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Examining the relationship between subjective exercise tolerance and psychophysiological reactivity during physical stress
Abstract
It has been hypothesized that one's ability to control impulses aids in sustaining effort despite experiencing painful physical sensations. Physical exercise has been used extensively as an intervention to strengthen the inhibitory control system and protect an individual's cognitive plan of action. It is unclear, however, whether the high levels of exercise tolerance could facilitate inhibitory control under varied stressors. The present study explored the relationship between subjective exercise tolerance and psychophysiological characteristics that indicate reactivity capacity when exposed to the cold pressor test. Thirty-six participants were divided into two groups based on their subjective exercise tolerance profiles. During the test, participants' psychophysiological reactivity was monitored via heart rate variability. Participants were also required to answer questions about their perceptual and affective states at the beginning and immediately after the stress test. The study revealed insights into dominance perception and emotional states among individuals with varying subjective exercise tolerance levels. High-tolerant individuals endured physical discomfort longer (~50 s) and exhibited higher perceived dominance at the outset of the test when compared to their low-tolerant counterparts. Despite differences in task performance, both groups experienced more positive affective states post-task, potentially as a result of a heightened sense of self-accomplishment. Notably, both groups showed similar levels of psychophysiological reactivity, suggesting a protective effect of physical tolerance on ensuing biological responses. Overall, this study sheds light on the complex relationship between exercise tolerance, dominance perception, and psychophysiological reactivity during physically demanding tasks, enriching our understanding of how developing physical tolerance may impact inhibitory control under stress.
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Inhibitory control is an executive function that is closely and bidirectionally related to sports practice. The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to study the effect of this relationship when response suppression is assessed within the Stop-Signal Paradigm. Twenty-four articles met the inclusion criteria and were selected for qualitative analysis, of which 11 studies were further analyzed through meta-analytic techniques.
The standardized mean difference (SMD) was estimated for the stop-signal reaction time, and the influence of moderator variables was assessed. Athletes showed shorter stop-signal reaction time than non-athlete controls (SMD=0.44; 95% CI=0.14, 0.73), and this effect was mediated by age (SMD= -0.56; 95% CI= -1.11, -0.01). Athletes’ superior stop-signal reaction time may be a result of extensive practice in cognitively demanding competitive environments. Young athletes can benefit the most from sports practice. In addition, engaging individuals in more cognitively demanding activities may obtain better response suppression enhancements, although the evidence in the stop-signal task is limited. Finally, some stop-signal task methodological aspects
should be considered in future research.
Fatigue has been defined differently in the literature depending on the field of research. The inconsistent use of the term fatigue complicated scientific communication, thereby limiting progress towards a more in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Therefore, Enoka and Duchateau (Med Sci Sports Exerc 48:2228–38, 2016, [3]) proposed a fatigue framework that distinguishes between trait fatigue (i.e., fatigue experienced by an individual over a longer period of time) and motor or cognitive task-induced state fatigue (i.e., self-reported disabling symptom derived from the two interdependent attributes performance fatigability and perceived fatigability). Thereby, performance fatigability describes a decrease in an objective performance measure, while perceived fatigability refers to the sensations that regulate the integrity of the performer. Although this framework served as a good starting point to unravel the psychophysiology of fatigue, several important aspects were not included and the interdependence of the mechanisms driving performance fatigability and perceived fatigability were not comprehensively discussed. Therefore, the present narrative review aimed to (1) update the fatigue framework suggested by Enoka and Duchateau (Med Sci Sports Exerc 48:2228–38, 2016, [3]) pertaining the taxonomy (i.e., cognitive performance fatigue and perceived cognitive fatigue were added) and important determinants that were not considered previously (e.g., effort perception, affective valence, self-regulation), (2) discuss the mechanisms underlying performance fatigue and perceived fatigue in response to motor and cognitive tasks as well as their interdependence, and (3) provide recommendations for future research on these interactions. We propose to define motor or cognitive task-induced state fatigue as a psychophysiological condition characterized by a decrease in motor or cognitive performance (i.e., motor or cognitive performance fatigue, respectively) and/or an increased perception of fatigue (i.e., perceived motor or cognitive fatigue). These dimensions are interdependent, hinge on different determinants, and depend on body homeostasis (e.g., wakefulness, core temperature) as well as several modulating factors (e.g., age, sex, diseases, characteristics of the motor or cognitive task). Consequently, there is no single factor primarily determining performance fatigue and perceived fatigue in response to motor or cognitive tasks. Instead, the relative weight of each determinant and their interaction are modulated by several factors.
A pranayama-inspired breathing technique, cold exposure, and their combined application were assessed for their potential to reduce perceived stress in adults and compared to a control group. An experiment involving four groups was conducted, yielding separate cells for breathing technique-only and cold exposure-only, as well as a combined treatment and a control group. Eighty-six individuals participated in the study. Perceived stress is measured employing the 10-item version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and the 20-item version of the Perceived Stress Questionnaire (PSQ). The instruments exhibit a substantial correlation (r = 0.842, p < 0.001). The combined group exhibited a medium to large positive effect on perceived stress compared to the control group. The breathing technique and cold exposure on their own were not found to yield substantial effects, indicating synergies between both exercises. Combinations of breathing techniques and cold exposure may be employed to decrease individuals' perceived stress.
Background/objective
Negative emotional states, such as depression, anxiety, and stress challenge health care due to their long-term consequences for mental disorders. Accumulating evidence indicates that regular physical activity (PA) can positively influence negative emotional states. Among possible candidates, resilience and exercise tolerance in particular have the potential to partly explain the positive effects of PA on negative emotional states. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the association between PA and negative emotional states, and further determine the mediating effects of exercise tolerance and resilience in such a relationship.
Method
In total, 1117 Chinese college students (50.4% female, Mage=18.90, SD=1.25) completed a psychosocial battery, including the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21), the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), the Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire (PRETIE-Q), and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire short form (IPAQ-SF). Regression analysis was used to identify the serial multiple mediation, controlling for gender, age and BMI.
Results
PA, exercise intensity-tolerance, and resilience were significantly negatively correlated with negative emotional states (Ps<.05). Further, exercise tolerance and resilience partially mediated the relationship between PA and negative emotional states.
Conclusions
Resilience and exercise intensity-tolerance can be achieved through regularly engaging in PA, and these newly observed variables play critical roles in prevention of mental illnesses, especially college students who face various challenges. Recommended amount of PA should be incorporated into curriculum or sport clubs within a campus environment.
Background
The representation of variability in sensitivity to pain by differences in neural connectivity patterns and its association with psychological factors needs further investigation. This study assessed differences in resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and its association to cognitive-affective aspects of pain in two groups of healthy subjects with low versus high sensitivity to pain (LSP vs. HSP). We hypothesized that HSP will show stronger connectivity in brain regions involved in the affective-motivational processing of pain and that this higher connectivity would be related to negative affective and cognitive evaluations of pain.
