Opportunities and challenges in Ghana's renewable energy sector

Abstract

The use of renewable energy as a substitute for fossil fuels has several advantages. For a long time, the growth of Ghana’s renewable energy industry has been a priority for both the past and present governments. Currently, the economic growth of Ghana has not been impressive and the country is entrenched in an energy crisis. Despite the country’s achieving an electrification rate of 80%, still 60% of the rural population have no connection to the electricity service. The review gives an overview of the current energy scenario in Ghana and analyses its potential effects, benefits, and barriers to the expansion of renewable energy sources in the country. The results show that the Ghana Government has established its energy sector based on the definition of the key targets in line with the world trend. Ghana is equipped with a vast quantity of renewable energy potentials which include hydropower, solar, wind, and bioenergy. Even though it is critical to invest in the renewable energy industry, the growth of the sustainable energy sector has been hindered by certain factors such as; insufficient technological knowledge, lack of enough experience in developing sustainable energy and socio-cultural and human barriers.

Full text

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
Discover Applied Sciences
Review
Opportunities andchallenges inGhana’s renewable energy sector
RogersKipkoech1· MohammedTakase1· ArcadiusMartinienAgassinAhogle2,3· GordonOcholla3,4
Received: 27 March 2024 / Accepted: 7 August 2024
© The Author(s) 2024 OPEN
Abstract
The use of renewable energy as a substitute for fossil fuels has several advantages. For a long time, the growth of Ghana’s
renewable energy industry has been a priority for both the past and present governments. Currently, the economic
growth of Ghana has not been impressive and the country is entrenched in an energy crisis. Despite the country’s
achieving an electrication rate of 80%, still 60% of the rural population have no connection to the electricity service.
The review gives an overview of the current energy scenario in Ghana and analyses its potential eects, benets, and
barriers tothe expansion of renewable energy sources in the country. The results show that the Ghana Government has
established its energy sector based onthe denition of the key targets in line with the world trend. Ghana is equipped
with a vast quantity of renewable energy potentials which include hydropower, solar, wind, and bioenergy. Even though
it is critical to invest in the renewable energy industry, the growth of the sustainable energy sector has been hindered
by certain factors such as; insucient technological knowledge, lack of enough experience in developing sustainable
energy and socio-cultural and human barriers.
Highlights
• Use of fossils fuel is associated with a lot of challenges including emission of greenhouse gases & renewable energy
are alternative sources
• Ghana is experiencing an energy crisis despite modest economic growth and focus on renewable energy sector by
governments
• Renewable sources of energy available in Ghana include; hydropower, solar, wind, etc. & has been a focus for govern-
ment
Keywords Ghana· Renewable energy· Biomass· Wind· Solar
* Rogers Kipkoech, rogers.kipkoech@stu.ucc.edu.gh; Mohammed Takase, mohammed.takase@ucc.edu.gh; Arcadius Martinien Agassin
Ahogle, ahoglearcadius@gmail.com; Gordon Ocholla, gocholla@gmail.com | 1Department ofEnvironmental Science, University ofCape
Coast, CapeCoast, Ghana. 2Research Unit ofSoil Microbiology, Microbial Ecology, Soil andWater Conservation, Faculty ofAgricultural
Sciences, University ofAbomey-Calavi, Abomey-Calavi, Benin. 3Department ofSpatial andEnvironmental Planning, Kenyatta University,
Nairobi, Kenya. 4Department ofSocial andDevelopment Studies, Mount Kenya University, Thika, Kenya.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
1 Introduction
Ghana is a fertile ground for expanding renewable energy sector because of the abundance of the natural resources,
geographical conditions and government policies which are favourable. The country is enjoying ample sunlight in the
entire year and therefore solar energy is an option that is highly viable. Solar irradiation on average is 5.5 kWh/m2/day
and this is a signicant potential for small- scale and large-scale solar power projects [1, 2]. In addition, Ghana has several
rivers and receives substantial amount of rainfall thus creating opportunities for the development of hydropower, speci-
cally in the northern regions where there is still limitation in accessibility of energy. Various policies and initiatives are
a demonstration of strong commitment by the Ghanian government towards renewable energy sector. Investments in
renewable energy projects for example is attractive for instance through provision of incentives such as tax exemptions
and feed-in taris as provided in the Renewable Energy Act of 2011 [3]. The government’s goal of including 10% renew-
able energy in the national energy mix by 2030 demonstrates its commitment to shifting to greener energy sources. This
dedication is strengthened by international assistance and investment from organisations such as the World Bank and
the African Development Bank, which are eager to invest in Ghana’s renewable energy infrastructure [4–7].
