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Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational
Games
Olaoluwa Oyedokun
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
ooyedoku@purdue.edu
Syed Tanzim Mubarrat
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
smubarra@purdue.edu
Amogh Joshi
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
joshi134@purdue.edu
Christos Mousas
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
cmousas@purdue.edu
Dominic Kao
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
kaod@purdue.edu
ABSTRACT
The relevance and inuence of self-avatars in virtual environments
have become increasingly evident and widely acknowledged in the
research literature. Studies explore how these avatars inuence user
experiences, engagement, and embodiment across psychological,
social, cognitive, and behavioral domains. As virtual reality (VR)
technologies continue to evolve and become more integrated into
various domains, understanding the role of self-avatars becomes
crucial for designing immersive and eective virtual environments
that cater to the needs and preferences of users. To address this
issue, this study describes a work-in-progress VR educational game.
A fundamental aim of this VR educational game is to understand un-
derrepresented minorities’ players’ learning outcomes when subject
to dierent skin tone avatars in an immersive virtual environment.
This project aims to develop a VR game that allows players to
choose an avatar character from a validated list of characters or
to customize a character with their preferred skin tone that will
self-represent them in a virtual environment. This VR educational
game will serve as an informal learning platform accessible through
VR headsets.
CCS CONCEPTS
•Human-centered computing;
KEYWORDS
Programming Education, Stereotype Threat, Educational Game
Design, Avatar Customization, STEM Education
ACM Reference Format:
Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas,
and Dominic Kao. 2024. Exploring the Inuence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR
Educational Games. In Companion Proceedings of the Annual Symposium on
Computer-Human Interaction in Play (CHI PLAY Companion ’24), October
14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland. ACM, New York, NY, USA, 8 pages. https:
//doi.org/10.1145/3665463.3678799
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution International
4.0 License.
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
©2024 Copyright held by the owner/author(s).
ACM ISBN 979-8-4007-0692-9/24/10
https://doi.org/10.1145/3665463.3678799
1 INTRODUCTION
Avatars are a self-representation that enables interactions in virtual
environments, fostering signicant connections and resonating
with many individuals [
9
,
13
,
69
,
139
]. Within virtual environments,
avatars are increasingly recognized for their inuential role in shap-
ing player behaviors and attitudes [
144
]. For example, individuals
desire to create avatars that mirror their own appearance [
43
] or
aspire to have avatars, (e.g., role models [
60
,
78
]) that resonate
with them. Virtual avatars nd extensive applications in research
simulations, spanning elds such as training, education, and social
psychology [
31
]. Avatars are crucial in creating immersive environ-
ments [
34
,
47
,
143
]. Past studies have shown that avatars impact
embodiment in VR [
8
,
40
,
68
,
93
,
122
], and enhance emotional ex-
pression [
20
]. However, there is bias towards representations of
skin tones in VR [
126
], which connotes the negative eects of racial
bias [
42
,
76
,
99
,
133
]. For example, a study carried out by Sarah et
al., [
147
] on light and dark skin tones in a virtual world shows that
participants made more errors and took more time triaging dark-
skinned agents than light-skinned agents. Therefore, this makes
the design of virtual avatars important for marginalized groups.
Hence, researching a variety of avatar skin tones that players can
comfortably engage with is essential for gaining deeper insights
into players’ experiences and learning outcomes.
In response to this need, we propose a project focused on cre-
ating and evaluating an educational game. This game aims to in-
troduce players to various skin stereotypes in VR while they learn
programming-related skills (e.g., Java). The focal point of this study
is to explore the inuence of avatar skin tones in an educational
game on players’ relevant knowledge and skills [
125
]. Educational
games are widely studied for their potential to boost learning per-
formance [
52
], problem-solving [
17
], enthusiasm [
27
,
52
,
138
], ver-
satility and adjustability [
108
], and positive emotional encounters
[
84
,
114
]. Yet, while a signicant number of scholars have men-
tioned that exposing players to educational computing games is
crucial and fosters learning [
46
,
49
,
54
,
59
,
73
,
87
,
110
], educational
games in VR have yet to explore dierent avatar skin tones on
programming skills and learning outcomes. Historically, career-
relevant experiences such as internships, practicums, and hobbies,
are heavily biased from self-selection [
56
] and availability of op-
portunities [
53
], catering only to a restricted number of students.
