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Ancient Greek and Indian Social Contract Theories: a Comparison

October 2024
Old World Journal of Ancient Africa and Eurasia 4(3):1-26

DOI:10.1163/26670755-20240002

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CC BY 4.0

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This article analyses and compares ancient Greek and Indian social contract theories. On the Greek side, social theories comprising a contractual understanding of the origins of society are encountered, inter alia , in the works of Herodotus, Plato and Polybius – while comparable Indian accounts may be gathered from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad , the Dīgha Nikāya and the Mahābhārata . Through close readings of these and other texts, it is shown that both the Greek and Indian theories largely rely on the concept of monarchy as the cornerstone of social order. The Greek and Indian accounts also incorporate certain elements reoccurring in early modern European social contract theories, yet in other respects the former fundamentally differ from the latter.

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Published with license by Koninklijke Brill 󰎛󰃊󰎛󰂹󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰅺󰂶󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰎛󰃊󰎛󰂹󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰄀󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀(online)

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the 󰆗󰂺󰆓󰂺

Ancient Greek and Indian Social Contract Theories:

a Comparison

Otto Linderborg

󰂶󰂶

󰂶

otto.linderborg@miun.se

󰆘󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃊󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰃊

󰆛󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆗

Abstract

󰂺

   󰂶        

 󰂶inter alia󰂶     󰂶 

󰄍

󰂶 and the 󰂺    

󰂶     

       󰂺  

         

󰂶      

󰂺

Keywords

󰄍󰄍

󰄍

󰂹

󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽

Introduction1



󰂺󰂶

         

󰂹󰃎

󰂶󰃎

         

     󰄘    

󰃈󰂺󰂶

          

󰂶

󰂺

  󰂶        

   

󰂺󰂶



󰂺

󰂹      󰂶   󰂶 

       󰃍󰂺 Robitzsch

󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆜󰆗󰄍󰆘󰃎󰂺󰂶󰂶

󰂶             

social contract theories encountered in ancient Greek and Indian literary

󰂺   󰂶        

󰂶󰂶  󰃍󰃎󰄍

           󰂺

󰄍

󰄍

 󰄀    󰂶   

󰂺

          



󰄍󰂺󰂺󰂶

󰄀󰂺󰂶

          

 󰄍         󰄍  

󰂺󰂶 󰂶   

󰆔         󰄀󰄀󰂶 

󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆾

󰄀          

 󰂺           

󰄘  󰄍 

    󰄘󰄖󰄘󰃍

 󰃎󰂶  

󰄍󰄀󰂶󰂶󰂶

󰂶󰂶not Greece (󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆛󰂹󰆔󰆓󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆕󰆜󰃎󰂺



󰄀󰂺

󰂶    󰂶  󰂶 

altérité󰃍󰂺

󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰂹󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺          

󰂶    󰂺 󰂶   

     󰄀 

         󰄖 󰄘󰂶

 󰄖     󰄘󰄍  󰂶 

       

 󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆓󰂹󰆔󰄍󰆗󰂷󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆚󰂷Gray

󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰂹󰆔󰄍󰆕󰃎󰂺󰇠   󰄍    󰄍   

      󰄖󰄘     󰂺 

󰂶󰂶

    󰂺    

󰂶󰂶󰄀

󰄀󰂺  

that the ancient Indian thinkers were the first to formulate social contract theories

󰂶   󰂶        󰄍  

󰃍Bandyopadhaya

󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆘󰂷󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰂹󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆘󰂷󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂹󰆖󰆛󰃎󰂺

󰂶



     󰂺 󰂶   

repeatedly presumed that the ancient Greek and Roman accounts showcase

󰄀󰄖󰄘

life – which we are familiar with from the work of Thomas Hobbes and other

     󰃍 󰂶 Lev. 󰆔󰆖  󰂶

Du. cont. soc.󰆔󰂺󰆙󰂺󰂶󰂺 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰂹󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆓󰂷󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆜󰆗󰄍󰆖󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺  

󰂶󰂶

 .

󰆕 󰄀󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰂹󰆖󰄍󰆙󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆿

󰂶    󰂶 󰂶       

󰄀  󰄘󰂶 

foreshadow some elemental features in the social contract theories of early

󰂺

            

   󰄍         

󰄍󰄀󰄀

  󰃍 󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆜󰂹󰆔󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺 󰂶     

         󰂶

       

󰂺󰇡



       󰄍      

󰄍

󰄀󰂺

󰂺󰂶

         