Renewable sources of energy oer numerous social, economic, and environmental benets. Social benets include
improving public health through reduction of pollution from fossil fuels, and empowering communities with clean
energy, while economic benets are stimulating economic growth through attraction of capital and fostering innovation.
Renewable energy also reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate change by harnessing natural resources like sun-
light, wind, water, and biomass which are benecial to the environment [1, 2]. It is considered as the potential alternative
source of energy which can replace conventional petroleum fuels obtain from the fossil materials [3]. Use of renewable
energy is closely associated with productive approaches to sustainable development which include the great possibili-
ties of being cost-ecient, dependable, not environmental destructive and its suitability to the local condition [4, 5].
An increase in demand for energy has been witnessed in Ghana like other African economies and this demand
surpasses the energy supply in Ghana within the last ten years [6, 7]. Expanding renewable energy sector in Ghana
has been a concern of the previous governments for some years [8, 9]. As a result of these concerns in the energy
sector, combined with the increased in environmental degradation caused by fossil fuels exploration and consump-
tion leading to climate change, it has therefore, become necessary to explore a substitute source of energy which is
sustainable, reliable and with minimal environmental impact [8, 10].
Ghana is among the countries in West Africa which is known for stability in terms of peace and politics. Lately,
Ghana has been battling unimpressive economic growth and the country has been entrenched in energy crisis char-
acterized by power cuts, erratic and embarrassing power shortages. In spite of attaining electrification rate of more
than 80%, about 60% of population in the rural areas are not accessing the electricity services [4, 5].
Ghana Government has established its energy sector based on the definition of key targets. The intention was to
provide electricity for every citizen before the year 2020 ends. The government’s objective is assuring each sector of
the economy to benefit from high quality energy service and to produce surplus power that can be exported to the
surrounding countries. Renewable energy sources are considered as a better alternative source of energy security in
Ghana and away of managing the environment to alleviate the negative effects resulting from climate change [6, 7].
Challenges faced in the energy sector in Ghana are the same as the other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The demand
for energy in sub-Saharan Africa countries has resulted from rising population [13]. Several households in Ghana are
relying on biomass as a primary source of energy, though it is linked to numerous health related cases, environmental,
in addition to social issues. Over reliance on hydropower have depicted an indication of stress due to pressure of an
increase in usage and reduction in the power production resulting in increase in reliance on thermal plants to assist in
producing electricity. Though the construction of thermal power plants has alleviated some of Ghana’s electrication
problems, and contributing also to a rise in electricity costs. This occurred amid the commercial discovery of oil, as well
as supply of low cost natural gas from Nigeria and support of production of electricity from the fossil-based fuel [14].
Primary sources of energy in Ghana were deployed for the following purpose; for transport, for cooking as well
as heating, etc. Biomass is made up of the second largest (37.4%) of the entire energy source which is consumed.
Petroleum is the leading source of energy consumed with 47.6% (173,000 barrels of crude oil is produced per day
while 77,000 barrel is imported annually) [15] while electricity generated using fossil-fuel is the third with 15% [16].