227
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas, & Dominic Kao
Consequently, there is a growing trend among researchers to ex-
plore technologies aimed at bringing learning experiences, such as
the one described in this paper, directly to students.
The project consists of two phases with the initial phase ded-
icated to developing the VR computing game itself. Within this
computing game, players will solve short computing programs af-
ter being introduced to the dierent avatar skin tone designs. The
later phase of this project will focus on understanding the eects
of dierent avatar skin tones on learning outcomes and game ex-
periences. This project is guided by the theoretical frameworks of
self-perception theory [
12
], self-association [
76
], avatar and self
[
120
,
132
,
137
], and player identication scale (PIS) [
139
]. The game
design will be based on the Gee’s principles of learning [
37
]. We
will employ triangulation in our methodology that will integrate
multiple sources of data, including game performance, engagement,
and semi-structured interviews. Overall, this project will aim to
explore how VR and games can promote diversity in STEM elds.
2 RELATED WORK
2.1 Signicance and Background
Steele and Aronson coined the term “stereotype threat” which de-
scribes how individuals from negatively stereotyped groups tend
to underperform in certain situations [
126
]. It has been commonly
observed that individuals, particularly racial minorities in academic
settings [
4
,
126
], underperform when a negative stereotype about
their group is emphasized. In the context of STEM-related subjects,
such as computer programming, schools often see underrepresenta-
tion from certain racial minority groups [
103
]. Research has found
a correlation between students’ educational outcomes and their
interactions with faculty members who share their race or gender
[
21
,
106
,
112
]. Although a signicant body of research on stereotype
threat has concentrated on aspects such as gender [
23
,
33
,
64
,
83
,
96
],
voice [
63
], and performance [
65
,
117
,
124
], the impact of dierent
avatar skin tones in virtual reality (VR) educational environments
remains largely unexplored.
Avatars can play a crucial role in facilitating our ability to im-
merse ourselves in alternate identities [
58
]. When using avatars,
individuals often adopt the identity traits of those avatars and con-
form to the stereotypes associated with them [
107
,
143
]. This is
evident in real-world scenarios where individuals readily accepted
a rubber hand as their own [
15
]. Nevertheless, in terms of VR appli-
cations, many avatar customization platforms tend to oer a wider
range of options for avatars with lighter skin tones, reinforcing
socially exclusive norms [24, 79].
Researchers in the eld of VR contend that the wide range of
VR applications holds the potential to eect substantial changes
in society [
98
]. These applications span across various elds, such
as driving simulations [
57
], ight simulations [
25
,
32
,
72
,
94
,
135
],
surgical training [
5
,
19
,
77
,
85
,
95
,
105
], educational games [
70
,
89
,
104
], and physical exercises [
81
,
88
,
146
]. The prospective user
base for these VR applications encompasses people of diverse ages,
genders, racial or ethnic backgrounds, sexual orientations, and
physical capabilities [
9
,
48
,
100
]. This diversity, however, also opens
up the possibility of users experiencing stereotype threats due to
the skin tones of their avatars in VR environments. While there
has been research on the stereotype threats associated with avatars
in both VR and non-VR educational games [
60
,
61
,
96
,
97
], the
impact of dierent avatar skin tones has not been investigated.
Although a study by Do et al. [
30
] highlighted the importance of
avatar matching in a VR environment, this aspect was not explored
within the framework of a VR computing educational game.