󰂺 󰂶         󰂺

󰂶

to what I identify as a shared characteristic in the Greek and Indian social

 󰂹         

 󰂺  󰂶  

   󰂺        

the 󰇢 󰃍󰃎󰂶 󰇣 (Book 󰂷

Aggañña Sutta󰃍󰄖   󰄘󰃎󰃎󰂶 󰇤

(Book 󰂷󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰃎󰂺󰂶

 󰂹   

     󰄘 Histories󰇥 󰃍 󰂷  󰄀 

󰆖 󰂶  󰃍󰆜󰆙󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆓󰃎 

󰂺

4 The 󰂶   󰂶    

󰂶  󰂶  󰂶  

󰂺

󰆘  󰂶 󰄖  󰄘󰂶       

      󰂶 󰂶 󰂶 

󰂶󰂺

󰆙  

  󰂶     󰂶     

󰂶󰂶󰂺

󰆚 󰄘 Histories        󰂶  

󰄀󰂺

󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰇀

󰂶     󰃎󰂺 󰂶   

    

  󰄘  Protagoras󰂺󰇦 󰂶     

Polybius’ Histories󰇧 (Book 󰃎󰂺

A Note on Method



󰄀   󰂺  

          

        

󰄍 



󰃍󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆜󰂹󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺

󰂶󰄀

󰂺󰄀

󰂺󰂶󰂶

 󰃍󰂺

󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰂹󰆕󰄍󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂶

 󰄍 󰂺󰂺󰂶 󰄖  󰄘󰂶 󰄖󰄘󰂶 󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄀󰄘

󰄍   󰄀

󰂺

Selection of Sources

 󰂶       󰄍   

󰄍

 󰄀󰂺 

 󰂶           

󰄖󰄘󰄍󰄀sophist

󰂺󰂶

󰃍󰃎

󰆛  󰄘  Protagoras󰂶          

󰂺

󰆜 󰄘Histories         

   󰂶   󰂶 󰂶   󰂺 

           

󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰇁

󰂶



󰂺󰆗󰆗󰃍󰃎󰂺

       󰂶     

󰂺󰇟󰇞

󰂶󰂶󰇟󰇟󰃍󰂺󰆔󰆘󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓)

󰃍󰃎

󰄍

󰂶

󰃍󰆛󰂺󰆜󰆚󰂺󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺󰇟󰇠 The 󰇟󰇡

󰃍󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆘󰆓󰆓󰃎󰂶󰂶

󰂺󰂶

󰂶

󰂺󰂶



󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰃎

     󰃍󰄖’ ) are forced into combat with demons

󰃍󰄖’ 󰃎󰂺 󰂶   

󰂺󰂶

󰂶󰂶

󰂺󰂶

in all directions (“  󰃮”    󰃎󰂺

󰂶

     󰃍󰄖’ 󰃎 

   󰂺          󰄍 

󰆔󰆓 󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕󰃎󰂺

11 The  is a sacred collection of hymns and chants that form the earliest known

󰂺󰆔󰂶󰆓󰆕󰆛

󰂺

󰆔󰆕 󰄙”  

     󰃍󰄙      

󰄍󰂻󰄛󰃎󰂺

󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺

󰆔󰆖 󰂶

󰄍

󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰄘

󰂺󰃍Ait. Br.󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺󰇟󰇢

   󰂶     

         󰂶

󰂺    󰂶 󰂶       

           

󰄍      󰄀 󰂺    of Plato’s Laws󰂶󰇟󰇣 for

󰂶󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰂶

󰂺

󰄀󰄀󰂶󰂶

 󰄀  󰄍  

󰃍  󰃎󰄍

󰃍

󰃎󰂺 󰃍󰂺 Laws 󰆙󰆛󰆓󰄍󰃎󰂺 󰂶    󰄘 Politics󰇟󰇤

󰄀󰃍

󰃎󰄍

󰃍

󰃎󰂺󰃍󰂺Pol󰂺󰆔󰆕󰆘󰆕󰂺󰆔󰆜󰄍󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺

󰂶󰂶 

     󰂺 󰂶 

󰄀

    󰂶     󰄍  

󰄍

󰃍󰃎󰂺󰄘󰂶

  󰃍  󰃕󰂻󰃖  󰃎

󰄍

󰂶󰃍

󰃎󰂺󰃍󰂺Laws󰆙󰆛󰆔󰄍󰂷󰂺Pol󰂺󰆔󰆕󰆛󰆙󰂺󰆔󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺󰇟󰇥

 󰂶 󰂶         

           󰂺

󰂶     

󰆔󰆗          󰂶 

󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆖󰆖󰆜󰂺

󰆔󰆘 Laws󰄘

󰂺󰂶󰂺

󰆔󰆙 󰄘Politics is a foundational work of political philosophy that examines the nature

󰄀󰂶󰂺

󰂺

󰆔󰆚          

󰄘󰂹󰂺󰂺󰂺Rep.󰆘󰆘󰆓󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰇃

󰂹󰂺󰂶

󰂶󰂺󰂶

󰂺󰂶

           

󰂺󰂶



󰂹

󰂶󰂶

󰂺󰃍󰄖’ )

