Self-Ecacy
Computer Science Attitude Survey
[140]
Pre/Post
Interview Semi-Structured Interview Post
Performance,
Engagement, and
Persistence (game
analytics)
Player Data (progress, in-game
scores, time played, successes and
failures)
During
triangulated approach will enhance the study’s validity. Key met-
rics for evaluating the eectiveness of avatar representation will
include motivated behavior, in-game progress, learning outcomes,
and overall gaming experience.
Our research oers scholars and educators a valuable resource
for systematically investigating this eld. By thoroughly analyzing
the ndings of our project, we anticipate it will inspire heightened
interest and exploration in future research endeavors. We aim to
delve deeply into the potential of educational games and the intrica-
cies of avatar representation, providing abundant data and insights
for further study and advancement in this area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported in part by the National Science Founda-
tion under the award number IIS #2338122. Any opinions, ndings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reect the views of the
National Science Foundation.
REFERENCES
[1]
Vero Vanden Abeele, Katta Spiel, Lennart Nacke, Daniel Johnson, and Kathrin
Gerling. 2020. Development and validation of the player experience inventory:
A scale to measure player experiences at the level of functional and psychosocial
consequences. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 135 (2020),
102370.
[2]
Areej Abuhammad, Jannat Falah, Salasabeel FM Alfalah, Muhannad Abu-
Tarboush, Ruba T Tarawneh, Dimitris Drikakis, and Vassilis Charissis. 2021.
“MedChemVR”: a virtual reality game to enhance medicinal chemistry education.
Multimodal Technologies and Interaction 5, 3 (2021), 10.
[3]
Aida Afrooz, Lan Ding, and Christopher Pettit. 2019. An immersive 3D virtual
environment to support collaborative learning and teaching. Computational
Urban Planning and Management for Smart Cities 16 (2019), 267–282.
[4]
Rajeev K Agrawal, Myron L Stevenson, and Clay Gloster. 2016. Understanding
the reasons for low representation of ethnic minority students in STEM elds.
In 2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition.
[5]
Florence Aïm, Guillaume Lonjon, Didier Hannouche, and Remy Nizard. 2016.
Eectiveness of virtual reality training in orthopaedic surgery. Arthroscopy: the
journal of arthroscopic & related surgery 32, 1 (2016), 224–232.
231
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas, & Dominic Kao
[6]
Paola Araiza-Alba, Therese Keane, Won Sun Chen, and Jordy Kaufman. 2021.
Immersive virtual reality as a tool to learn problem-solving skills. Computers &
Education 164 (2021), 104121.
[7]
Muhammad Mujtaba Asad, Aisha Naz, Prathamesh Churi, and Moham-
mad Mehdi Tahanzadeh. 2021. Virtual reality as pedagogical tool to enhance
experiential learning: a systematic literature review. Education Research Inter-
national 2021 (2021), 1–17.
[8]
Domna Banakou, Alejandro Beacco, Solène Neyret, Marta Blasco-Oliver, Soa
Seinfeld, and Mel Slater. 2020. Virtual body ownership and its consequences for
implicit racial bias are dependent on social context. Royal Society open science 7,
12 (2020), 201848.
[9]
Jaime Banks. 2015. Object, me, symbiote, other: A social typology of player-
avatar relationships. First Monday (2015).
[10]
Huai Jian Beh, Ali Rashidi, Amin Talei, and Yee Sye Lee. 2022. Developing
engineering students’ capabilities through game-based virtual reality technology
for building utility inspection. Engineering, Construction and Architectural
Management 29, 7 (2022), 2854–2877.
[11]
John T Bell and H Scott Fogler. 1995. The investigation and application of
virtual reality as an educational tool. In Proceedings of the American society for
engineering education annual conference, Vol. 2513.
[12]
Daryl J Bem. 1972. Self-perception theory. In Advances in experimental social
psychology. Vol. 6. Elsevier, 1–62.
[13]
Katherine Bessière, A Fleming Seay, and Sara Kiesler. 2007. The ideal elf: Identity
exploration in World of Warcraft. Cyberpsychology & behavior 10, 4 (2007), 530–
535.
[14]
Alan F Blackwell. 2002. What is programming?. In PPIG, Vol. 14. Citeseer,
204–218.
[15]
Matthew Botvinick and Jonathan Cohen. 1998. Rubber hands ‘feel’touch that
eyes see. Nature 391, 6669 (1998), 756–756.
[16]
Nacir Bouali, Eeva Nygren, Solomon Sunday Oyelere, Jarkko Suhonen, and
Violetta Cavalli-Sforza. 2019. Imikode: A VR game to introduce OOP concepts.
In Proceedings of the 19th koli calling international conference on computing
education research. 1–2.
[17]
John D Bransford. 2013. The Jasper project: Lessons in curriculum, instruction,
assessment, and professional development. Routledge.
[18]
D Buckingham and M Scanlon. 2000. That is edutainment: media, pedagogy
and the market place: paper presented to the International forum of researchers
on young people and the media. (2000).
[19]
Christina Buckley, Emmeline Nugent, Donncha Ryan, and Paul Neary. 2012.