Methods
Forty-eight healthy subjects were allocated to two groups according to their tolerability to cold stimulation (cold pressor test, CPT, 1°C). Group LSP (N = 24) reached the cut-off time of 180±0 sec and group HSP tolerated the CPT for an average of 13±4.8 sec. Heat, cold and mechanical evoked pain were measured, as well as pain-catastrophizing (PCS), depression, anxiety and stress (DASS-21). All subjects underwent resting state fMRI. ROI-to-ROI analysis was performed.
Results
In comparison to the LSP, the HSP had stronger interhemispheric connectivity of the amygdala (p = 0.01) and between the amygdala and nucleus accumbens (NAc) (p = 0.01). Amygdala connectivity was associated with higher pain catastrophizing in the HSP only (p<0.01).
Conclusions
These findings suggest that high sensitivity to pain may be reflected by neural circuits involved in affective and motivational aspects of pain. To what extent this connectivity within limbic brain structures relates to higher alertness and more profound withdrawal behavior to aversive events needs to be further investigated.
Studies show that the autonomic nervous system (ANS) has an important impact on health in general. In response to environmental demands, homeostatic processes are often compromised, therefore determining an increase in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)’s functions and a decrease in the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)’s functions. In modern societies, chronic stress associated with an unhealthy lifestyle contributes to ANS dysfunction. In this review, we provide a brief introduction to the ANS network, its connections to the HPA axis and its stress responses and give an overview of the critical implications of ANS in health and disease—focused specifically on the immune system, cardiovascular, oxidative stress and metabolic dysregulation. The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA), the SNS and more recently the PNS have been identified as regulating the immune system. The HPA axis and PNS have anti-inflammatory effects and the SNS has been shown to have both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. The positive impact of physical exercise (PE) is well known and has been studied by many researchers, but its negative impact has been less studied. Depending on the type, duration and individual characteristics of the person doing the exercise (age, gender, disease status, etc.), PE can be considered a physiological stressor. The negative impact of PE seems to be connected with the oxidative stress induced by effort.
Keywords: autonomic nervous system; sympathetic; parasympathetic; immunity; oxidative stress; physical exercise
Emotions arise from activations of specialized neuronal populations in several parts of the cerebral cortex, notably the anterior cingulate, insula, ventromedial prefrontal, and subcortical structures, such as the amygdala, ventral striatum, putamen, caudate nucleus, and ventral tegmental area. Feelings are conscious, emotional experiences of these activations that contribute to neuronal networks mediating thoughts, language, and behavior, thus enhancing the ability to predict, learn, and reappraise stimuli and situations in the environment based on previous experiences. Contemporary theories of emotion converge around the key role of the amygdala as the central subcortical emotional brain structure that constantly evaluates and integrates a variety of sensory information from the surroundings and assigns them appropriate values of emotional dimensions, such as valence, intensity, and approachability. The amygdala participates in the regulation of autonomic and endocrine functions, decision-making and adaptations of instinctive and motivational behaviors to changes in the environment through implicit associative learning, changes in short- and long-term synaptic plasticity, and activation of the fight-or-flight response via efferent projections from its central nucleus to cortical and subcortical structures.
It is common knowledge that physical activity leads to physiological and psychological benefits. The current study explored the association between physical activity and self-regulation longitudinally and the indirect relationship this may have on academic achievement, using secondary data on primary and secondary school children from the Millennium Cohort Study, a cohort of infants born in 2000–2001 in the United Kingdom. There are two main findings. First, there is a positive link between physical activity and emotional (not behavioural) regulation both concurrently and longitudinally across all three time points, 7-years-old, 11-years-old and 14-years-old. The relationship was negative for emotional regulation and negligible for behavioural regulation when controlling for socioeconomic status. Second, across two time points (due to data availability), physical activity positively predicted academic achievement through emotional regulation for 7-year-olds and behavioural regulation in 11-year-olds. The impact of this relationship was more pronounced when controlling for socioeconomic status. Together these findings indicate that emotional regulation is linked to physical activity in early childhood. Subsequently, emotion regulation predicts academic attainment, suggesting that early interventions might focus on attention rather than behaviour.
Acute high-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a time-efficient strategy to improve physical health; however, the effect of acute HIIT on executive function (EF) is unclear. The aim of this study was to systematically review the existing evidence and quantify the effect of acute HIIT on overall EF and the factors affecting the relationship between acute HIIT and EF. Standard databases (i.e., the PubMed, Medline, Scopus, and CENTRAL databases) were searched for studies that examined the effect of acute HIIT on EF and were published up until January 2021. The overall EF and factors grouped by three categories, namely, EF assessment characteristics, exercise intervention characteristics, and sample and study characteristics, were analyzed by percentage of comparison for positive or null/negative effects. Overall, 35 of 57 outcomes (61%) across 24 studies revealed that acute HIIT has a positive effect on overall EF. In terms of factors, the results indicated that among EF assessment characteristics, groups, inhibition, updating, and the assessment occurring within 30 min may moderate the effect of acute HIIT on EF, while among exercise intervention characteristics, total time within 11 to 30 min may moderate the effect. Finally, among sample characteristics, age under 40 years may moderate the effect. Acute HIIT is generally considered a viable alternative for eliciting EF gains, with factors related to EF components, timing of the assessment, exercise total time, and age potentially moderating the effect of HIIT on EF.
Inhibitory control may be vital in elite sport. The authors examined the link between athletic expertise, inhibitory control, and sport performance in a two-part quasi experiment. Inhibitory control was indexed using the Stop-Signal Task, athlete expertise was categorized on literary recommendations, and sport performance was assessed using athlete and coach ratings. Study 1 examined cross-sectional and longitudinal patterns of inhibitory control across athletic expertise. Study 2 investigated whether the inhibitory control–sport performance relationship was moderated by expertise. Study 1 showed that expertise was linked to greater inhibitory control cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Study 2 revealed that expertise was related to superior performance on the Stop-Signal Task and athlete and coach performance ratings, and this relationship was moderated by athletic expertise. Inhibitory control relates to sport performance, increases with greater athlete expertise, and develops longitudinally. Long-term participation in sport may bring about changes in inhibitory control, which may lead to improved sport performance.
This study emphasizes the role of pain catastrophizing and state anxiety on pain tolerance and pain-related anxiety. Response expectancies for pain tolerance and pain intensity were tested as potential mediators. A cold-pressor task was used on a healthy sample. Measures were taken before and after cold-pressor procedure, while aversive versus neutral information regarding the cold-pressor task was given prior to the pain induction. An exploratory path model was conducted. Similar paths for pain tolerance and for pain-related anxiety were shown in aversive condition. Also, psychological measures may explain pain experience in aversive context.