Ait󰂺󰂺󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆗󰂺󰇟󰇦

󰂶󰂶

󰃍)

󰂺󰆔󰂺󰆜󰆚󰂺󰆖󰂺󰇟󰇧

󰂶

 󰄀 󰂺󰂶  

󰂶󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓󰃎󰂶



     󰃍󰃎 󰄍     

refused them his protection (En󰂺El󰂺󰆕󰂺󰆔󰆕󰆖󰄍󰆔󰆙󰆕󰃎󰂺

󰂶  󰂶󰂶

󰃍󰂺󰂺󰂺󰂺

󰆚󰂺󰆔󰆕󰃍󰃎󰂷󰂺󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆖󰂺󰆘󰂺󰂷󰂺󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺󰂶󰂶

󰄀󰂶󰂺

󰂶

in the remainder of this study span a time period from the late Vedic to the

󰃍󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆗󰆓󰆓) – with the 

󰃍󰂺󰆜󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆙󰆓󰆓 󰃎  󰂶Aggañña

Sutta 󰃍󰂺 󰆘󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆓󰆓 ) in the middle and  󰃍󰂺 󰆖󰆓󰆓 󰄍󰆖󰆓󰆓

󰃎󰂺  󰂶 󰂶  

    󰄀  󰃍󰂺 󰆗󰆘󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆘󰆓 󰃎󰂺  󰂶 

󰃍󰂺󰆗󰆘󰆓󰄍󰆗󰆓󰆓) represents the earliest cut into

󰂶󰄘Protagoras󰃍󰂺󰆗󰆓󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆘󰆓 ) falls in the middle

and Polybius Book 󰃍󰂺󰆔󰆚󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺

󰆔󰆛 󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺

󰆔󰆜 󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰇄

 󰂶 

󰂺

󰂶      

󰃍󰂺󰆗󰆙󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆚󰆓󰃎

󰃍󰂺󰆜󰆜󰄍󰆘󰆘󰃎󰂺󰂶󰄀󰄀

     󰇠󰇞 󰃍󰂺 󰆘󰆓󰆓 󰄍󰆘󰆓󰆓 ) and the

󰇠󰇟 󰃍󰂺 󰆖󰆓󰆓 󰄍󰆖󰆓󰆓 󰃎    󰂺    



   󰂶      

󰂺󰂶󰂺

There are many other instances of Greek and Indian social contract theories

󰂺󰇠󰇠

The Indian Accounts

󰂶

do not really relate to the establishment of society per se – and that this marks

󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰂹󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺󰇠󰇡

Thus in Thomas Hobbes’ 󰂶 󰂶

󰄀󰄀

󰄍󰂺󰂺󰂶󰄙󰂶

󰂶󰂶󰂶󰄛󰃍󰂶Lev.󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺

󰂶

 󰄍󰂶   󰄍

endowed with the power to

   󰂶  

󰂶󰂶

󰂶󰂶



󰂶Lev.󰆔󰆚󰂺

󰆕󰆓       󰂶

󰂶󰂶󰂺

󰆕󰆔 

󰂺

󰆕󰆕 󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆖󰆙󰂹󰂺󰆕󰂺

󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰄍󰂺

󰆕󰆖 󰂶󰂶

󰂹󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆖󰆖󰆖󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰆻

   󰂶   󰄍      

  󰄍    

󰂺󰂶

󰂶󰂶

󰄀󰂺

  Aggañña Sutta󰂶

󰂶

satirise Brahmanical creation myths (see 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕󰂷󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂹󰆗󰆔󰆖󰄍

󰆗󰆔󰆙󰃎󰂺󰇠󰇢     󰂶      

      

 󰂶  󰂶 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶  

recluses (see 󰂐󰂺󰆕󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆙󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆔󰆚󰂷󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆗󰆛󰆛󰃎󰂺

 󰂶      󰂶

    󰂶   

 󰄀  󰄀   󰃍󰂐 󰂺 󰆕󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺

󰂶

󰂶󰄀

        󰂺  

󰄀󰄍

󰃍󰂺󰂺 󰆕󰆚󰂺󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆔󰆛󰂺󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆓󰆖󰄍

󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂶󰂶󰃍‘’

󰃎󰃍󰄖’ 󰃎–

󰃍󰄖’ 󰃎󰃍󰄖’ ) also arises (󰂺

󰂺󰆕󰆚󰂺󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂺󰇠󰇣  󰂶󰂶  

󰂹

󰂶󰂶󰄙

  󰂶   󰂶 󰂶   󰄀

 󰃍󰄙  󰂌

󰂌󰂌”

󰂧 󰂧󰂧

 󰃎󰂷

󰆕󰆗        󰂶   󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂶Huxley

󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙 and 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰂶󰂺󰂺󰆔󰂺