Virtual reality–a new era in surgical training. Virtual reality in psychological,
medical and pedagogical applications 7 (2012), 139–166.
[20]
Crystal Butler, Stephanie Michalowicz, Lakshmi Subramanian, and Winslow
Burleson. 2017. More than a Feeling: The MiFace Framework for Dening Facial
Communication Mappings. In Proceedings of the 30th Annual ACM Symposium
on User Interface Software and Technology. 773–786.
[21]
Brandice J Canes and Harvey S Rosen. 1995. Following in her footsteps? Faculty
gender composition and women’s choices of college majors. ILR Review 48, 3
(1995), 486–504.
[22]
Po-Yao Chao. 2016. Exploring students’ computational practice, design and
performance of problem-solving through a visual programming environment.
Computers & Education 95 (2016), 202–215.
[23]
Sapna Cheryan, Sianna A Ziegler, Amanda K Montoya, and Lily Jiang. 2017.
Why are some STEM elds more gender balanced than others? Psychological
bulletin 143, 1 (2017), 1.
[24]
Mia Consalvo. 2003. It’s a queer world after all: Studying The Sims and sexuality.
Glaad.
[25]
Jamie Ian Cross, Christine Boag-Hodgson, Tim Ryley, Timothy Mavin, and
Leigh Ellen Potter. 2022. Using extended reality in ight simulators: a literature
review. IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics (2022).
[26]
Barney Dalgarno and Mark JW Lee. 2010. What are the learning aordances of
3-D virtual environments? British journal of educational technology 41, 1 (2010),
10–32.
[27]
Michele D Dickey. 2011. Murder on Grimm Isle: The impact of game narrative
design in an educational game-based learning environment. British journal of
educational technology 42, 3 (2011), 456–469.
[28]
Fábio Matoseiro Dinis, Ana Soa Guimaraes, Bárbara Rangel Carvalho, and João
Pedro Poças Martins. 2017. Development of virtual reality game-based inter-
faces for civil engineering education. In 2017 IEEE global engineering education
conference (EDUCON). IEEE, 1195–1202.
[29]
Fábio Matoseiro Dinis, Ana Soa Guimarães, Bárbara Rangel Carvalho, and
João Pedro Poças Martins. 2017. Virtual and augmented reality game-based
applications to civil engineering education. In 2017 IEEE global engineering
education conference (EDUCON). IEEE, 1683–1688.
[30]
Tiany D Do, Camille Isabella Protko, and Ryan P McMahan. 2024. Stepping
into the Right Shoes: The Eects of User-Matched Avatar Ethnicity and Gender
on Sense of Embodiment in Virtual Reality. IEEE Transactions on Visualization
and Computer Graphics (2024).
[31]
Tiany D Do, Steve Zelenty, Mar Gonzalez-Franco, and Ryan P McMahan.
2023. VALID: A perceptually validated Virtual Avatar Library for Inclusion and
Diversity. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.10902 (2023).
[32]
Daniel Dreyer, Matthias Oberhauser, and Daniel Bandow. 2014. H UD symbology
evaluation in a virtual reality ight simulation. In Proceedings of the International
Conference on Human-Computer Interaction in Aerospace. 1–6.
[33]
Joseph Fordham, Rabindra Ratan, Kuo-Ting Huang, and Kyle Silva. 2020. Stereo-
type threat in a video game context and its inuence on perceptions of science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): Avatar-induced active self-
concept as a possible mitigator. American Behavioral Scientist 64, 7 (2020),
900–926.
[34]
Jesse Fox, Sun Joo Ahn, Joris H Janssen, Leo Yeykelis, Kathryn Y Segovia, and
Jeremy N Bailenson. 2015. Avatars versus agents: a meta-analysis quantifying
the eect of agency on social inuence. Human–Computer Interaction 30, 5
(2015), 401–432.
[35]
Jennifer Fromm, Jaziar Radianti, Charlotte Wehking, Stefan Stieglitz, Tim A
Majchrzak, and Jan vom Brocke. 2021. More than experience?-On the unique
opportunities of virtual reality to aord a holistic experiential learning cycle.
The Internet and higher education 50 (2021), 100804.
[36]
James Paul Gee. 2003. What video games have to teach us about learning and
literacy. Computers in entertainment (CIE) 1, 1 (2003), 20–20.
[37]
James Paul Gee. 2007. Good video games+ good learning: Collected essays on
video games, learning, and literacy. Peter Lang.
[38]
James Paul Gee. 2011. Reections on empirical evidence on games and learning.
Computer games and instruction 223232 (2011).
[39]
Sachs Goldman. 2016. Virtual & Augmented Reality: The Next Big Computing
Platform. Innovation series. Research report (2016).
[40]
Mar Gonzalez-Franco and Tabitha C Peck. 2018. Avatar embodiment. towards a
standardized questionnaire. Frontiers in Robotics and AI 5 (2018), 74.
[41]
Isabela Granic, Adam Lobel, and Rutger CME Engels. 2014. The benets of
playing video games. American psychologist 69, 1 (2014), 66.
[42]
Victoria Groom, Jeremy N Bailenson, and Cliord Nass. 2009. The inuence
of racial embodiment on racial bias in immersive virtual environments. Social
Inuence 4, 3 (2009), 231–248.