There is a dearth of studies investigating the effect of sympathetic activation on left ventricular function. This study aimed to investigate the effect of sympathetic autonomic stress on left ventricular function in young healthy adults. Fifty‐six normotensive healthy participants (age 23.55 ± 3.82 years) took part in the study after giving informed consent. After obtaining baseline measurements, heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), peripheral saturation of oxygen (SpO2) and left ventricular function (assessed by means of ejection fraction (EF) obtained by transthoracic 2‐D echocardiography) were determined before and following sympathetic activation using cold pressor test (CPT). Exposure to CPT led to significant increase (P < 0.0001) in HR (70.4 ± 10.7 bpm to 91.6 ± 14.8 bpm), SBP (118 ± 8 mmHg to 138 ± 14 mmHg) and DBP (71 ± 7 mmHg to 91 ± 11 mmHg). Participants’ EDV (101.1 ± 15.8 ml to 104.2 ± 19.3 mL), ESV (38.7 ± 9.1 mL to 40.3 ± 11.6 mL), SpO2 (99.5 ± 0.79% to 99.5 ± 0.77%) and EF (61.9 ± 5.9% to 60.9 ± 6.4%) were only slightly changed (P > 0.05). However, cardiac output (4.3 ± 0.9 L/min to 5.4 ± 1.4 L/min) and cardiac index (3.7 ± 0.8 L/min per m2 to 4.5 ± 1.4 L/min per m2) increased significantly (P < 0.0001). We conclude that sympathetic stress induced by cold pressor test has marginal effect on ejection fraction and fractional shortening while increasing cardiac output and cardiac index in young healthy adults. This study aimed to investigate the effect of sympathetic autonomic stress using the cold pressor test, on left ventricular function in young healthy adults. Our results show that whereas sympathetic autonomic stress led to significant increases in blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output and cardiac index, there was marginal effect on ejection fraction and fractional shortening in young healthy adults.
Though it has been widely demonstrated that regular exercise is associated with better emotional wellbeing, the nature of this association remains unclear. The present study explored the relationship between voluntary exercise and the temporal dynamics of daily emotions, and thus how voluntary exercise could be impacting emotional reactivity and recovery in naturalistic contexts. Seventy-six young adults participated simultaneously in this ecological momentary assessment study, and received 75 prompts over the course of 15 days. Emotional inertia (persistence of emotional states), emotional variability (intensity of emotional fluctuations), and emotional instability (tendency for emotional fluctuations) were considered. Past research has shown that low wellbeing tends to be associated with high inertia, variability, and instability. Each prompt included ratings of present emotions (anxiety, sadness, cheerfulness, contentment) and any recent physical activity. Greater average exercise time was significantly associated with less inertia (reduced autocorrelation) of anxiety. Exercise was not significantly associated with inertia of the other emotions, although results were in the same direction. Exercise habits were unrelated to emotional variability and instability. Results suggest that exercise may buffer against prolonged or persistent negative affective states and consequently could benefit a person’s ability to self-regulate or recover from changes in the environment and internal emotional experiences, rather than simply reducing the frequency or intensity of anxious emotions.
Body temperature regulation is a fundamental homeostatic function in homeothermic animals. It is governed by the central nervous system that integrates temperature signals from internal body structures and the skin and provides efferent responses to adjust heat-exchange rates with the environment. Thermoregulation has a major influence on energy balance by regulating food intake as well as heat production and energy expenditure. Surprisingly, although almost 50% of our energy expenditure is dedicated to maintaining homeothermy, very little is yet known about the molecular aspects and the neural wiring involved in the intimate interrelationship between these two critical homeostatic systems. Some non-selective cation channels of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family work as molecular thermal sensors in sensory neurons and other cells. In this review, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the basic mechanisms responsible for thermoregulation in the cold. We have focused our attention on the role of two cold-activated TRP channels (transient receptor potential melastatin 8 and transient receptor potential ankyrin 1) in body temperature regulation as well as their impact on energy balance and metabolism. A better understanding of the mechanisms coupling thermoregulation to energy homeostasis, including the involvement of thermosensitive TRPs, may uncover additional mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of obesity and its metabolic consequences in humans, opening new strategies for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of this disease.
The dynamical fluctuations in the rhythms of biological systems provide valuable information about the underlying functioning of these systems. During the past few decades analysis of cardiac function based on the heart rate variability (HRV; variation in R wave to R wave intervals) has attracted great attention, resulting in more than 17000-publications (PubMed list). However, it is still controversial about the underling mechanisms of HRV. In this study, we performed both linear (time domain and frequency domain) and nonlinear analysis of HRV data acquired from humans and animals to identify the relationship between HRV and heart rate (HR). The HRV data consists of the following groups: (a) human normal sinus rhythm (n = 72); (b) human congestive heart failure (n = 44); (c) rabbit sinoatrial node cells (SANC; n = 67); (d) conscious rat (n = 11). In both human and animal data at variant pathological conditions, both linear and nonlinear analysis techniques showed an inverse correlation between HRV and HR, supporting the concept that HRV is dependent on HR, and therefore, HRV cannot be used in an ordinary manner to analyse autonomic nerve activity of a heart.
The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis is required for stress adaptation. Activation of the HPA axis causes secretion of glucocorticoids, which act on multiple organ systems to redirect energy resources to meet real or anticipated demand. The HPA stress response is driven primarily by neural mechanisms, invoking corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) release from hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) neurons. Pathways activating CRH release are stressor dependent: reactive responses to homeostatic disruption frequently involve direct noradrenergic or peptidergic drive of PVN neurons by sensory relays, whereas anticipatory responses use oligosynaptic pathways originating in upstream limbic structures. Anticipatory responses are driven largely by disinhibition, mediated by trans-synaptic silencing of tonic PVN inhibition via GABAergic neurons in the amygdala. Stress responses are inhibited by negative feedback mechanisms, whereby glucocorticoids act to diminish drive (brainstem) and promote transsynaptic inhibition by limbic structures (e.g., hippocampus). Glucocorticoids also act at the PVN to rapidly inhibit CRH neuronal activity via membrane glucocorticoid receptors. Chronic stress-induced activation of the HPA axis takes many forms (chronic basal hypersecretion, sensitized stress responses, and even adrenal exhaustion), with manifestation dependent upon factors such as stressor chronicity, intensity, frequency, and modality. Neural mechanisms driving chronic stress responses can be distinct from those controlling acute reactions, including recruitment of novel limbic, hypothalamic, and brainstem circuits. Importantly, an individual's response to acute or chronic stress is determined by numerous factors, including genetics, early life experience, environmental conditions, sex, and age. The context in which stressors occur will determine whether an individual's acute or chronic stress responses are adaptive or maladaptive (pathological).