󰆕󰆘       󰃕󰄖    󰄘󰃖 –    󰄀

   󰄍  󰄀

Aggañña Sutta󰂺󰄀

󰄀󰄍

     –    󰄘   

   󰂶󰂹

󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆖󰂹󰆕󰆜󰄍󰆖󰆓󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰆼

  󰂶    󰂶 

  󰂿 󰃍󰃎 

 󰂺󰄛󰂶 󰂶

󰄀󰂶

     󰄙󰂶 󰂶 󰃍󰃎  

󰂶󰂶󰄀

󰃍“󰂌-

󰂌” 󰂧

󰂧󰃎󰂷

󰂺󰃕󰃖󰂷󰃍󰃎

󰂺󰄖󰄘󰃕󰃖󰂶󰂶

(is what) 󰃍󰃎󰂷 󰄖󰄘  󰃍

󰃎󰂺󰄖󰄘󰃕󰃖

what is what 󰂹󰄖󰄘󰃍

󰃎󰂺“󰃕 … 󰃖

󰄛󰂶   󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰂹󰄖󰄘  󰃍

󰃎󰂺

󰂺󰂺󰆕󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆔󰂺󰇠󰇤

     

    󰂺       

󰄀      󰂶  

󰄀󰂶󰂺

󰂶󰂶



󰂹

󰂶󰄀

󰂶󰃍󰄙par-

”      

 󰃎󰂺󰄘󰂹

󰄙󰂶󰂶

󰄘󰂶󰂶󰄛

(“󰂌-

”     󰂧   

󰃎󰂺           

󰆕󰆙 󰂺  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺         

󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰃖󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆖󰆖󰆜󰄍󰆖󰆗󰆓󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰆽

󰂶

󰂺  󰂶   

󰂶  󰂶 󰄙   󰂶  󰂶  

󰂺󰂶

who shall protect us” (󰃯󰂌

    ”   

󰂧      󰂤󰂺󰂺

󰆔󰆕󰂺󰆙󰆚󰂺󰆔󰆚󰄍󰆕󰆔󰂺󰇠󰇥

The Aggañña Sutta and      

󰄍             

    󰃍󰄖’ 󰃎󰂷 󰄖   

󰄘󰃎  󰃍󰂺󰂐󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆖󰂺󰆘󰃎󰂺󰂶

󰂺

In 󰂶

󰂹

󰂺󰂹󰄙󰂺

󰂶󰄀

󰄛󰃍“-

󰂌”    

󰂧    󰂤󰂩

󰆔󰆕󰂺󰆙󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆕󰆕󰂺󰇠󰇦

󰂶󰂶   

󰂹

󰂹󰄖󰂺

󰂺󰃍󰄙” 󰂤󰂺

󰂶

󰃕…󰃖

󰂶󰂶󰃍󰃎󰃕…󰃖

󰆕󰆚 󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺

󰆕󰆛 󰂺 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺      󰃍 󰂺 󰆕󰆘󰃎󰂶   󰄍 

 󰄀      󰄍      󰄀

       󰂹 󰄙

󰂶󰂶

 󰄛 󰃕     

󰂶󰂶

󰃖󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆖󰂹󰆕󰆜󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰆾

 󰂶  

󰂺

󰆔󰆕󰂺󰆙󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆖󰄍󰆕󰆜󰂺󰇠󰇧

The Aggañña Sutta       󰂶 

󰂶

󰄍󰄍󰂺󰂶

both sources adhere to the common presupposition that early settled societies

  󰃍󰂺

󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂹󰆚󰆜󰄍󰆛󰆓󰃎󰂺󰂶    

the  󰂐   󰄍    

󰂺

󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕󰂹󰆙󰆔󰃎󰄍 

󰂹

󰂶󰂺

󰂶   󰂺  

󰂶    󰃕󰂺󰂶  󰃖

(󰃯   󰂌 

”    󰂧

󰃎󰂺

󰂐󰂐󰆔󰂺󰆗󰂺󰆔󰆔󰂺󰇡󰇞

󰂶󰃍

󰃎󰄀

Brahmanical oneness (󰃬󰃮󰂤.󰄀

         󰂶  

󰂶󰃍 󰃎󰄍  

   󰄀 󰃍󰂺 Up󰂺 󰆔󰂺󰆗󰂺󰆔󰆕󰄍󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺

In the  󰂶       

        󰂺  



󰆕󰆜 󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺   

󰄀󰂶         󰃍  󰃎 

 󰂹 󰂐󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆖󰂺󰆙

󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰂹󰆛󰆔󰆖󰂺

󰆖󰆓 󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰆿

  󰄀  󰃍󰃎󰂺󰇡󰇟

󰂶

󰂺

 󰂶󰂶    

 