[43]
Siqi Guo, Minsoo Choi, Dominic Kao, and Christos Mousas. 2024. Collaborating
with my Doppelgänger: The Eects of Self-similar Appearance and Voice of a
Virtual Character during a Jigsaw Puzzle Co-solving Task. Proceedings of the
ACM on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques 7, 1 (2024), 1–23.
[44]
Eitan Gurari and Eitan Gurari. 1989. An introduction to the theory of computation.
Vol. 338. Computer Science Press Rockville.
[45]
Raija Hämäläinen. 2011. Using a game environment to foster collaborative
learning: a design-based study. Technology, Pedagogy and Education 20, 1 (2011),
61–78.
[46]
Lisa Hasenbein, Philipp Stark, Ulrich Trautwein, Anna Carolina Muller Queiroz,
Jeremy Bailenson, Jens-Uwe Hahn, and Richard Göllner. 2022. Learning with
simulated virtual classmates: Eects of social-related congurations on stu-
dents’ visual attention and learning experiences in an immersive virtual reality
classroom. Computers in Human Behavior 133 (2022), 107282.
[47]
Paul Heidicker, Eike Langbehn, and Frank Steinicke. 2017. Inuence of avatar ap-
pearance on presence in social VR. In 2017 IEEE symposium on 3D user interfaces
(3DUI). IEEE, 233–234.
[48]
Joseph Henrich, Steven J Heine, and Ara Norenzayan. 2010. The weirdest people
in the world? Behavioral and brain sciences 33, 2-3 (2010), 61–83.
[49]
Raquel Hijón-Neira, Liliana Santacruz-Valencia, Diana Pérez-Marín, and Marta
Gómez-Gómez. 2017. An analysis of the current situation of teaching program-
ming in Primary Education. In 2017 International Symposium on Computers in
Education (SIIE). IEEE, 1–6.
[50] J-M Hoc. 2014. Psychology of programming. Academic Press.
[51]
Robin Hunicke, Marc LeBlanc, Robert Zubek, et al
.
2004. MDA: A formal ap-
proach to game design and game research. In Proceedings of the AAAI Workshop
on Challenges in Game AI, Vol. 4. San Jose, CA, 1722.
[52]
Gwo-Jen Hwang, Po-Han Wu, and Chi-Chang Chen. 2012. An online game
approach for improving students’ learning performance in web-based problem-
solving activities. Computers & Education 59, 4 (2012), 1246–1256.
[53]
Denise Jackson and Nicholas Wilton. 2016. Developing career management
competencies among undergraduates and the role of work-integrated learning.
Teaching in Higher Education 21, 3 (2016), 266–286.
[54]
Franc Jakoš and Domen Verber. 2017. Learning basic programing skills with
educational games: A case of primary schools in Slovenia. Journal of Educational
Computing Research 55, 5 (2017), 673–698.
[55]
Qiao Jin, Yu Liu, Ye Yuan, Lana Yarosh, and Evan Suma Rosenberg. 2020. VWorld:
an immersive VR system for learning programming. In Proceedings of the 2020
ACM interaction Design and children conference: Extended abstracts. 235–240.
[56]
M Gail Jones, Gina Childers, Elysa Corin, Katherine Chesnutt, and Thomas
Andre. 2019. Free choice science learning and STEM career choice. International
Journal of Science Education, Part B 9, 1 (2019), 29–39.
[57]
Uijong Ju, Lewis L Chuang, and Christian Wallraven. 2020. Acoustic cues
increase situational awareness in accident situations: A VR car-driving study.
IEEE transactions on intelligent transportation systems 23, 4 (2020), 3281–3291.
232
Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational Games CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
[58]
Dominic Kao. 2018. Researching and developing the impacts of virtual identity
on computational learning environments. Ph. D. Dissertation. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
[59]
Dominic Kao. 2019. JavaStrike: A Java programming engine embedded in virtual
worlds. In Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on the Foundations of
Digital Games. 1–5.
[60]
Dominic Kao and D Fox Harrell. 2015. Exploring the impact of role model
avatars on game experience in educational games. In Proceedings of the 2015
annual symposium on computer-human interaction in play. 571–576.
[61]
Dominic Kao and D Fox Harrell. 2018. The eects of badges and avatar identi-
cation on play and making in educational games. In Proceedings of the 2018 CHI
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1–19.
[62]
Dominic Kao, Alejandra J Magana, Olaoluwa Oyedokun, and Akash Ravi. 2022.
Towards an Educational Computing Career Exploration Game. In Extended
Abstracts of the 2022 Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play.
8–16.
[63]
Dominic Kao, Syed T Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Swati Pandita, Christos Mousas,
Hai-Ning Liang, and Rabindra Ratan. 2024. Exploring how gender-anonymous
voice avatars inuence women’s performance in online computing group work.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies 181 (2024), 103146.
[64]
Linda K Kaye, Charlotte R Pennington, and Joseph J McCann. 2018. Do casual
gaming environments evoke stereotype threat? Examining the eects of explicit
priming and avatar gender. Computers in Human Behavior 78 (2018), 142–150.