2.2 VR Games and Education
The gaming industry is projected to reach a revenue of approx-
imately 196 billion US dollars by 2022 [
141
]. Concurrently, the
inuence of VR technology on this sector is anticipated to es-
calate, with a projected worth of 36 billion US dollars by 2025
[
39
]. Advocates for gaming argue that video games provide an
interactive learning environment that surpasses mere entertain-
ment, underscoring their capacity to improve cognitive abilities,
critical thinking, self-discipline, problem-solving, and creativity
[
11
,
66
,
102
,
111
,
113
]. They highlight the educational content em-
bedded in many games, asserting that gaming can be an engaging
method for gaining prociency in various subjects [
38
]. Educa-
tional games, also known as “serious games” [
86
], “edutainment”
[
18
], and “game-based learning” [
38
], have proven to be eec-
tive in facilitating learning [
36
,
41
,
75
,
128
,
131
]. This approach
has been utilized across a range of disciplines, including com-
puter science [
16
,
55
,
59
,
119
,
121
], civil engineering (construction)
[10, 28, 29, 136], music [101, 127] and medicine [2, 92].
From an educational and pedagogical perspective, interactive 3D
spaces oer numerous advantages over traditional 2D environments
[
26
,
109
]. Research indicates that interactive 3D spaces, such as VR
environments, enhance problem complexity [
90
], promote experi-
ential learning [
7
,
35
,
71
], facilitate collaborative learning [
3
,
45
],
and provide an immersive experience that increases concentration
and motivation for problem-solving [6].
2.3 VR Educational Games and Computer
Programming
Computer programming, a sequence of coded instructions [
14
,
82
],
is recognized as a cognitively challenging task [
50
]. The exploration
of computer programming is theoretically grounded in various the-
ories, which are intrinsically linked with variables that inuence an
individual’s interests, choices, and potential for success [
74
]. These
theories also encompass the identities and roles that individuals
adopt and navigate throughout their lifespan [
12
,
76
,
129
,
130
]. They
also involve instruments designed to measure outcomes related to
the embodiment of these identities and roles [
40
,
123
,
142
]. We
are motivated to explore how avatars’ appearances can inuence
outcomes for users based on their social group.
Numerous scholars have investigated the potential of both VR
and non-VR games (with and without avatars), including simulation
games, role-playing games, and arcade games, to stimulate inter-
est in computational programming [
16
,
55
,
59
,
60
,
62
,
89
,
91
,
119
].
For instance, Mazzy, a non-VR game, allowed players to learn pro-
gramming by using role models as their avatars within the game
environment. This approach demonstrated positive outcomes in
terms of player experience and engagement with their avatars [
60
].
Similarly, in a VR game VR-OCKS, the avatar was designed to be
accessible to all ages, resulting in signicant behavioral changes
among the participants [
119
]. Furthermore, a study carried out
228
Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational Games CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
by Peck et al. [
96
] found a signicant correlation between gender
swapping and cognitive workload during a VR math experiment.
The study revealed that participants’ cognitive demands altered
when they switched genders within the virtual environment, high-
lighting the impact of embodied experiences on cognitive processes
in VR-based learning.
Nevertheless, while a considerable amount of research has been
dedicated to the impact of gender-based stereotype threats on
avatars in gaming contexts [
23
,
33
,
64
,
83
,
96
], there has been lim-
ited research on exploring the stereotype threats associated with
avatar skin tones in computer programming games. In one study
[
60
], a non-VR game centered around computer programming was
developed to evaluate learning outcomes inuenced by role mod-
els. The results of the gameplay demonstrated that players tend to
select role models from their racial group. In a separate study [
96
],
researchers explored the impact of gender body swap embodiment
on working memory in VR and found positive eects.
Researchers have studied the eects of gender-specic and dif-
ferent skin tone avatars on stereotype threat in educational games,
aiming to understand how avatar representation inuences user
experiences and learning outcomes. To the best of our knowledge
not much research has been done in exploring dierent avatar skin
tones. In our research, we are primarily focusing on examining the
inuence of skin tones between users’ persona and their self-avatar
on the sense of embodiment and learning outcomes.