󰄍

󰂺󰂶    

󰄀       󰃍 󰂤󰂌

    󰄀 󰄀 󰃍

󰂤󰂌          



( 󰂤󰂺󰂶 󰂶       󰄀

󰄍

(󰃎󰂺        

󰂺

In the 󰂶  

󰂶

󰂶󰄘

   󰄘      󰃍 󰂐 󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆖󰂺󰆕󰄍󰆔󰆖󰂶 󰂺

󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆗󰆛󰆛󰄍󰆗󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺󰇡󰇠

󰂶

󰂶󰂹

󰂶

󰂺

Second Treatise of Government󰂹

󰄀

󰂶󰂷󰂶󰄀

󰂶

󰂶Sec. Tr.󰆛󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆙󰂺

󰆖󰆔 

             

“spiritually preeminent but materially dependent upon” the Ksatriyas as the (secularly)

󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆛󰂹󰆘󰆓󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆙󰂹󰆙󰆓󰆓󰂺

󰆖󰆕 󰄖󰄘󰆔

󰆚󰂺 󰂶

         

          󰂹  󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆙󰄍󰆕󰆜󰂺

󰂹

󰂹󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂹󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆔󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰇀

󰂶     

          󰂶 

could    󰂺      

󰂶󰂶󰄍

󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰂶󰄀

social to social life presumes󰂺

󰂶 

󰂺󰂶󰂶

󰄍

  󰂺󰇡󰇡 󰂶 󰂶

󰂶

󰂶

󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰂹󰆛󰆚󰄍󰆛󰆛󰃎󰂺

The Greek Accounts

󰂶

󰂹

       󰂹   

  󰂺      󰃍

󰃎󰂶󰂺

󰃍  󰃎󰂶



󰂶󰄀

󰃍

󰃎󰂶󰄀

󰂺 󰂶  󰂶

󰃍󰃎󰂶󰃍

󰃎󰂺󰂶

󰂶



󰃍󰃎󰂶󰄀

󰂷

󰆖󰆖          

󰂺󰂶

      󰄀  

󰂹󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰂹󰆛󰆜󰄍󰆜󰆓󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰇁

󰂺󰂶

󰂺󰂶

󰂶

󰂶󰂷

󰃍󰃎

󰂺

󰃍

   󰃎󰂷 󰂶  󰂶   

󰂶󰃍󰂶󰂶󰄀

󰄘󰃎󰂶󰄙

󰂶󰂶󰂷

󰂶

 󰂺󰄛  󰄀

󰂺󰂹

󰂿󰄀

󰂶

󰃍󰃎󰂺

󰂺󰆔󰂺󰆜󰆙󰂺󰆔󰄍󰆔󰂺󰆜󰆛󰂺󰆔󰂺󰇡󰇢

 󰂶         Aggañña Sutta

and 󰄖󰄘

(󰄖’ 󰃎 󰄍       

󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰂶󰄖

󰄘󰃍󰃎

   󰂺 󰂶      󰂹

󰂺󰂶

󰃍󰃎󰂶

󰂶󰂺

󰄍

󰃍󰃎󰂶󰂺

In the Aggañña Sutta and 󰂶  󰂶    

established immediately – or at least there was no mention here of any

          

󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰄘󰂺

󰂶󰂶

    󰄀     󰄀

󰆖󰆗 󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰇂

ruler ( 󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆗󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺       

󰄍

󰂺󰂶



󰂺

󰄘Protagoras.󰂶

󰄘

󰂶     󰄖󰄘 󰃍 󰂶

󰂺󰂺󰂶󰃎󰂺



󰂺󰄍

󰄍

󰂺󰂶󰂶

 󰂹    󰃍

󰃎󰂺         󰂺 󰃍󰂺 Prot󰂺

󰆖󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺

  󰂶  󰂺

󰂶

󰄍󰄍󰂺

   󰄀󰂶        

󰄘󰂶

󰄍   󰂺         󰂺

󰂶  

󰄍

       󰂶    

󰂺

󰃍󰂺Prot󰂺󰆖󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆕󰆕󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆚󰂹󰆔󰆚󰆜󰃎󰂺

󰂶

󰂺

󰂶 󰂶     󰄍   󰂶

󰄍󰂺󰄘

󰄘󰂶

󰂶        

󰂶󰄘

󰂹



󰂹󰄙󰂿 󰄀

 

󰂶   󰂺 

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰇃

     󰂶  

󰂿󰄛󰄙󰂶󰄛󰂷󰄙󰃍󰃕󰂻󰃖

󰃎󰂹

󰄛󰂺

󰂺Prot󰂺󰆖󰆕󰆕󰄍󰂺󰇡󰇣

󰂶󰂶

󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆘󰆓󰂹󰆗󰆜󰆓󰄍󰆗󰆜󰆔󰃎󰂺



󰂶󰂺

󰄍󰃍󰃎󰄍

 󰄀 󰃍󰃎󰂶 

󰃍󰃎󰂺 󰂶 

          