[65]
Johannes Keller. 2002. Blatant stereotype threat and women’s math perfor-
mance: Self-handicapping as a strategic means to cope with obtrusive negative
performance expectations. Sex Roles 47, 3 (2002), 193–198.
[66]
Michael D Kickmeier-Rust and Dietrich Albert. 2012. A domain model for smart
21st century skills training in game-based virtual worlds. In 2012 IEEE 12th
International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies. IEEE, 680–681.
[67]
Meredith W Kier, Margaret R Blanchard, Jason W Osborne, and Jennifer L
Albert. 2014. The development of the STEM career interest survey (STEM-CIS).
Research in Science Education 44 (2014), 461–481.
[68]
Konstantina Kilteni, Raphaela Groten, and Mel Slater. 2012. The sense of em-
bodiment in virtual reality. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 21,
4 (2012), 373–387.
[69]
Christoph Klimmt, Dorothée Hefner, Peter Vorderer, Christian Roth, and Christo-
pher Blake. 2010. Identication with video game characters as automatic shift
of self-perceptions. Media Psychology 13, 4 (2010), 323–338.
[70]
Martin Krajčovič, Gabriela Gabajová, Beáta Furmannová, Vladimír Vavrík, Mar-
tin Gašo, and Marián Matys. 2021. A case study of educational games in virtual
reality as a teaching method of lean management. Electronics 10, 7 (2021), 838.
[71]
Myungjae Kwak, Kevin S Floyd, and Kirill M Yurov. 2015. A 3D LEARNING
GAME TO FOSTER COMPUTATIONAL THINKING IN K-12 EDUCATION.
Issues in Information Systems 16, 4 (2015).
[72]
Agata Lawrynczyk. 2018. Exploring virtual reality ight training as a viable
alternative to traditional simulator ight training. Ph. D. Dissertation. Carleton
University.
[73]
Krittaya Leelawong and Gautam Biswas. 2008. Designing learning by teaching
agents: The Betty’s Brain system. International Journal of Articial Intelligence
in Education 18, 3 (2008), 181–208.
[74]
Robert W Lent, Steven D Brown, and Gail Hackett. 2000. Contextual supports
and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal of counseling
psychology 47, 1 (2000), 36.
[75]
Andrew Lu, Sandra Chan, Yiyu Cai, Lihui Huang, Zin Tun Nay, and Sui Lin Goei.
2018. Learning through VR gaming with virtual pink dolphins for children with
ASD. Interactive Learning Environments 26, 6 (2018), 718–729.
[76]
Lara Maister, Mel Slater, Maria V Sanchez-Vives, and Manos Tsakiris. 2015.
Changing bodies changes minds: owning another body aects social cognition.
Trends in cognitive sciences 19, 1 (2015), 6–12.
[77]
Randi Q Mao, Lucy Lan, Jerey Kay, Ryan Lohre, Olufemi R Ayeni, Danny P
Goel, et al
.
2021. Immersive virtual reality for surgical training: a systematic
review. Journal of Surgical Research 268 (2021), 40–58.
[78]
David M Marx, Sei Jin Ko, and Ray A Friedman. 2009. The “Obama eect”: How
a salient role model reduces race-based performance dierences. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology 45, 4 (2009), 953–956.
[79]
Victoria McArthur, Robert John Teather, and Jennifer Jenson. 2015. The avatar
aordances framework: mapping aordances and design trends in character
creation interfaces. In Proceedings of the 2015 annual symposium on Computer-
Human Interaction in Play. 231–240.
[80]
Edward McAuley, Terry Duncan, and Vance V Tammen. 1989. Psychometric
properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a competitive sport setting:
A conrmatory factor analysis. Research quarterly for exercise and sport 60, 1
(1989), 48–58.
[81]
Coleen McClure and Damian Schoeld. 2019. Running virtual: The eect of
virtual reality on exercise. (2019).
[82]
Daniel D McCracken. 1957. Digital computer programming. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
[83]
Matthew S McGlone, Joshua Aronson, and Diane Kobrynowicz. 2006. Stereotype
threat and the gender gap in political knowledge. Psychology of Women Quarterly
30, 4 (2006), 392–398.
[84]
Jane McGonigal. 2011. Reality is broken: Why games make us better and how
they can change the world. Penguin.
[85]
R Randall McKnight, Christian A Pean, J Stewart Buck, John S Hwang,
Joseph R Hsu, and Sarah N Pierrie. 2020. Virtual reality and augmented real-
ity—translating surgical training into surgical technique. Current reviews in
musculoskeletal medicine 13 (2020), 663–674.
[86]
David R Michael and Sandra L Chen. 2005. Serious games: Games that educate,
train, and inform. Muska & Lipman/Premier-Trade.
[87]
Selvarajah Mohanarajah and Thambithurai Sritharan. 2022. Shoot2Learn: Fix-
and-Play Educational Game for Learning Programming; Enhancing Student
Engagement by Mixing Game Playing and Game Programming. Journal of
Information Technology Education: Research 21 (2022).
[88]
Brendan Mouatt, Ashleigh E Smith, Maddison L Mellow, Gaynor Partt, Ross T
Smith, and Tasha R Stanton. 2020. The use of virtual reality to inuence moti-
vation, aect, enjoyment, and engagement during exercise: A scoping review.