Self-affirmation theory posits that people are motivated to maintain a positive self-view and that threats to perceived self-competence
are met with resistance. When threatened, self-affirmations can restore self-competence by allowing individuals to reflect
on sources of self-worth, such as core values. Many questions exist, however, about the underlying mechanisms associated with
self-affirmation. We examined the neural mechanisms of self-affirmation with a task developed for use in a functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) environment. Results of a region of interest analysis demonstrated that participants who were affirmed
(compared to unaffirmed participants) showed increased activity in key regions of the brain’s self-processing (MPFC+PCC) and
valuation (VS+VMPFC) systems when reflecting on future oriented core values (compared to everyday activities). Furthermore,
this neural activity went on to predict changes in sedentary behavior consistent with successful affirmation in response to
a separate physical activity intervention. These results highlight neural processes associated with successful self-affirmation,
and further suggest that key pathways may be amplified in conjunction with prospection.
The purpose of this study was to delineate the topological dynamics of pain and discomfort during constant exercise performed until volitional exhaustion. Eleven physical education students were tested while cycling and running at a "hard" intensity level (e.g., corresponding to Borg's RPE (6-20) = 15). During the tests, participants reported their discomfort and pain on a body map every 15s. "Time on task" for each participant was divided into five equal non-overlapping temporal windows within which their ratings were considered for analysis. The analyses revealed that the number of body locations with perceived pain and discomfort increased throughout the five temporal windows until reaching the mean (± SE) values of 4.2 ± 0.7 and 4.1 ± 0.6 in cycling and running, respectively. The dominant locations included the quadriceps and hamstrings during cycling and quadriceps and chest during running. In conclusion, pain seemed to spread throughout the body during constant cycling and running performed up to volitional exhaustion with differences between cycling and running in the upper body but not in the lower body dynamics.
The involvement of the brain in exercise regulation is not a particularly new concept and the fact the motor cortex (MC) is not activated maximally at exhaustion is suggestive that there are pathways upstream of the MC (10), regulating exercise and effectuating termination. Several papers have now addressed the areas of the cortex that are activated during the control of voluntary movement (23) and postulated how areas of the brain may be involved in exercise termination (20, 26, 27). However, the neural pathways for volitional control of movement and their interaction with psychological factors has yet to be established (27).The aim of this viewpoint is not to describe all regions of the brain activated during exercise regulation, but to highlight how the PFC is involved in the process. We propose a model which describes how the PFC acts as a control structure by integrating information produced during exercise, both centrally and peripherally, exerting a top down effect.
Results of kinetic tracer studies on several mammalian species during rest and prolonged sustained exercise indicate that lactate is a metabolic intermediate which is very active in supplying carbon for a number of important physiological processes. Lactate is a product of glycolysis and glycogenolysis, and it is a precursor for glucose and glycogen resynthesis. Additionally, lactate produced at some sites during exercise is also a substrate for oxidative energy transduction at other sites. This “shuttling of lactate” through the interstitium and vasculature can be quantitatively as important as the release of glucose from the liver for supplying oxidizable substrate. Because much of the glycolytic and gluconeogenic flux passes through the lactate pool, the metabolism of lactate emerges as a critically important component in the overall integration and regulation of intermediary metabolism. This dynamic role of lactate in mammals, as described here, is different from the stagnant role of lactate portrayed from measurements of lactate concentration in the blood and muscle of mammals and other species. Rather than a dead-end metabolite which accumulates as the resuit of muscle anoxia during exercise and waits until the recovery (“O2 debt”) period to be returned to glucose and glycogen, lactate is a dynamic metabolite which turns over rapidly and which can participate in a number of processes during rest, exercise, and recovery from exercise.
Heart rate variability is a useful clinical tool for autonomic function assessment and cardiovascular disease diagnosis. To investigate the dynamic changes of sympathetic and parasympathetic activities during the cold pressor test, we used a time-varying autoregressive model for the time-frequency analysis of heart rate variability in 101 healthy subjects. We found that there were two sympathetic peaks (or two parasympathetic valleys) when the abrupt changes of temperature (ACT) occurred at the beginning and the end of the cold stimulus and that the sympathetic and parasympathetic activities returned to normal in about the last 2 min of the cold stimulus. These findings suggested that the ACT rather than the low temperature was the major cause of the sympathetic excitation and parasympathetic withdrawal. We also found that the onsets of the sympathetic peaks were 4-26 s prior to the ACT and the returns to normal were 54-57 s after the ACT, which could be interpreted as the feedforward and adaptation of the autonomic regulation process in the human body, respectively. These results might be helpful for understanding the regulatory mechanisms of the autonomic system and its effects on the cardiovascular system.
This study used a single-blind, within-participant, counterbalanced, repeated-measures design to examine the relationship between emotional self-regulation and sport performance. Twenty competitive athletes completed four laboratory-based conditions; familiarization, control, emotion suppression, and nonsuppression. In each condition participants completed a 10-km cycling time trial requiring self-regulation. In the experimental conditions participants watched an upsetting video before performing the cycle task. When participants suppressed their emotional reactions to the video (suppression condition) they completed the cycling task slower, generated lower mean power outputs, and reached a lower maximum heart rate and perceived greater physical exertion than when they were given no self-regulation instructions during the video (nonsuppression condition) and received no video treatment (control condition). The findings suggest that emotional self-regulation resource impairment affects perceived exertion, pacing and sport performance and extends previous research examining the regulation of persistence on physical tasks. The results are discussed in line with relevant psychophysiological theories of self-regulation and fatigue and pertinent potential implications for practice regarding performance and well-being are suggested.
Understanding exercise participation for overweight and obese adults is critical for preventing comorbid conditions. Group-based high-intensity functional training (HIFT) provides time-efficient aerobic and resistance exercise at self-selected intensity levels which can increase adherence; behavioral responses to HIFT are unknown. This study examined effects of HIFT as compared to moderate-intensity aerobic and resistance training (ART) on exercise initiation, enjoyment, adherence, and intentions.
A stratified, randomized two-group pre-test posttest intervention was conducted for eight weeks in 2012 with analysis in 2013. Participants (n = 23) were stratified by median age (< or ≥ 28) and body mass index (BMI; < or ≥ 30.5). Participants were physically inactive with an average BMI of 31.1 ± 3.5 kg/m2, body fat percentage of 42.0 ± 7.4%, weight of 89.5 ± 14.2 kg, and ages 26.8 ± 5.9 years. Most participants were white, college educated, female, and married/engaged. Both groups completed 3 training sessions per week. The ART group completed 50 minutes of moderate aerobic exercise each session and full-body resistance training on two sessions per week. The HIFT group completed 60-minute sessions of CrossFit™ with actual workouts ranging from 5–30 minutes. Participants completed baseline and posttest questionnaires indicating reasons for exercise initiation (baseline), exercise enjoyment, and exercise intentions (posttest). Adherence was defined as completing 90% of exercise sessions. Daily workout times were recorded.