Figure1 illustrates, Ghana’s primary sources of energy. Based on Ghana’s energy supply, there was a peak in energy
demand in 2019, with biomass (charcoal and wood fuel) accounting for nearly 37.4 percent of national primary
energy demand. The rest of percentages were accounted for by the petroleum (47.6%) and electricity (15%) [3, 6, 17].
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
The renewable energy sector in Ghana’s is at a critical juncture, and it oers a wealth of opportunities in addition to
formidable challenges. While Ghana endeavours to carry out diversication of energy portfolio and the reduction of
carbon emission, the signicance of carbon footprint cannot be overstated. The future transitioning to more sustainable
energy is possible due to the well positioning of Ghana as a result of abundance solar, wind and biomass resources in the
country. The progress is however, impeded by many barriers which include, limitation in terms of infrastructure, nanc-
ing, regulatory framework and sucient data on potential of renewable energy. It important to address these issues in
order to ensure energy security, economic growth and the sustainability of the environment.
The highlights of this review include; landscape of energy, renewable energy potentials, forms of renewable energy
such as solar, wind and biomass, and their contribution to the renewable energy sector in Ghana. It further gives high-
lights, on green nancing situation, renewable energy policy, and challenges in developing energy industry. It nally
touches on future outlook and suggestions for renewable energy in Ghana. Detailed assessments of renewable energy
resources, such as hydropower, solar, biomass and wind, are necessary for precise mapping and eective utilization. There
is also a need for research on adapting existing technologies to local conditions and innovative solutions for grid integra-
tion and energy storage. Addressing these gaps will enable more informed decision-making and strategic advancements
in Ghana’s renewable energy landscape. The objective of this review is to bridge the scientic and technological gap by
providing a comprehensive analysis of renewable energy landscape in Ghana, pinpointing both the opportunities for
growth and the obstacles that must navigated. Potential solutions may involve enhancing policy coherence, increasing
investment in renewable technologies, fostering public–private partnerships, and leveraging international expertise.
1.1 Methodology
Computerised searched was carried out in Google Scholar in order to locate material containing information for the study.
The key words for the search were; renewable energy, biomass, wind, and solar energies in Ghana. Additional key terms
used were; an overview of the current scenario of energy and potential eect, benets, and barriers in the development
of renewable sources energy in Ghana. In supplementing these, a database of reference list of dissertations, review
articles, reports and books which discusses the selected topics were used. Relevant studies published within a specied
timeframe from 2010 to 2023, were included to ensure the review reects the most current knowledge, though a very
few published materials were between 2000 and 2009. Abstracts of the all publications from various articles that were
selected were examined. The documents that were downloaded were organised based on its suitability whereby, out
of 1865 search results using key word ‘renewable energy, biomass, wind, and solar energies in Ghana’, 30 articles were
selected for use, while on using key word ‘an overview of the current scenario of energy and potential eect, benets,
and barriers in the development of renewable sources energy in Ghana’, 4454 search results were obtained and 53 articles
were selected for use. The relevance of the materials obtained during the selection step was utilised to determine the
validity of the literature review. Various inclusion and exclusion criteria were used, such as excluding documents that
were not in English or correctly written. Duplicated publications and research that did not give relevant information
about the review article’s topic were also excluded. The researchers then carefully reviewed all of the publications and
chose those that best t the study’s goal.
Fig. 1 Percentage contribu-
tion of various energy sources
to total energy supply in 2019
[17, 18]
37%
48%
15%
Biomass
Petroleum
Electricity
B
i
o
ma
s
s
P
e
t
r
o
l
e
u
m
E
l
e
c
tr
i
c
i
t
y
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
Content analysis was used in analysing the information that was obtained from the articles by quantifying and ana-
lysing the relationships and meaning of the key terms. Later, a thematic analysis was used in identication of common
themes, trends, and patterns across the literature. The process entailed categorization of ndings based on thematic
areas. The aim of this study was answered through the analysed information. The synthesized ndings were critically
evaluated to identify gaps, inconsistencies, and areas requiring further research.