Frontiers in Virtual Reality 1 (2020), 564664.
[89]
Syed Tanzim Mubarrat. 2024. GeoBotsVR: A Robotics Learning Game for
Beginners with Hands-on Learning Simulation. In Extended Abstracts of the CHI
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1–6.
[90]
Oi-Lam Ng and To Chan. 2019. Learning as Making: Using 3D computer-aided
design to enhance the learning of shape and space in STEM-integrated ways.
British Journal of Educational Technology 50, 1 (2019), 294–308.
[91]
Vinh T Nguyen, Yuanlin Zhang, Kwanghee Jung, Wanli Xing, and Tommy
Dang. 2020. VRASP: A Virtual Reality Environment for Learning Answer Set
Programming. In Practical Aspects of Declarative Languages: 22nd International
Symposium, PADL 2020, New Orleans, LA, USA, January 20–21, 2020, Proceedings
22. Springer, 82–91.
[92]
Stelian Nicola, Ioan Virag, and Lacramioara Stoicu-Tivadar. 2017. VR Medical
Gamication for Training and Education. eHealth 1, 1 (2017), 97–103.
[93]
Kristine L Nowak and Frank Biocca. 2003. The eect of the agency and anthro-
pomorphism on users’ sense of telepresence, copresence, and social presence
in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments 12, 5
(2003), 481–494.
[94]
Matthias Oberhauser and Daniel Dreyer. 2017. A virtual reality ight simulator
for human factors engineering. Cognition, Technology & Work 19 (2017), 263–
277.
[95]
Vanessa N Palter and Teodor P Grantcharov. 2010. Virtual reality in surgical
skills training. Surgical Clinics 90, 3 (2010), 605–617.
[96]
Tabitha C Peck, My Doan, Kimberly A Bourne, and Jessica J Good. 2018. The
eect of gender body-swap illusions on working memory and stereotype threat.
IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics 24, 4 (2018), 1604–1612.
[97]
Tabitha C Peck and Jessica J Good. 2023. Measuring embodiment: Movement
complexity and the impact of personal characteristics. IEEE Transactions on
Visualization and Computer Graphics (2023).
[98]
Tabitha C Peck, Kyla A McMullen, and John Quarles. 2021. Divrsify: Break the
cycle and develop vr for everyone. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 41,
6 (2021), 133–142.
[99]
Tabitha C Peck, Soa Seinfeld, Salvatore M Aglioti, and Mel Slater. 2013. Putting
yourself in the skin of a black avatar reduces implicit racial bias. Consciousness
and cognition 22, 3 (2013), 779–787.
[100]
Tabitha C Peck, Laura E Sockol, and Sarah M Hancock. 2020. Mind the gap:
The underrepresentation of female participants and authors in virtual reality
research. IEEE transactions on visualization and computer graphics 26, 5 (2020),
1945–1954.
[101]
Simon Pfaf, Olav Lervik, Reto Spoerri, Eleonora Berra, Margarete Jahrmann,
and Martin Neukom. 2018. Games in concert: collaborative music making in
virtual reality. In SIGGRAPH Asia 2018 Virtual & Augmented Reality. 1–2.
[102]
Marc Prensky. 2006. Don’t bother me, mom, I’m learning!: How computer and
video games are preparing your kids for 21st century success and how you can
help! Paragon house St. Paul, MN.
[103]
Joshua Price. 2010. The eect of instructor race and gender on student persis-
tence in STEM elds. Economics of Education Review 29, 6 (2010), 901–910.
[104]
Joseph Psotka. 2013. Educational games and virtual reality as disruptive tech-
nologies. Journal of Educational Technology & Society 16, 2 (2013), 69–80.
[105]
Yeshwanth Pulijala, Minhua Ma, Matthew Pears, David Peebles, and Ashraf
Ayoub. 2018. Eectiveness of immersive virtual reality in surgical training—a
randomized control trial. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 76, 5 (2018),
1065–1072.
[106]
Kevin N Rask and Elizabeth M Bailey. 2002. Are faculty role models? Evidence
from major choice in an undergraduate institution. The Journal of economic
education 33, 2 (2002), 99–124.
[107]
Rabindra Ratan, David Beyea, Benjamin J Li, and Luis Graciano. 2020. Avatar
characteristics induce users’ behavioral conformity with small-to-medium eect
sizes: a meta-analysis of the proteus eect. Media Psychology 23, 5 (2020), 651–
675.
233
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas, & Dominic Kao
[108]
Elaine M Raybourn, E Deagle, Kip Mendini, and Jerry Heneghan. 2005. Adaptive
thinking & leadership simulation game training for special forces ocers. In
The Interservice, Industry Training, Simulation & Education Conference (ITSEC).
Citeseer.
[109]
Deborah Richards and Meredith Taylor. 2015. A Comparison of learning gains
when using a 2D simulation tool versus a 3D virtual world: An experiment to
nd the right representation involving the Marginal Value Theorem. Computers
& Education 86 (2015), 157–171.
[110]
Lloyd P Rieber. 1996. Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning
environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games.