󰄍

󰂺󰇡󰇤

In the final instance of ancient social contract theories to be examined in

this article – that of Polybius Book 󰄍

󰂺󰂶



󰂹



󰂶 󰄍         

   󰃍     

󰃎󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰃎󰂺

󰃍

󰃎󰂶

󰃍󰃎󰂶

       󰃍   

󰃎󰂺

󰂺󰆙󰂺󰆘󰂺󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆓󰂺󰇡󰇥

󰆖󰆘 󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆚󰃎󰂺

󰆖󰆙 󰂶󰄀󰄘

󰂶

󰂹󰂶Du cont. soc.󰆔󰂺󰆚󰂶󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆗󰆓󰆖󰂺

󰆖󰆚 󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆛󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆼󰇄

󰄘󰄍



󰂹󰄍󰄘󰂺

    󰄀           

󰂺󰂶

󰄀

 󰄀   󰄍    

 󰄀        󰂹

    󰂶     󰂺󰇡󰇦   

does not explicitly state that this transition entails a compact between the

󰂶

  

󰃍󰃎󰂶

       󰃍󰃎 󰃍󰂺 󰆙󰂺󰆘󰂺󰆚󰂷

󰆙󰂺󰆘󰂺󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺󰇡󰇧󰂶󰂶󰄘

 󰄘Politics󰃍󰂺  󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆗󰂹󰆗󰆗󰆗󰄍󰆗󰆗󰆚󰃎󰂺 

󰂶󰄘

 

󰄍   

󰃍󰄀󰄀 󰂺󰄘󰄀󰄀

󰃎󰃍󰂺󰆙󰂺󰆚󰄍󰆜󰃎󰂺



󰂺󰂶

          

󰂺

󰃍󰃎󰂶

sources (particularly Plato’s Protagoras󰃎  



󰄀  󰂺󰇢󰇞    󰂶 󰂶  

󰆖󰆛 󰄘󰂶󰂶

󰄀

    󰂺 󰂶  󰃍reges󰃎     

first cities (urbes󰃎󰃍pecudes et agros divisere󰃎󰂶

 󰄀

󰂹󰂺󰆘󰂺󰆔󰆔󰆓󰆘󰄍󰆔󰆕󰂺

󰆖󰆜 󰂶󰄀

   󰂹󰂺󰆙󰂺󰆘󰂺󰆘󰂺       

󰄀󰂶󰂶󰂹󰂺󰆗󰆕󰂺

󰆗󰆓  󰂶         

󰂶    󰄘 De asbtinentia ab esu animalium󰂶   

󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰆻

󰄀󰂶󰂶  

󰃍󰄘Laws󰂶󰄘Politics󰂶

󰂶󰃎󰂺

Summary and Conclusion

   󰄀󰂶   

󰄀󰄍󰄍

󰂶󰂶󰂺

 󰂶󰂶      󰄘

       󰄖 󰄘󰂹 



󰂺󰂶



󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰂹󰆚󰆖󰄍󰆚󰆗󰃎󰂺󰂶󰂶

         󰄀

on monarchy ( 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰂹󰆔󰆙󰆔󰄍󰆔󰆙󰆖󰃎󰂺 󰂶    

󰄍󰂶



󰂺

   󰂶        

(witnessed inter alia in the  󰂶  Aggañña Sutta and

󰃎          

󰂺󰄀

dominant pattern is attested also in our Greek sources (in the Deioces episode

   󰃎󰂺 󰂶      

          

principle merely in the context of early settled societies – whereas a wider

    󰃍󰂶   󰂶

  󰃎    

󰃍󰂶󰂶󰄘Laws󰂶󰄘Politics and

Polybius Book 󰃎󰂺

  󰂶         

󰄀   󰂺 󰂶     

         

󰂶󰂶

      󰂹  󰂺 󰆖󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆖 󰂺

Abst.󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆔󰂺󰂶

󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰆼

󰂺󰂶

encountered in the  may thus be interpreted as the

       󰄀   󰄍 

󰂺

󰄀󰃍

󰃎󰂶

        

practice ( 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆔󰂹󰆕󰆗󰄍󰆕󰆛󰃎󰂺󰄘   



󰂺󰇢󰇟

󰂶󰂶

in Plato’s Protagoras – where the creation of social order is tantamount to the

󰄍

      󰄀   

󰃍󰆗󰆛󰆓󰄍󰆖󰆕󰆖) (󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰂹󰆔󰆖󰄍

󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺 󰂶        



󰂺

 and Plato’s Protagoras󰂶󰂶



󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆜󰆘󰄍󰆖󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺󰇢󰇠