Participants provided mostly intrinsic reasons for exercise initiation. Eighteen participants adhered (ART = 9, 81.8%; HIFT = 9, 75%). HIFT dropouts (p = .012) and ART participants (p = .009) reported lower baseline exercise enjoyment than HIFT participants, although ART participants improved enjoyment at posttest (p = .005). More HIFT participants planned to continue the same exercise than ART participants (p = .002). No significant changes in BMI or body composition were found. Workouts were shorter for HIFT than ART (p < .001).
HIFT participants spent significantly less time exercising per week, yet were able to maintain exercise enjoyment and were more likely to intend to continue. High-intensity exercise options should be included in public health interventions.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: http://NCT02185872. Registered 9 July 2014.
Physical activity has long been considered beneficial to health and regular exercise is purported to relieve stress. However empirical evidence demonstrating these effects is limited. In this study, we compared psychophysiological responses to an acute psychosocial stressor between individuals who did, or did not, report regular physical exercise. Healthy men and women (N = 111) participated in two experimental sessions, one with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and one with a non-stressful control task. We measured heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol, and self-reported mood before and at repeated times after the tasks. Individuals who reported physical exercise at least once per week exhibited lower heart rate at rest than non-exercisers, but the groups did not differ in their cardiovascular responses to the TSST. Level of habitual exercise did not influence self-reported mood before the tasks, but non-exercisers reported a greater decline in positive affect after the TSST in comparison to exercisers. These findings provide modest support for claims that regular exercise protects against the negative emotional consequences of stress, and suggest that exercise has beneficial effects in healthy individuals. These findings are limited by their correlational nature, and future prospective controlled studies on the effects of regular exercise on response to acute stress are needed.
Performance in fitness tests could depend on factors beyond the bioenergetic and skeletomuscular systems, such as individual differences in preference for and tolerance of different levels of exercise-induced somatosensory stimulation. Although such individual-difference variables could play a role in exercise testing and prescription, they have been understudied. The purpose of the present studies was to examine the relationships of self-reported preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity with performance in fitness tests. Participants in Study I were 516 men and women volunteers from a campus community and participants in Study II were 42 men recruit firefighters undergoing a six-week training program. Both the Preference and Tolerance scores exhibited significant relationships with performance in several fitness tests, as well as with body composition and physical activity participation. Preference and Tolerance did not change after the training program in Study II, despite improvements in objective and perceived fitness, supporting their conceptualization as dispositional traits. Preference and Tolerance scores could be useful not only in ameliorating the current understanding of the determinants of physical performance, but also in personalizing exercise prescriptions and, thus, delivering exercise experiences that are more pleasant, tolerable, and sustainable.
Effect sizes are the most important outcome of empirical studies. Most articles on effect sizes highlight their importance to communicate the practical significance of results. For scientists themselves, effect sizes are most useful because they facilitate cumulative science. Effect sizes can be used to determine the sample size for follow-up studies, or examining effects across studies. This article aims to provide a practical primer on how to calculate and report effect sizes for t-tests and ANOVA's such that effect sizes can be used in a-priori power analyses and meta-analyses. Whereas many articles about effect sizes focus on between-subjects designs and address within-subjects designs only briefly, I provide a detailed overview of the similarities and differences between within- and between-subjects designs. I suggest that some research questions in experimental psychology examine inherently intra-individual effects, which makes effect sizes that incorporate the correlation between measures the best summary of the results. Finally, a supplementary spreadsheet is provided to make it as easy as possible for researchers to incorporate effect size calculations into their workflow.
Although some people may develop an intention to change their health behaviour, they might not take any action. This discrepancy has been labelled the “intention–behaviour gap.” Detailed action planning, perceived self-efficacy, and self-regulatory strategies (action control) may mediate between intentions and behaviour. This was examined in a longitudinal sample of 307 cardiac rehabilitation patients who were encouraged to adopt or maintain regular exercise. At the first time point, the predictors of intention and intention itself were assessed. Two months and four months later, the mediators and outcomes were measured. Results confirmed that all the three factors (planning, maintenance self-efficacy, and action control) served to mediate between earlier exercise intentions and later physical activity, each of them making a unique contribution. The results have implications for research on the “intention–behaviour gap,” and indicate that planning, maintenance self-efficacy and action control may be important volitional variables.
Individuals differ in the intensity of exercise they prefer and the intensity they can tolerate. The purpose of this project was to develop a measure of individual differences in the preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity. The steps involved in (a) item generation and face validation, (b) exploratory factor analysis and item selection, (c) structural validation, (d) examination of the internal consistency and test-retest reliability, (e) concurrent validation, and (f) construct validation are described. The Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire (PRETIE-Q) is a 16-item, 2-factor measure that exhibits acceptable psychometric properties and can be used in research aimed at understanding individual differences in responses to exercise and thus the psychological processes involved in the public health problem of exercise dropout.
This study systematically reviewed differences in pain perception between athletes and normally active controls. We screened MEDLINE, Sport-Discus, EMBASE, Web of Science, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, and the citations of original studies and systematic reviews. All studies on experimentally induced pain that compared pain perception between athletes and normally active controls were eligible. The main outcome measures were pain tolerance and pain threshold. Effects are described as standardized mean differences and were pooled using random-effects models. Fifteen studies including 899 subjects met the inclusion criteria. Twelve of these studies assessed pain tolerance, and 9 studies examined pain threshold. A meta-analysis of these studies revealed that athletes possessed higher pain tolerance compared to normally active controls (effect size calculated as Hedges' g=0.87, 95% confidence interval [CI(95)] 0.53-1.21; P<0.00001), whereas available data on pain threshold were less uniform (Hedges' g=0.69, CI(95) 0.16-1.21; P=0.01). After exclusion of studies with high risk of bias, differences between groups in pain threshold were not significant any longer. Our data suggest that regular physical activity is associated with specific alterations in pain perception. Psychological and biological factors that may be responsible for these alterations are discussed.