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview
This study’s objective is two-fold: rstly, to develop a VR educa-
tional computing game, and secondly, to examine the eects of
avatar skin tones on gaming experience and learning outcomes. To
understand how skin tones inuence game design, we will conduct
two comprehensive multivariate studies, oering a variety of avatar
skin tones. Through these studies, we will attempt to address the
following research inquiries:
RQ1. How does the representation of avatars with various skin
tones aect the gaming experience and learning outcomes in a
computing game?
RQ2. How does the programming game inuence the players’ ex-
ploration of computing concepts and aect their overall gaming
experience?
We believe this research will provide invaluable insights for ed-
ucational game designers, equipping them with the knowledge to
navigate the intricate landscape of integrating avatar skin tones
within their gaming platforms. By leveraging this information, de-
signers will be able to make informed decisions, creating games that
not only engage players but also facilitate a deeper understanding
of computing through immersive experiences.
3.2 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework to support this project is based on
self-perception theory [
12
], which primarily examines individu-
als’ identities concerning stereotypes, outcome expectations, and
learning objectives. Complementing this, we will also draw upon
self-association theory [
76
], which theorizes that avatars symbol-
izing individuals from outside one’s immediate group or commu-
nity can still bear signicant resemblances to those individuals in
terms of physical appearance, cultural background, or behavioral
patterns. This could foster a sense of connection or identication
between the avatars and the individuals. Furthermore, we will incor-
porate principles from computer programming theory [
44
], which
outlines the signicant impact of programming education and its
potential applicability across various domains. Collectively, these
theories provide invaluable insights into the embodiment of player
experiences within virtual environments. To specically analyze
player-avatar embodiment, we will employ the player identication
scale (PIS) framework [
139
], which oers a structured approach to
understanding these experiences in virtual contexts.
3.3 Game Design
The game will be set in a VR environment where players can en-
hance their programming skills by solving levels through the cre-
ation of short computer programs. It will challenge players to de-
velop their coding skills by navigating through 12 levels of program-
ming puzzles, with a focus on object-oriented programming (OOP)
concepts, such as objects, methods, setters, getters, method argu-
ments, and garbage collection, using Java as the primary language.
The initial levels, numbered 1 to 5, will introduce basic commands
to establish a strong foundational understanding of the players.
As players advance to levels 6 to 9, the game will introduce more
intricate challenges that incorporate loops, encouraging players to
apply logical and iterative problem-solving techniques. The nal
stages, levels 10 to 12, will require players to synthesize all previ-
ously learned commands and techniques, with the introduction of
conditionals. This structured progression will ensure that players
have a comprehensive understanding of essential programming
principles by the end of the game. The OOP concepts and their cor-
responding exercises within the game are detailed in Table 1 of the
online Appendix
1
. Players will encounter these concepts through
interactions with both familiar and stereotype-threat avatars.
At the start of the game, players will be presented with the oppor-
tunity to choose a character from a wide variety of options, allowing
them to choose one that they feel comfortable with, identify with,
or even one that resembles them [
21
,
106
,
112
]. The avatar of these
characters will be selected from a study by Tiany et al. [
31
] (Figure
1). These characters will serve as guides, providing players with
basic information, instructions, and explanations of the command
prompts. In addition, the initial setup phase will also allow players
to customize the landscape by determining the placement and quan-
tity of elements like houses and trees, aligning the virtual world
with their personal goals and the activity’s requirements.
3.4 Research Design
Our proposed research plan is structured into two sequential phases.
The initial phase is dedicated to the development of a computing ex-
ploration game for VR, employing an iterative design methodology.
This approach allows for the creation of preliminary prototypes,
which can be evaluated and rened or discarded promptly, thereby
1
A full list of gures and mock-ups pertaining to the game design can be found in the
online Appendix: https://osf.io/zw3bq/.
229
CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland Olaoluwa Oyedokun, Syed Tanzim Mubarrat, Amogh Joshi, Christos Mousas, & Dominic Kao
Figure 1: Example of avatars that we will use in our study
(taken from [31]).
facilitating rapid progress and renement of the game’s mechanics
and features [51].