Educational technology research and development 44, 2 (1996), 43–58.
[111]
Margarida Romero, Mireia Usart, and Michela Ott. 2015. Can serious games
contribute to developing and sustaining 21st century skills? Games and culture
10, 2 (2015), 148–177.
[112]
Donna S Rothstein. 1995. Do female faculty inuence female students’ educa-
tional and labor market attainments? ILR Review 48, 3 (1995), 515–530.
[113]
Maria Roussou, Martin Oliver, and Mel Slater. 2006. The virtual playground:
an educational virtual reality environment for evaluating interactivity and
conceptual learning. Virtual reality 10 (2006), 227–240.
[114]
Carmen V Russoniello, Kevin O’brien, and Jennifer M Parks. 2009. EEG, HRV and
Psychological Correlates while Playing Bejeweled II: A Randomized Controlled
Study. Annual review of cybertherapy and telemedicine 7, 1 (2009), 189–192.
[115]
Richard M Ryan, C Scott Rigby, and Andrew Przybylski. 2006. The motivational
pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. Motivation and
emotion 30 (2006), 344–360.
[116] Johnny Saldaña. 2021. The coding manual for qualitative researchers. (2021).
[117]
Toni Schmader, Michael Johns, and Chad Forbes. 2008. An integrated process
model of stereotype threat eects on performance. Psychological review 115, 2
(2008), 336.
[118]
Valentin Schwind, Pascal Knierim, Nico Haas, and Niels Henze. 2019. Using pres-
ence questionnaires in virtual reality. In Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference
on human factors in computing systems. 1–12.
[119]
Rafael J Segura, Francisco J del Pino, Carlos J Ogáyar, and Antonio J Rueda.
2020. VR-OCKS: A virtual reality game for learning the basic concepts of
programming. Computer Applications in Engineering Education 28, 1 (2020),
31–41.
[120]
Anna Sforza, Ilaria Bufalari, Patrick Haggard, and Salvatore M Aglioti. 2010. My
face in yours: Visuo-tactile facial stimulation inuences sense of identity. Social
neuroscience 5, 2 (2010), 148–162.
[121]
Arif Sirinterlikci, John M Mativo, and Johnny Thien Pham. 2020. Using nintendo
switch development environment to teach computer game programming and
virtual reality. In 2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access.
[122]
Mel Slater, Daniel Pérez Marcos, Henrik Ehrsson, and Maria V Sanchez-Vives.
2009. Inducing illusory ownership of a virtual body. Frontiers in neuroscience
(2009), 29.
[123]
Vinicius Souza, Anderson Maciel, Luciana Nedel, and Regis Kopper. 2021. Mea-
suring presence in virtual environments: A survey. ACM Computing Surveys
(CSUR) 54, 8 (2021), 1–37.
[124]
Steven J Spencer, Claude M Steele, and Diane M Quinn. 1999. Stereotype threat
and women’s math performance. Journal of experimental social psychology 35, 1
(1999), 4–28.
[125]
Kurt Squire. 2013. Video games and learning: Teaching and participatory culture
in the digital age. Alberta Journal of Educational Research 59, 1 (2013), 129–132.
[126]
Claude M Steele and Joshua Aronson. 1995. Stereotype threat and the intellec-
tual test performance of African Americans. Journal of personality and social
psychology 69, 5 (1995), 797.
[127]
Souma Sumitomo and Yuta Sugiura. 2020. Vr music game considering range of
arm motion. In 2020 IEEE 2nd Global Conference on Life Sciences and Technologies
(LifeTech). IEEE, 59–62.
[128]
Han-Yu Sung and Gwo-Jen Hwang. 2013. A collaborative game-based learn-
ing approach to improving students’ learning performance in science courses.
Computers & education 63 (2013), 43–51.
[129]
Donald E Super. 1980. A life-span, life-space approach to career development.
Journal of vocational behavior 16, 3 (1980), 282–298.
[130]
Donald Edwin Super, Mark L Savickas, and Charles M Super. 1996. The life-
Span, life-Space approach to career (in) D. Brown, L. Brooks e& Associates (eds.),
Career Choice and Development. (1996).
[131]
Julie M Sykes. 2018. Digital games and language teaching and learning. Foreign
Language Annals 51, 1 (2018), 219–224.
[132]
Ana Tajadura-Jiménez, Stephanie Grehl, and Manos Tsakiris. 2012. The other in
me: interpersonal multisensory stimulation changes the mental representation
of the self. PloS one 7, 7 (2012), e40682.
[133]
Valerie Jones Taylor, Juan José Valladares, Claire Siepser, and Caitlyn Yantis.
2020. Interracial contact in virtual reality: Best practices. Policy Insights from
the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7, 2 (2020), 132–140.
[134]
Katy Tcha-Tokey, Emilie Loup-Escande, Olivier Christmann, and Simon Richir.
2016. A questionnaire to measure the user experience in immersive virtual
environments. In Proceedings of the 2016 virtual reality international conference.
1–5.
[135]
Hélène Trinon et al
.
2019. Immersive technologies for virtual reality-case study:
Flight simulator for pilot training. (2019).