The public health problem of physical inactivity has proven resistant to research efforts aimed at elucidating its causes and interventions designed to alter its course. Thus, in most industrialized countries, the majority of the population is physically inactive or inadequately active. Most theoretical models of exercise behaviour assume that the decision to engage in exercise is based on cognitive factors (e.g. weighing pros and cons, appraising personal capabilities, evaluating sources of support). Another, still-under-appreciated, possibility is that these decisions are influenced by affective variables, such as whether previous exercise experiences were associated with pleasure or displeasure. This review examines 33 articles published from 1999 to 2009 on the relationship between exercise intensity and affective responses. Unlike 31 studies that were published until 1998 and were examined in a 1999 review, these more recent studies have provided evidence of a relation between the intensity of exercise and affective responses. Pleasure is reduced mainly above the ventilatory or lactate threshold or the onset of blood lactate accumulation. There are pleasant changes at sub-threshold intensities for most individuals, large inter-individual variability close to the ventilatory or lactate threshold and homogeneously negative changes at supra-threshold intensities. When the intensity is self-selected, rather than imposed, it appears to foster greater tolerance to higher intensity levels. The evidence of a dose-response relation between exercise intensity and affect sets the stage for a reconsideration of the rationale behind current guidelines for exercise intensity prescription. Besides effectiveness and safety, it is becoming increasingly clear that the guidelines should take into account whether a certain level of exercise intensity would be likely to cause increases or decreases in pleasure.
The main objective of this study was to further understanding of the patterns of spectral connectivity during exercise in low- and high-tolerant individuals. Thirty-nine healthy individuals (i.e., 17 low- and 22 high-tolerant participants) took part in the present study. A state-of-the-art portable electroencephalography system was used to measure the brain's electrical activity during an incremental exercise test performed until the point of volitional exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Spectral coherence was used to explore the patterns of connectivity in the frontal, central, and parietal regions of the brain. Physiological, perceptual, and affective responses were assessed throughout the exercise bout. The spontaneous eyeblink rate was also calculated prior to commencement and upon completion of the exercise trial as an indirect assessment of the dopaminergic system. The present findings indicate that high-tolerant individuals reported lower levels of perceived activation, especially during the preliminary stages of the exercise test. Participants in the high-tolerance group also reported greater levels of remembered pleasure upon completion of the exercise test. The data also revealed that high-tolerant individuals exhibited increased connectivity of theta waves between frontal, central, and parietal electrode sites and increased connectivity of beta waves, primarily within the parietal cortex. Correlational analysis indicated the possibility that low- and high-tolerant individuals make use of different neural networks to process and regulate their psychophysiological state during exercise-related situations. This strategy could potentially represent a conscious decision to downregulate affective arousal and facilitate the neural control of working muscles during situations of physical stress.
Abstract
Given the extensive neural networks connecting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) with other subcortical regions, the DLPFC has been implicated in a wide range of psychological and physiological functions during execution of movements. The main objective of this narrative review is to provide a solid theoretical foundation to deepen our understanding of the functional significance of the DLPFC during exercise. Given the limited scientific evidence in this field of scientific enquiry, this review was primarily focused on fatiguing and exhaustive exercise modes. The authors reviewed the anatomical structure of this region, as well as its functional importance for physical tasks performed mainly at moderate and high intensities. The majority of the studies employed noninvasive brain assessment techniques, such as electroencephalography, functional near-infrared spectroscopy, and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Six main DLPFC functions were identified: 1) exercise tolerance, 2) executive function, 3) attention allocation, 4) emotion regulation, 5) reward seeking, and 6) memory formation. The most important neuromodulatory function exerted by the DLPFC pertains to the inhibitory influence of this region over the amygdala and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. This inhibitory function appears to be the primary possibility and is generally reliant upon connectivity with other subcortical regions. During exhaustive exercise, stress hormones appear to have an inhibitory effect on the DLPFC and hippocampus. The present authors hypothesize that the use of cognitive strategies to partially neutralize the amygdala may rely on the presence of rewards, which are then translated into motivation to action through the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine systems.
Keywords
amygdalacognitive functiondorsolateral prefrontal cortexemotional regulationexercise tolerancemotivation
Inquiry of the psychological states during the exercise experience failed to fully account for the role of motivation to adhere and the disposition of exertion tolerance (ET). The current study expands the scope of the integrated cognitive–perceptual–affective framework by measuring the motivation to sustain effort in two physical tasks and accounting for ET. Thirty male participants performed cycling and isometric handgrip tasks to assess the progression of the rating of perceived exertion, attentional focus, affective responses, and motivation to adhere, along with an incremental workload. The ET was determined by a handgrip task time to voluntary exhaustion. The findings indicated significant time effects and linear trends for perceived exertion, attentional focus, affect, and perceived arousal but not motivation to adhere during the handgrip and cycling tasks. The ET played a key role in the integrity of the model, particularly in perceptual, attentional, and affective responses. The intended model serves to stimulate new research into adaptation mechanisms.
Background
The relationship between habitual physical activity (PA) and experimental pain tolerance has been investigated in small samples of young, healthy and/or single‐sex volunteers. We used a large, population‐based sample to assess this relationship in men and women with and without chronic pain.
Methods
We used data from the sixth and seventh Tromsø Study surveys (2007–2008; 2015–2016), with assessed pain tolerance of participants with the cold pressor test (CPT: dominant hand in circulating cold water at 3°C, maximum test time 106 s), and self‐reported total amount of habitual PA in leisure time (n = 19,087), exercise frequency (n = 19,388), exercise intensity (n = 18,393) and exercise duration (n = 18,343). A sub‐sample had PA measured by accelerometers (n = 4,922). We used Cox regression to compare CPT tolerance times between self‐reported PA levels. For accelerometer‐measured PA, we estimated hazard ratios for average daily activity counts, and for average daily minutes of moderate‐to‐vigorous PA done in bouts lasting 10 min or more. Models were tested for PA‐sex, and PA‐chronic pain and PA‐moderate‐to‐severe chronic pain interactions.
Results
Leisure‐time PA, exercise intensity and exercise duration were positively associated with CPT tolerance (p < .001; p = .011; p < .001). More PA was associated with higher CPT tolerance. At high levels of leisure‐time PA and exercise intensity, men had a significantly higher CPT tolerance than women. Accelerometer‐measured PA was not associated with CPT tolerance.
Conclusions
This study is one of the first to show that higher self‐reported habitual PA was connected to higher experimental pain tolerance in a population‐based sample, especially for men. This was not found for accelerometer‐measured PA.
Significance
This study finds that higher level of self‐reported leisure‐time physical activity is associated with increased cold pressor pain tolerance in a large population‐based sample. Though present in both sexes, the association is strongest among men. Despite the robust dose–response relationship between pain tolerance and self‐reported activity level, no such relationship was found for accelerometer‐measured activity, reflecting a possible discrepancy in the aspect of physical activity measured. Though the study design does not permit causal conclusions, the findings suggest that increasing physical activity may increase pain tolerance in the general population.