In the second phase, we will carry out two distinct studies. The
rst study (Study A) will investigate the impact of avatar customiza-
tion options, specically skin tone, on players’ gaming experience
and decision-making processes. The second study (Study B) will ex-
amine the eects of the computing game on participants’ learning
outcomes. The entire project is anticipated to span two years, with
a detailed timeline presented in Figure 3 of the online Appendix1.
3.4.1 Phase 1: Game Development. This phase will involve a com-
prehensive examination of the game’s design, mechanics, and over-
all structure. We aim to create a compelling and immersive gaming
experience through meticulous attention to detail and iterative
renement. In addition, the game’s design has been thoughtfully
informed by relevant theoretical frameworks (see Figure 1 of the
online Appendix
1
). Furthermore, Phase 1 will encompass rigorous
testing and evaluation, with a focus on usability and learnability, to
ensure that the computing game adheres to the desired standards
of quality and functionality [
22
]. We believe this dedicated focus on
designing the game will lay a solid foundation for the subsequent
phases of the project.
3.4.2 Phase 2A: Avatar Skin Tone Choices in the Computing Game.
RQ1. How does the representation of avatars with various skin tones
aect the gaming experience and learning outcomes in a computing
game?
Intervention: In this study, we aim to investigate how the pres-
ence or absence of relatable avatar skin tones aects the gaming
experience and learning outcomes. We will conduct an experiment
where participants will interact with avatars that reect their self-
identied skin tone, as well as variations of this tone. Please refer
to Table 1 in the online Appendix1for further details.
Participants: For this study, we aim to recruit young adults aged
18 to 25 from our university who self-identify as Black, Hispanic, or
female. We chose this demographic based on prior research, which
suggests that individuals within this age group, regardless of gender
and race, are more receptive to interventions that may inuence
their decision-making process regarding a career in computing
[145].
Procedures: Each participant will be instructed to select an
avatar that best represents their self-identied skin tone from a
range of available avatars. Subsequently, four additional avatars,
each representing a variant of the chosen skin tone, will be automat-
ically selected (Table 1 in the online Appendix
1
). Each participant
will then play the game for 30 minutes under each of the ve skin
tone conditions:
•MD - Much Darker Skin Tone
•SD - Slightly Darker Skin Tone
•NO - No Change condition (Self Identied)
•SL - Slightly Lighter Skin Tone
•ML - Much Lighter Skin Tone
Qualitative and Quantitative Measures: Data will be gath-
ered through a combination of surveys administered to participants
and the analysis of in-game metrics and behaviors, known as game
analytics. Moreover, we will investigate the predictive capacity of
various factors, including but not limited to the virtual environment,
in forecasting the outcomes of computational exploration. We will
conduct a thorough analysis of how design features, interactivity,
and environmental cues within the virtual setting inuence the ex-
ploration process and ultimately shape the results obtained through
computational methods. By incorporating these additional variables
into our analysis, we aim to gain a comprehensive understanding
of the complex dynamics involved in computational exploration.
Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the various tools,
techniques, and methodologies that we will utilize to gather data
and assess the variables under investigation. The validation proce-
dures for these survey instruments have been meticulously designed
by previous researchers, ensuring their reliability and accuracy in
capturing relevant data. To illustrate, we will employ statistical
tests, such as Cronbach’s alpha, to evaluate the internal consistency
and reliability of the survey items before incorporating them into
the research framework.
Analysis: We will primarily be studying dierences across the
ve skin tone conditions using ANOVA. We will compare the col-
lected survey data and the insights derived from game analytics
across dierent experimental conditions. Additionally, these data
will serve as predictor variables in regression analyses, enabling a
deeper investigation of the relationship between game design deci-
sions and participant responses. These predictor variables (collected
as post-test variables) will include: self-representation in the avatar
skin tone conditions, self-association and player identication with
the avatar, and relatedness with in-game avatar skin tone design.
3.4.3 Phase 2B: Eects of the Computing Game Exploration on Play-
ers’ Experience. RQ2. How does the programming game inuence
the players’ exploration of computing concepts and aect their overall
gaming experience outcome?