[136]
Sokkeang Try, Kriengsak Panuwatwanich, Ganchai Tanapornraweekit, and
Manop Kaewmoracharoen. 2021. Virtual reality application to aid civil engineer-
ing laboratory course: A multicriteria comparative study. Computer Applications
in Engineering Education 29, 6 (2021), 1771–1792.
[137]
Manos Tsakiris. 2008. Looking for myself: current multisensory input alters
self-face recognition. PloS one 3, 12 (2008), e4040.
[138]
Richard Van Eck. 2007. Building articially intelligent learning games. In Games
and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks. IGI
global, 271–307.
[139]
Jan Van Looy, Cédric Courtois, and Melanie De Vocht. 2010. Player identication
in online games: Validation of a scale for measuring identication in MMORPGs.
In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Fun and Games. 126–134.
[140]
Eric Wiebe, Laurie Ann Williams, Kai Yang, and Carol S Miller. 2003. Computer
science attitude survey. Technical Report. North Carolina State University. Dept.
of Computer Science.
[141]
Tom Wijman. 2019. The Global Games Market Will Generate $152.1 Billion in
2019 as the U.S. Overtakes China as the Biggest Market.
[142]
Bob G Witmer and Paul B Kline. 1998. Judging perceived and traversed distance
in virtual environments. Presence 7, 2 (1998), 144–167.
[143]
Nick Yee and Jeremy Bailenson. 2007. The Proteus eect: The eect of trans-
formed self-representation on behavior. Human communication research 33, 3
(2007), 271–290.
[144]
Nick Yee, Jeremy N Bailenson, Mark Urbanek, Francis Chang, and Dan Merget.
2007. The unbearable likeness of being digital: The persistence of nonverbal
social norms in online virtual environments. CyberPsychology & Behavior 10, 1
(2007), 115–121.
[145]
Nicole R Zarrett and Oksana Malanchuk. 2005. Who’s computing? Gender and
race dierences in young adults’ decisions to pursue an information technology
career. New directions for child and adolescent development 2005, 110 (2005),
65–84.
[146]
Nan Zeng, Zachary Pope, Jung Eun Lee, and Zan Gao. 2018. Virtual reality
exercise for anxiety and depression: A preliminary review of current research
in an emerging eld. Journal of clinical medicine 7, 3 (2018), 42.
[147]
Sarah A Zipp, Tyler Krause, and Scotty D Craig*. 2017. The impact of user
biases toward a virtual human’s skin tone on triage errors within a virtual world
for emergency management training. In Proceedings of the Human Factors and
Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 61. SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los
Angeles, CA, 2057–2061.
234
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Conference Paper
Full-text available
This article introduces GeoBotsVR, an easily accessible virtual reality game that combines elements of puzzle-solving with robotics learning and aims to cultivate interest and motivation in robotics, programming, and electronics among individuals with limited experience in these domains. The game allows players to build and customize a two-wheeled mobile robot using various robotic components and use their robot to solve various procedurally-generated puzzles in a diverse range of environments. An innovative aspect is the inclusion of a repair feature, requiring players to address randomly generated electronics and programming issues with their robot through hands-on manipulation. GeoBotsVR is designed to be immersive, replayable, and practical application-based, offering an enjoyable and accessible tool for beginners to acquaint themselves with robotics. The game simulates a hands-on learning experience and does not require prior technical knowledge, making it a potentially valuable resource for beginners to get an engaging introduction to the field of robotics.
Article
Full-text available
The research community has long been interested in human interaction with embodied virtual characters in virtual reality (VR). At the same time, interaction with self-similar virtual characters, or virtual doppelgängers, has become a prominent topic in both VR and psychology due to the intriguing psychological effects these characters can have on people. However, studies on human interaction with self-similar virtual characters are still limited. To address this research gap, we designed and conducted a 2 (appearance: self-similar vs. non-self-similar appearance) × 2 (voice: self-similar vs. non-self-similar voice) within-group study (N = 25) to explore how combinations of appearance and voice factors influence participants' perception of virtual characters. During the study, we asked participants to collaborate with a virtual character in solving a VR jigsaw puzzle. After each experimental condition, we had participants complete a survey about their experiences with the virtual character. Our findings showed that 1) the virtual characters' self-similarity in appearance enhanced the sense of co-presence and perceived intelligence, but it also elicited higher eeriness; 2) the self-similar voices led to higher ratings on the characters' likability and believability; however, they also induced a more eerie sensation; and 3) we observed an interaction effect between appearance and voice factors for ratings on believability, where the virtual characters were considered more believable when their self-similarity in appearance matched that of their voices. This study provided valuable insights and comprehensive guidance for creating novel collaborative experiences with self-similar virtual characters in immersive environments.
Article
Full-text available
We investigate how gender-anonymous voice avatars influence women’s performance in online computing group work. Female participants worked with two male confederates. Voices were filtered according to four voice gender anonymity conditions: (1) All unmasked, (2) Male confederates masked, (3) Female participant masked, and (4) All masked. When only male confederates used masked voices (compared to all unmasked), female participants spoke for a longer period of time and scored higher on computing problems. When everyone used masked voices (compared to all unmasked), female participants spoke for a longer period of time, spoke more words, and scored higher on computing problems. Effects were not significant on subjective measures and one behavioral measure. We discuss the implications for virtual interactions between people.