Controlling attention during endurance exercises can be a complex task for the human brain. This is mainly because internal bodily cues exert a major influence on one’s attentional focus during exercises performed at moderate and high intensities. Further understanding of the cerebral mechanisms that underlie attentional control during endurance tasks has the potential to imbue researchers with greater theoretical knowledge to investigate psychological and psychophysiological responses to exercise. In the present article, the author explores the neural basis of attentional focus during endurance tasks performed at various intensities. Compelling evidence indicates that subcortical regions such as the cingulate gyrus processes interoceptive signals relayed by the thalamus and recreate the sensations of discomfort. Consequently, the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex may become active in order to partially assuage fatigue-related symptoms. The mechanisms described herein also indicate that frontal and parietal regions function in an orchestrated manner to prioritise processing of task-related information (e.g. distance covered) and prevent irrelevant signals from entering focal awareness during endurance tasks performed at moderate and high intensities.
Beneficial effect of regular moderate physical exercise (PE) and negative effect of severe exercise and/or overtraining as an activator of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) have been shown in numerous aspects of human health, including reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, depression, and some types of cancer. Moderate-to-vigorous PE stimulates the SNS activation, releasing catecholamines (CATs) adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine that play an important regulatory and modulatory actions by affecting metabolic processes and the immune system. Summary of the dispersed literature in this area and explanation of the biological mechanisms operating between PE-CATs and the immune system would lead to a better understanding of the beneficial and negative effects of PE on health. This overview aimed to: demonstrate representative literature findings on the exercise released CATs levels, major functions performed by these hormones, their interactions with immune system and their effects on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Also, mechanisms of cytotoxic free radicals and reactive oxygen species generation during CATs oxidation, and molecular mechanisms of CATs response to exercise are discussed to demonstrate positive and negative on human health effects. Owing to the large body of the subject literature, we present a representative cross-section of the published studies in this area. The results show a significant role of CATs in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, immunity and as generators of reactive oxygen species, depending on PE intensity and duration. Further investigation of the PE-CATs relationship should validate CATs levels to optimize safe intensity and duration of exercise and individualize their prescription, considering CATs to be applied as markers for a dose of exercise. Also, a better understanding of the biological mechanisms is also needed.
The aim of this study was to clarify the role of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in physical effort regulation. We hypothesized that the PFC would be progressively involved in physical endurance through the engagement of cognitive inhibition, which would be necessary to maintain effort by inhibiting fatigue-related cues. This hypothesis was examined using a double-blind, sham-controlled, within-subjects study (N = 20) using high-definition (HD) transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). Participants had to maintain a knee extensor contraction at 30% of their maximal force while simultaneously performing an Eriksen flanker task to evaluate their inhibition performance during the task. Anodal stimulation of the dlPFC influenced response to the cognitive task during exercise, as seen by slower response times and better accuracy. However, it did not lead to any measureable improvement in cognitive inhibition and did not influence endurance time. There was no correlation between cognitive inhibition and the maintenance of physical effort. This result does not indicate a relationship between cognitive inhibition and endurance performance. The contribution of the PFC in physical endurance could be explained through its involvement on decisional processes.
Acute stressor experiences may influence cognition, possibly through actions of cognitive flexibility, which comprises the ability to modify cognitive and behavioral strategies in response to changing environmental demands. In the present investigation, we examined the effects of an acute psychosocial stressor (the Trier Social Stress Test) on a specific form of cognitive flexibility, namely that of set-shifting, which was assessed by the Berg’s Card Sorting Task (BCST). Among undergraduate students, the stressor promoted better performance on the BSCT relative to that evident among nonstressed individuals, including a reduction of perseverative (an index of enhanced set-shifting) and non-perseverative errors. They also required fewer trials to learn the first sorting category, reflecting augmented acquisition of an attentional set, but did not differ in the ability to maintain a set. Moreover, increased cortisol levels specifically mediated the enhancing effects of the acute stressor on set-shifting, but not the ability to acquire and maintain an attentional set. However, this enhancing effect was minimized among individuals who appraised the stressor as being uncontrollable. These data indicate that an acute, social-evaluative stressor can facilitate certain forms of cognitive flexibility, such as set-shifting. The present investigation also highlights the value of focusing on psychological and physiological mediators in determining the impact of stressful experiences on cognitive functioning.
• Lay summary
• A brief social stressor (public speaking) can have an enhancing effect on mental flexibility, and this seems to be related to the stress hormone, cortisol. This cognitive enhancing effect, however, might be minimized if a stressful situation is perceived as beyond a person’s control.
Abstract
Background
The brain mechanisms that underlie the psychological effects of auditory stimuli during physical activity are hitherto under-researched; particularly so in ecologically valid settings. The objective of the present experiment was to investigate the effects of two contrasting auditory stimuli conditions on psychological responses and brain activity during an outdoor walking task.
Methods
Twenty-four participants were required to walk 400 m at a pace of their choosing and report perceptual (state attention and perceived exertion) and affective (valence, arousal, and perceived enjoyment) outcomes immediately after each exercise bout. Three conditions were administered in a randomised and fully counterbalanced order (control, podcast, and music). State-of-the-art, portable EEG technology was used to facilitate measurement during the walking task. Fast Fourier Transform was used to decompose the brain's electrical activity into different band waves (lower-alpha, upper-alpha, sensorimotor rhythm, and beta).
Results
The results indicated that music up-regulated beta waves, led to more dissociative thoughts, induced more positive affective responses, up-regulated arousal, and enhanced perceived enjoyment to a greater degree when compared to control and podcast.
Conclusions
Rearrangement of beta frequencies in the brain appears to elicit a more positive emotional state wherein participants are more likely to dissociate from internal sensory signals and focus on task-irrelevant factors. The portable EEG system used in the present study appears to accurately measure electrical activity in the brain during light-intensity physical activities and is effective in reducing electrical artefacts caused by body and cable movements.
Keywords
Affect; Arousal; Attention; Brain; Motor activity; Psychophysiology
Thirty years ago, shortly following the Hixon Symposium on which the present meeting is patterned, Karl Lashley was kind enough to take me on as a postdoctoral fellow at the Yerkes Laboratories of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida. It therefore brings back many memories today as I speak on movement, for it was with movement that Lashley was concerned in his Hixon Symposium paper, “The Problem of Serial Order in Behavior.” Furthermore, it was in association with Lashley that my work on monkeys began—with studies on brain mechanisms underlying auditory-visual association. At the time of these early studies (Evarts, 1952), much of the work on the cerebral cortex in general and the motor cortex in particular utilized the technique of cerebral ablation and/or electrical stimulation, but in the intervening years a third technique has been developed, one that allows observations of neuronal activity in the brain of the intact animal, and it is with the use of this third technique that I am concerned in this discussion of brain mechanisms in voluntary movement. The pioneering work in this area was done by Herbert Jasper (1958), who studied activity of single brain cells in association with acquisition of conditioned responses. Jasper was interested in the events occurring in association with the learning process, but when I entered the field I devoted attention primarily to the somewhat simpler task of observing the neurophysiological correlates of well-established volitional movements.