1.2 Landscape ofenergy inGhana
The total energy consumption has been increasing rapidly from 2017 with an addition of 7% every year on average and in
2020 the total energy demand was 0.38 toe [17, 19]. The landscape of energy in Ghana regarding the nal consumption
is such that it is dominated by petroleum (47%), biomass (38%) and electricity generated through fossil fuel as at 2022
was 15% [20–24]. An estimate of 20 million tonnes of biomass is utilised yearly within the household sector, whereby
the major supply is from the natural forest [21]. Majority of the urban household are consuming liqueed Petroleum
Gas (LPG), which is a gas containing a mixture of hydrocarbon gases that is ammable which is supplied by the local
and dominant foreign sources. Usage of electricity in the household for purposes such as cooking is minimal but it is
commonly used for lighting. The data from the Ministry of Power shows that by the end of 2021 a total of 18,189 GWh
of the electricity generated through dierent local installed power generation plants in Ghana. The generation mix was
dominated by 14 thermal plants that were installed, which accounts for almost 60% of the energy generation mix in
Ghana. As at 2022, the shares of hydro and renewable plants were 39.9% and 0.3% respectively [26–29].
Energy mix in Ghana is relatively simple, though it has challenges. Biomass or charcoal, crude oil (which include prod-
uct of petroleum) and electricity are the major sources of energy that are heavily relied upon in Ghana to supply the total
energy requirements for the population as well as the industry. Ghanaians traditionally rely on biomass, specically wood
fuel and charcoal. The biomass component of Ghana’s energy production however, has been declining continuously
due to increase in the consumption of the fossil fuel. As per the national statistics on energy for Ghana, consumption
of biomass declined from 52 to 37% of the entire supply of primary energy from 2009 to 2020 [6, 24]. The demand for
electricity outweighs the supply and thus occasioning erratic distribution of electricity. Rationing or the load shedding
of electricity therefore, leaves a supply gap to be lled by renewable energy [11–13].
Figure2 shows that biomass fuel use was greatest in 2000, while petroleum and electricity followed between 2000
and 2008. However, there was a gradual decreased in utilisation of biomass between 2000 and 2010, while consumption
of petroleum soared. The decrease in the consumption of biomass is due to many homes and other users switching to
alternative cleaner sources of energy for domestic use, for example, electricity, as well as biomass energy such as charcoal
and this contributed to a loss in forest cover. Consumption of electricity rose to 613ktoe in 2001 from 592ktoe in 2000
before declining in 2004 to 456ktoe. The government’s intention to connect power to the majority of homes resulted
in a rise in energy usage in Ghana. Petroleum consumption grew between 2000 and 2020, whilst biomass consumption
Fig. 2 Total annual energy consumption of fuel, in Ghana (2000–2020) [30]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
varied. Petroleum is a key source of fuel in the transportation industry, and as the importation of vehicles increases, so
does the need for petroleum fuel [21, 30]. The statistic shows that Ghana is still on energy dependency chain, hence
unsustainability in the future growth. Ghana is now facing serious deforestation, as per the research, and based on World
Health Organization the continuous use of charcoal in Africa is exposing close to 90% of the people in Africa to severe
eects of health. The ongoing usage of biomass is predicted to have a detrimental long-term impact on public health
[26]. Based on Cole and Neumayer [27], a country’s poor health has a negative eect on production. Use of biomass, in
particular, has adverse environmental eects. Sansaniwal etal. [28] stated that utilising biomass causes desertication.
Vleks [29] further stated that tropical rainforests are disappearing at a rate of 5% per year because of clearing vegeta-
tion to pave way for farm production, biofuels, and other uses, while Mardiana [34] estimated that about 2 billion metric
tonnes of carbon are released into the environment due to deforestation activities.