Intervention: In this study, we will undertake a comprehensive
examination of the impact of our computing game over six months.
Throughout this time-frame, each participant will be assigned a
personalized avatar to accompany them through their gaming expe-
rience. Following the conclusion of the extended gameplay period,
we will conduct an extensive survey to assess the enduring eects
and impressions of the computing game. This longitudinal approach
230
Exploring the Influence of Avatar Skin Tone in VR Educational Games CHI PLAY Companion ’24, October 14–17, 2024, Tampere, Finland
Table 1: Measurement instruments in Study A.
Conceptual Group Instruments Time
Avatar Embodiment Avatar Embodiment. A
Standardized Questionnaire [40]
Pre/Post
Game Experience
Outcomes
Player Experience of Need
Satisfaction [115]
Player Experience Inventory [1]
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory
[80]
Post
Avatar Identication Player Identication Scale [139] Post
Measure of Immersion
A questionnaire to measure the
user experience in immersive
virtual environments [134]
Presence questionnaires in virtual
reality [118]
Pre/Post
Performance,
Engagement, and
Persistence (game
analytics)
Player Data (progress, in-game
scores, time played, successes and
failures)
During
will provide insights into how the game inuences various aspects
of the participants’ experiences and perceptions over time.
Participants: The same group of participants from Study A.
Procedure: Each participant will select their preferred familiar
avatar. Subsequently, they will be instructed to play the game for
30 minutes daily for four months. After this period, participants
will complete various questionnaires and undergo a brief semi-
structured interview to gather their insights and experiences (Table
2).
Qualitative and Quantitative Measures: Data will be col-
lected through a series of surveys and questionnaires (Table 2)
administered to the participants conducted both before and after
the gameplay sessions. Participants assigned an avatar will take
part in a 15-minute follow-up interview during the post-test phase.
The interviews will investigate participants’ perspectives on the
eectiveness of dierent avatar skin tones in a VR educational
game.
Analysis: To characterize participants’ perceptions of comput-
ing activities within various game-problem conditions from inter-
view data, we will employ the established grounded theory method-
ology by Saldana [
116
], which involves segmenting the transcripts
into thematic codes and identifying patterns [116].
4 CONCLUSION
The objective of this study is to gain meaningful insights into how
avatar skin tones aect participant experiences and behaviors. This
methodological approach aims to provide researchers with a de-
tailed understanding of the inuence of dierent game components
on all participants. Single-session user studies will assess the ef-
fectiveness of avatar skin tone choices in creating stereotypes and
inuencing player outcomes. Comprehensive data from exploratory
studies will help understand the impact of various avatar skin tone
options on learning outcomes. Using multiple data sources in a
Table 2: Measurement instruments in Study B.
Conceptual Group Instruments Time
Avatar Embodiment Avatar Embodiment. A
Standardized Questionnaire [40]
Pre/Post
Game Experience
Outcomes
Player Experience of Need
Satisfaction [115]
Player Experience Inventory [1]
Intrinsic Motivation Inventory
[80]
Post
Interest in Computing
Computing Interests Survey
(adapted from [67]
Pre/Post
Computing
Self-Ecacy
Computer Science Attitude Survey
[140]
Pre/Post
Interview Semi-Structured Interview Post
Performance,
Engagement, and
Persistence (game
analytics)
Player Data (progress, in-game
scores, time played, successes and
failures)
During
triangulated approach will enhance the study’s validity. Key met-
rics for evaluating the eectiveness of avatar representation will
include motivated behavior, in-game progress, learning outcomes,
and overall gaming experience.
Our research oers scholars and educators a valuable resource
for systematically investigating this eld. By thoroughly analyzing
the ndings of our project, we anticipate it will inspire heightened
interest and exploration in future research endeavors. We aim to
delve deeply into the potential of educational games and the intrica-
cies of avatar representation, providing abundant data and insights
for further study and advancement in this area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported in part by the National Science Founda-
tion under the award number IIS #2338122. Any opinions, ndings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reect the views of the
National Science Foundation.
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