In this chapter, we expose how behavioral economists, experimental psychologists, and cognitive neuroscientists joined their efforts and merged two fields of investigation: reward learning and choice behavior. This collaboration was made possible by technical progress the availability of brain-imaging scanners and conceptual links—the use of motivational value as a key variable. We then present evidence that motivational values are encoded in a so-called brain valuation system (BVS), which essentially comprises the ventral parts of the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Some fundamental properties of the BVS have been uncovered: it encodes values that are personal (subject- and not object-specific), generic (expressed in a common neuronal currency), and automatic (generated even during distractive tasks). Next, we show example situations where the BVS interacts with other brain systems (such as the perceptual, motor, executive, episodic, and mirror systems) that can impact on, or be impacted by, motivational values. These neural interactions might explain a number of psychological phenomena, for instance, incentive motivation (why we put so much effort in a task), delay discounting (why we can resist the temptation of immediate pleasures), or mimetic desires (why we often pursue the same goals as others). Last, we point to unsolved issues, such as how values are encoded at the single-cell level, how the value code incorporates uncertainty, how the values of different features are integrated, how the values are different options are compared, how negative values are represented relative to positive values, etc.
Executive function is a collection of cognitive processes essential for higher order mental function. Processes involved in executive function include, but are not limited to, working memory, attention, cognitive flexibility, and impulse control. These complex behaviors are largely mediated by prefrontal cortical function but are modulated by dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, and cholinergic input. The ability of these neurotransmitter systems to modulate executive function allows for adaption in cognitive behavior in response to changes in the environment. Because of the important role these neurotransmitter systems play in regulating executive function, changes in these systems can also have a grave impact on executive function. In addition, polymorphisms in genes associated with these neurotransmitters are associated with phenotypic differences in executive function. Understanding how these naturally occurring polymorphisms contribute to different executive function phenotypes will advance basic knowledge of cognition and potentially further understanding and treatment of mental illness that involve changes in executive function. In this review, we will examine the influence of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and acetylcholine on the following measures of executive function: attention, cognitive flexibility, and impulse control. We will also review the effects of polymorphisms in genes associated with these neurotransmitter systems on these measures of executive function.
Subjects were exposed to two aversive experiences: in the short trial, they immersed one hand in water at 14 °C for 60 s; in the long trial, they immersed the other hand at 14 °C for 60 s, then kept the hand in the water 30 s longer as the temperature of the water was gradually raised to 15 °C, still painful but distinctly less so for most subjects. Subjects were later given a choice of which trial to repeat. A significant majority chose to repeat the long trial, apparently preferring more pain over less. The results add to other evidence suggesting that duration plays a small role in retrospective evaluations of aversive experiences; such evaluations are often dominated by the discomfort at the worst and at the final moments of episodes.
Research has focused on how distance runners cope with the pain and discomfort that often accompany long distance running events. Much of the research has examined associative vs dissociative mental coping strategies used while running. Associative coping strategies are thought processes that focus on internal sensations such as body awareness, muscular tension, and racing strategy, whereas dissociative coping strategies shun internal sensory input due to the discomfort the input can create. This study examined 8 elite middle and long distance runners to determine whether the pace of the run would influence the associative or dissociative coping strategies used. The runners reported their thoughts and feelings immediately after running at different paces. Results suggest the purpose of a run may not be the determinant for which coping strategy is best, but that the pace of the run may determine which strategy should be used. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This selective review discusses the psychobiological mediation of nociception and pain. Summarizing literature from physiology and neuroscience, first an overview of the neuroanatomic and neurochemical systems underpinning pain perception and modulation is provided. Second, findings from psychological science are used to elucidate cognitive, emotional, and behavioral factors central to the pain experience. This review has implications for clinical practice with patients suffering from chronic pain, and provides strong rationale for assessing and treating pain from a biopsychosocial perspective.
The purpose of the present paper is to review the literature on the cold pressor test and to discuss the ways in which these investigations have pointed toward a model of homeostatic function. The research employing the cold pressor test includes studies of psychosomatic illness, factors influencing autonomic response in stress, the relationship between psychological disorder and autonomic responsivity, as well as studies of cortical influences on autonomic function, and the relationship between stress and task performance. From these studies, several parameters of a potential model of homoeostasis are selected and discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of autonomic balance and initial values in influencing autonomic response to stress.
A recent study observed a behavioral dichotomy of pain responsivity using a tonic pain model, suggesting that this paradigm might be useful for studying individual differences accompanying this dichotomous pattern. The present study was conducted to replicate this dichotomy and examine group differences on measures of cognitive coping, affect, and pain perception on the cold-pressor test. As found in the previous study, a bimodal distribution of pain tolerance was observed. Forty-seven subjects were classified as pain-sensitive and 24 were identified as pain-tolerant. Consistent with previous studies, more males tended to be pain-tolerant compared to females. Paintolerant subjects used significantly less catastrophizing than pain-sensitive subjects, and marginal differences were observed for other coping styles. The groups differed on several pain measures but not on the measures of affect. These results suggest that certain cognitive coping styles are related to pain responsivity, and may be an important distinguishing feature between pain-sensitive and pain tolerant-subjects.
ObjectivesTenenbaum's (2001) [A social-cognitive perspective of perceived exertion and exertion tolerance. In R. N. Singer, H. Hausenblas, & C. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 810–820). New York, NY:Wiley] exercise intensity-attention linkage model was used to design and carry out two studies to examine individuals’ attentional strategies during engagement in two physically demanding tasks, and the mediating effect of task intensity on attention focus.DesignAn experimental design was employed where thought classifications (associative vs. dissociative) during three stages of a handgrip task (study 1) and during 50%, 70%, and 90% VO2 max effort in a cycling task (study 2) were subjected to non-parametric Chi-square analysis.MethodsMale and female participants were exposed to the increasing sensation of physical effort via two fatiguing tasks: an isometric handgrip task (n=35), and a stationary cycling task (n=13). During each task participants were instructed to vocally express their current thoughts—in sentences, phrases or words—continuously throughout the testing procedure. Participant's self-reported thoughts were recorded during the tasks, and later classified to reveal patterns of associative and dissociative attention focus.ResultsAttention focus was predominantly associative when task intensity was high. These findings are consistent with Tenenbaum's (2001) [A social-cognitive perspective of perceived exertion and exertion tolerance. In R. N. Singer, H. Hausenblas, & C. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport psychology (pp. 810–820). New York, NY:Wiley] model postulating the relationship between exercise intensity and attention allocation, which maintains that above a given effort threshold physiological cues dominate attention focus.ConclusionsDuring conditions of high workload and prolonged duration, attention is focused on overwhelming physiological sensations, which dominate focal awareness. At this point an associative attention focus is almost unavoidable.