1.3 Ghana’s renewable energy potentials
Ghana is equipped with a vast renewable energy potential. Wind, biofuels (biomass and biogas), hydro-power, etc. are
the most potential source of energy in the Ghana’s renewable energy industry (Fig.3). Renewable energy use should be
Fig. 3 Renewable Energy Map of Ghana [17]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
encouraged because it can be renewed, ensures sustainability, and hence will not be depleted as compared to the fos-
sil’s materials. Less maintenance is needed for the renewable energy unlike commonly used fuel sources such as fossils
material. Renewable energy are obtained from naturally available resources and thus reducing the country’s depend-
ency on the fossil fuel and energy from the foreign government [12, 14]. Moreover, renewable energy is clean source of
energy for the upcoming generation and have stable prices and friendly to the environment because of none emission
of carbon. It is critical to note that an increase in the supply of the energy from the renewable source of energy which
are not carbon intensive, lowers global warming. Essentially, less water is needed in the operation of wind and solar
energy, hence water resources are not polluted or strain during the supply of energy hence no competition with water
for agriculture, drinking, and other vital water usage [17].
According to Kumi [13] energy consumption in Ghana has grown by 50%, resulting in major issues in distribution of
energy that cost an estimated $2.1 million in productivity of the country per day. Moreover, relying too much on ther-
mal power sources of electricity, in addition to a awed pricing mechanism that prevents utilities from recouping the
cost of generating power, were cited as the issues aecting energy supply. Renewable energy therefore, is employed in
addressing Ghana’s challenges in energy sector.
Table1 shows that Ghana exported 13900GWh and imported 8648GWh of energy between 2000 and 2020, represent-
ing 61.65% and 38.35%, respectively. Energy exports increased from 2000 to 2020, for example, due to Ghana’s energy
trade agreement with the neighbouring countries, electricity supplies to nations like as Togo, Burkina Faso and others,
increased consistently. Increasing energy exports without increasing the number of industries may have a negative
impact on the country’s economy. As Ghana’s energy exports continue to rise, there should be a more ecient use of
energy for economic growth. This may be accomplished by expanding the manufacturing sector by constructing more
enterprises and factories [21, 37].
According to Table2, Ghana’s imported and exported energy from 2000 to 2020 varied, resulting in swings in net
energy that was exported. The quantity of energy imported exceeded the amount exported in some years, leading to
Table 1 Sum of energy import
and export (GWh) of Ghana,
2000–2020 [21, 37]
Years Import/GWh Export/GWh
2000–2020 8648 13,900
Table 2 Annual sum of energy
import and export (Gwh) in
Ghana, 2000–2020 [32]
Years Import Export Net export
2000 864 392 − 472
2001 462 302 − 160
2002 1146 612 − 534
2003 940 535 − 405
2004 878 667 − 211
2005 815 639 − 176
2006 629 755 126
2007 435 249 − 186
2008 275 538 263
2009 198 752 554
2010 106 1036 930
2011 81 691 610
2012 128 667 539
2013 27 530 503
2014 51 522 471
2015 223 587 364
2016 745 187 − 558
2017 320 268 − 52
2018 140 740 600
2019 127 1430 1303
2020 58 1801 1743
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
a negative number for net export energy. Examples include 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2016, and 2017.
2016 had the biggest negative net energy that was exported of -558 Ghw. More energy was exported than imported in
certain years, resulting in positive net energy exported, for example in the following years: 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011,
2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2019, with the year 2020 being with the largest positive net energy that was exported of
1,743 Gwh.The cause for the negative net energy that was exported might be linked to a decline in generation of energy,
which is supplemented by increased energy imports. Alternatively, as more renewable energy sources are identied, it
becomes an additional energy to the country’s energy grid and thus greater surplus, resulting in a rise in the quantity
transferred to other surrounding nations and so positive in the net energy exported [32].
Ghana’s government has rearmed its promise in ensuring sustainability in growth and production by addressing
challenges to energy access through the use of renewable energy. Climate related policies, and social rules, were enacted
to encourage, and support the growth of renewable energy sources because of government rearming. According to
this, the government goal sought to enhance the output of electricity obtained through renewable energy by at least
70% by 2020 [32].