Article
Full-text available
A user's personal experiences and characteristics may impact the strength of an embodiment illusion and affect resulting behavioral changes in unknown ways. This paper presents a novel re-analysis of two fully-immersive embodiment user-studies (n=189 and n=99) using structural equation modeling, to test the effects of personal characteristics on subjective embodiment. Results demonstrate that individual characteristics (gender, participation in science, technology, engineering or math - Experiment 1, age, video gaming experience - Experiment 2) predicted differing self-reported experiences of embodiment Results also indicate that increased self-reported embodiment predicts environmental response, in this case faster and more accurate responses within the virtual environment. Importantly, head-tracking data is shown to be an effective objective measure for predicting embodiment, without requiring researchers to utilize additional equipment.
Article
Full-text available
Aim/Purpose: The key objective of this research is to examine whether fix-and-play educational games improve students' performance in learning programming languages. We also quantified the flow experiences of the students and analyzed how the flow contributes to their academic performances. Background: Traditionally, learning the first computer programming language is considered challenging, In this study, we propose the fix-and-play gaming approach that utilizes the following three facts to alleviate certain difficulties associated with learning programming: 1. digital games are computer programs, 2. young students are fond of playing digital games, and 3. students are interested in creating their own games. Methodology: A simple casual game Shoot2Learn was created for learning the fundamentals of branching. A number of errors were intentionally implanted in the game at different levels, and the students were challenged to fix the bugs before continuing the game. During the play, the program keeps records of the student’s academic progress and the time logs at different stages to measure the flow experience of the students. The proposed approach was systematically evaluated using a quasi-experimental design in real classroom settings in two countries, Sri Lanka, and USA. Contribution: The results derived from this research provide empirical evidence that the fix-and-play educational games ease some challenges in learning programming and motivate the students to play and learn. Findings: The results show that the first-year programming students who play the fix-and-play game gain statistically significant improvement in their academic performance. However, the result fails to suggest a significant positive correlation between the flow experience and academic performance. Recommendations for Practitioners: Empowering the students to fix the bugs in the educational games they play will motivate them to stay in the game and learn continuously. However, we have to make sure that the types and timing of bugs do not hinder the flow experience of the players, Recommendation for Researchers: Students normally play industry-level high-quality games. Experience and interest in game-playing differ significantly between students. Gender difference also plays an important role in selecting game genres. We need to identify how to address these issues when resources are not sufficient to provide an individualized gaming experience. Impact on Society: Programming is an essential skill for computer science students. The outcome of this research shows that the proposed approach helps to reduce the disenchantment associated with learning the first programming language. Future Research: Further investigation is necessary to verify whether the AI techniques such as user modeling can be used in educational games to reduce the effects of uncertainty associated with the variations in students' gaming skills and other factors.
Article
In many consumer virtual reality (VR) applications, users embody predefined characters that offer minimal customization options, frequently emphasizing storytelling over user choice. We explore whether matching a user's physical characteristics, specifically ethnicity and gender, with their virtual self-avatar affects their sense of embodiment in VR. We conducted a 2 × 2 within-subjects experiment (n=32) with a diverse user population to explore the impact of matching or not matching a user's self-avatar to their ethnicity and gender on their sense of embodiment. Our results indicate that matching the ethnicity of the user and their self-avatar significantly enhances sense of embodiment regardless of gender, extending across various aspects, including appearance, response, and ownership. We also found that matching gender significantly enhanced ownership, suggesting that this aspect is influenced by matching both ethnicity and gender. Interestingly, we found that matching ethnicity specifically affects self-location while matching gender specifically affects one's body ownership
Article
The effectiveness of a virtual reality experience is strongly affected by the sense of presence of the users involved. This article reviews the different definitions of presence and the main proposed methods to measure it through the analysis of 1,214 papers published in the past 30 years. From the analysis of 239 user studies, we found that 85.8% used subjective measures, 11.7% used a combination of subjective and objective measures, while 2.5% used only objective measures. We also identified, from the studies reviewed, 29 main factors to evoke presence in virtual environments, grouped into four categories: Engagement, Personal Characteristics, Interaction Fidelity, and Display Fidelity.
Article
Virtual reality has long been utilized in the games industry and is emergent for pilot training in the military and commercial airline sectors. Its usefulness as a mechanism of skills transfer to the real world has not been well researched or considered. This paper follows the PRISMA methodology to present a systematic quantitative literature review (SQLR) on the use of extended reality in flight simulators. It also encompasses recent studies of teaching and learning in immersive, virtual environments in non-aviation disciplines. The review identified 39 papers spanning all areas of the virtuality continuum across academic, commercial, and military aviation sectors, as well as engineering and medicine. The SQLR found that extended reality in flight simulators is being introduced in the commercial and military aviation sectors. However, within academia, hardware constraints have hindered the ability to provide positive empirical evidence of simulator effectiveness. While virtual reality may not replace traditional flight simulators in the near future, the technology is available to supplement classroom training activities and some aspects of simulator procedure training with promising cognitive learning outcomes.