   󰂶    󰂶   



󰄀󰂺󰄘Laws󰂶

󰂶   󰄀  󰄍     

   󰄀     󰂺  

󰆗󰆔       󰄀    

󰃍󰆖󰆕󰆕󰄍󰆔󰆛󰆗󰃎  

      󰄍     󰂹 

󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆔󰆕󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆕󰆜󰂺

󰆗󰆕 󰂶   󰄀󰄀      

          

󰂹  󰂺 󰆗󰆓󰂺           

 󰄀 󰂺 󰂶    󰄘   

󰂶󰂶

    󰂹 󰂺  󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰂹󰆔󰆚󰆓󰄍󰆔󰆚󰆖  󰂺 󰂺 󰆔󰆙󰆘

(󰃎󰂹   󰂶 󰂶    󰃍󰄙   

󰄛󰃎󰂺󰂶󰄘Protagoras

󰄀

󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰆽

         

   󰄀󰂺󰃍󰂺 Laws󰆙󰆛󰆔󰄍󰃎󰂺

  Aggañña Sutta󰂶    

   

󰂶󰂶

󰃍󰂐󰂐󰆕󰆚󰂺󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺

󰂶         



both Greek and Indian literature (pace 󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰂹󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺󰂶

󰂶󰂶

󰂶󰄘

󰄀󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰂹󰆖󰆜󰆘󰃎󰂺

󰂶󰂶

       󰃍󰂺

Prot󰂺󰆖󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺

 󰄘   󰄖󰄘󰂺󰇢󰇡    󰂶 

󰂶󰄖’ 

has often been taken as a parallel to the modern idea of a state of nature

(see 󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰂹󰆖󰆖󰃎󰂺󰂶󰂶󰂶

modern perception of the natural state as inherently unsuitable for more

󰄀󰂺 󰂶 󰂶   

󰂶󰂶

󰃍󰄖’ 󰃎󰂶

  󰄖’  into the bodies of men ( 󰆔󰆕󰂺󰆕󰆛󰆖󰂺󰆛󰄍󰆜󰃎󰂺

   󰄘    󰂺

󰂶

󰂺󰂶

     󰂶  󰂶  

󰃍󰂶Du

cont. soc.󰆔󰂺󰆙󰃎󰂺󰇢󰇢

     

 󰄀       

󰂷󰂶

󰆗󰆖 󰂶󰄀

nature is extant in Lucretius’ 󰄍

󰄀

of beasts (volgivago vitam tractabant more ferarum󰃎󰂹󰂺󰆘󰂺󰆜󰆖󰆕󰂺

󰆗󰆗    󰂶           

󰃍󰄘bellum omnium contra omnes󰃎󰂹󰂶 Sec. Tr.

󰆖󰂺󰆕󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆔󰂷󰂶Lev.󰆔󰆗󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰆾

accounts does come to the fore also in our ancient Greek and Indian sources

󰃍󰂺󰂺󰃎󰂺

󰄍󰂺󰂺󰂶󰄀

󰂶

     󰂺 󰂶  

transcendence of the concept of sacred monarchy may truly be ascribed to the

󰄀󰂺



󰄍󰄍

󰂺

The comparison of ancient Greek and Indian social contract theories

      󰂺  

       

󰄍

       󰂺    

󰂶 󰂶    󰄀  󰄀    

󰂺󰂶

 󰂺 

󰄍

󰃍󰂺󰂺 󰆗󰆕󰃎 󰄍 

󰂺

󰂶

     󰄍   󰃈󰄖’

󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰃈󰄖’ 󰃍󰄖󰄘󰃎󰄍

󰃍󰂺Black

󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰂹󰆔󰆖󰄍󰆔󰆛󰂷  󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆘󰂹󰆘󰆗󰆚󰃎󰂺 󰂶    

       󰄀 󰂶 

󰂶

󰂺

󰂶󰂶

 󰄀󰂶  

󰄀󰂺

References

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆚󰃎󰂺󰂺

󰂹󰂺󰂺󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺 󰄘    

󰂹󰂺󰆚󰆗󰂹󰆖󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆓󰆖󰄍󰆔󰆜󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰆿

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂏

Consequences󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆘󰆓󰃎󰂺󰄘Protagoras󰂺-

󰆔󰆓󰂹󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆛󰆙󰄍󰆜󰆜󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆗󰃎󰂺󰂺󰂏

󰆔󰆖󰂹󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆗󰆓󰄍󰆛󰆙󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂺󰂺󰂶󰄀

󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆖󰃎󰂺󰃍ññ󰃎󰂹󰄀

󰂺󰆕󰆔󰂹󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆖󰆓󰆔󰄍󰆜󰆖󰂺

󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺  󰄘   󰄀 󰂹   

󰄘󰄖󰄘󰂺

󰆕󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆗󰆙󰂺

󰂶 󰂺  󰂺 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆙󰃎󰂺 󰂺      󰆖󰆘󰂹󰆗󰂶

󰂺󰆘󰆜󰆚󰄍󰆙󰆓󰆜󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆚󰃎󰂺󰂺

󰃖󰆚󰆖󰂹󰆕󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆚󰆜󰄍󰆜󰆗󰂺

󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂺    󰂺 󰂹 

󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆛󰃎󰂺󰃍󰃎󰂺

󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆓󰃎󰂺󰂏󰂺󰄀

󰂶󰂺󰂹

󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆓󰂺

󰂶 󰂺 󰃍󰂺󰃎󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺󰂏󰅪󰅪󰂌  󰂌󰅪󰅫󰂌

󰂌󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺   󰂺    

Science󰆙󰆘󰂹󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆚󰆚󰄍󰆛󰆙󰂺

󰂶  󰂺 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺 󰂌      󰂐 󰂐 󰂺

󰂹󰂺

󰂶  󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰄘   󰂿 󰃖  󰆖󰆘󰂶

󰂺󰆔󰆚󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆔󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆛󰃎󰂺󰂹󰂶󰂶󰂺

Annual 󰆔󰆚󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆜󰆚󰄍󰆘󰆕󰆕󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆖󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂏󰂺󰂹

󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺󰂏󰂺

󰂹󰂺

󰂶 󰃍󰂺󰃎 󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺  󰂺 󰂶

󰂹󰂶󰂺󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰇀

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂺-

󰆕󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆓󰆚󰄍󰆕󰆓󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺󰄀󰂺Journal of

󰆕󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆙󰆕󰆖󰄍󰆗󰆛󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂺

󰆕󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆘󰆜󰆖󰄍󰆙󰆕󰆔󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰂶󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂺󰃎󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂺󰂏

󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆔󰃎󰂺󰂹󰂺Social

Scientist󰆔󰆜󰂹󰆖󰃈󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆜󰄍󰆗󰆓󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆚󰃎󰂺Plato in Twelve Volumes󰂶Vol. 3󰂺󰂹󰄀

󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎󰂺󰂍-

 (Doctoral disser󰄀

󰂶󰂶󰃎󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂺󰄘

󰂺󰂏

Hellenics Studies󰆖󰂶󰂺󰆘󰄍󰆕󰆛󰂺

󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺       󰂹



󰂺Orientalia Suecana󰆚󰆓󰂶󰂺󰆛󰆜󰄍󰆔󰆓󰆗󰂺

󰂶 󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰃎󰂺       

󰂹    󰂺󰂌  

󰆗󰆓󰂹󰆖󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆚󰆜󰄍󰆜󰆕󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆛󰃎󰂺󰂹

󰂺-

ent󰆙󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆛󰆓󰆖󰄍󰆛󰆘󰆓󰂺

󰂶  󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺        󰂺 

󰂺󰂺󰂺󰂶󰂺󰂶󰂶󰂹󰂶

󰂺󰆖󰆖󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆘󰆛󰂺

󰂶󰂶󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺󰂏

󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶 󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆜󰃎󰂺   󰂏 

󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕󰃎󰂺󰂏

󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆜󰃎󰂺󰂺Journal of

󰆗󰆓󰂹󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆕󰆔󰄍󰆕󰆛󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰂺󰃎󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺󰂏󰂺

󰂹󰂺

󰎛󰃊󰎛󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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󰆽󰇁

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆕󰃎󰂺󰂶󰂹󰄀

󰂺󰂹󰃍󰂺󰃎󰂶

󰂶󰂹󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆛󰆔󰄍󰆕󰆕󰆘󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰂺󰃎󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺󰂌󰂏󰃮

󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆜󰃎󰂺󰂺󰂹

󰂺

󰂶 󰂺󰃍󰂺󰃎󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆕󰃎󰂺󰂏󰂺󰂹

󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰂺󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆖󰃎󰂺󰂺Classi-

󰆔󰆔󰆛󰂹󰆖󰂶󰂺󰆖󰆛󰆚󰄍󰆜󰆛󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆚󰃎󰂺󰂹

       󰂺 

󰆔󰆕󰂹󰆖󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆚󰃎󰂹󰆗󰆔󰄍󰆙󰆙󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆘󰃎󰂺󰄙󰄛󰂺

󰆔󰆓󰆘󰂶󰂺󰆘󰆗󰆖󰄍󰆛󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂺󰂏

A Historical Comparison󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺󰂏󰂺

󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆙󰃎󰂺󰂺󰂹

󰂺

󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂺󰃎󰃍󰆔󰆛󰆛󰆜󰃎󰂺󰂌󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺󰂺󰂶󰂹

󰂺󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂺󰂹󰂺Asian

󰆕󰆔󰂹󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆕󰆖󰄍󰆖󰆗󰂺

󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆖󰃎󰂺󰂺󰂹󰂺

󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆽󰇁󰇁󰇂󰆻󰇂󰇀󰇀󰄀󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛

󰂹󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆿󰃎󰆼󰄍󰆽󰇁

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