2 Forms ofrenewable energy
2.1 Electricity
Electricity is an important element of infrastructure which drives the economy and enhances the standard of living for
the citizens. Ghana has expanded electricity access signicantly with its eorts emphasizing on raising the generation
capacity, improvement in the networks of distribution and assurance of sustainability of the energy solutions. In spite
of these progress, there are challenges which are still remaining specically relating to rural electrication, reliability of
electricity supply and the sustainability of the nances in the power sector [33–35].
Ghana has been experiencing substantial growth in accessibility of the electricity from 2010 to 2023 with the rise in
the rate of electrication from about 64.2% in 2010 to over 85.1% in 2023 (Fig.4). Majority of the people in most regions
of Ghana have access to electricity with region such as Greater Accra leading with 98.9% of population accessing the
electricity. However, some few regions are still behind for example Savannah (Damango) region and Upper East (Bolga-
tanga) region with 60.1% and 64.2% respectively (Fig.5). The improvement in electricity accessibility rate resulted from
64.2 64.1
56.5
70.7
78.3
74.2
79.3 79 80.4
83.5 85.4 86.3 86.1 85.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Shareofpopulation(%)
Years
Fig. 4 Share of population with access to electricity in Ghana 2010–2023[35]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
the focus of government eorts and collaboration with international partners whose aim was to extend the country’s
grid mostly to rural and non-deserving areas. Expansion of accessibility to electricity has resulted into signicant contri-
bution, to socioeconomic development, improvement in education, healthcare and the operation of businesses within
the country [35].
Fig. 5 Population with access to electricity by region [35]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
The generation capacity of electricity in Ghana is a mix of hydroelectric, thermal, and other renewable energy
sources. Electricity from thermal sources generated 61% of the total electricity while 38% and 1% of the electricity
were obtained using hydropower and other renewable sources respectively (Fig.6). FThe Akosombo Dam in the
Volta River, which was completed 1960s, is still a cornerstone of the country’s power supply, and provides a substan-
tial amount of its electricity through hydroelectric power. Other major hydro power plants are Kpong and Bui and
together with Akosombo Dam had an installed capacity and dependable capacity of 1584 and 1400 megawatts (MW)
(Table3). In recent years, several thermal power plants, fuelled by natural gas and oil, have been developed with aim
of diversifying the energy mix and reduction of dependence on hydroelectric power, mostly during periods of drought
and have an installed capacity and dependable capacity of 3,753 and 3,480.6MW respectively in 2021 (Table3). In
addition, Ghana is investing in renewable energy sources such as solar, wind and biogas to enhance energy security
and thus meeting environmental sustainability goals and these sources totally contributed an installed capacity and
dependable capacity of 144.05 and 94.65MW correspondingly in 2021 (Table3) [36, 37].
Generation capacity of electricity in Ghana has been expanding considerably from 2010 up to the moment. In
2010, the total generation capacity was 2165MW, and has been raising consistently and this capacity has more
than doubled, reaching over 5482MW in 2023 based on the latest data (Fig.7) [37].The doubling of the generation
capacity has been attributed to the addition of new thermal power plants, such as the Karpower Barge and the Ameri
Power Plant, and investments in renewable energy projects like the Nzema Solar Plant. Diversifying into thermal and
renewable energy has been crucial in stabilizing the supply of electricity, especially [32] during periods when the
water levels is low which affects the generation of hydroelectric power.
The supply of electricity has not been reliable in Ghana and this challenge has persisted for a long time in spite
of improving the generation capacity. ‘‘Dumsor’’ is a local term that was used to refer to the period that were charac-
terized by frequent and prolonged power outage which negatively impacted businesses and the households espe-
cially in the early 2010s. The situation improved gradually through implementation of better maintenance practices,
upgrade of infrastructure and diversification of the energy sources. By 2023, occasional power outages still occur how-
ever, they are not frequent and duration have reduced significantly and thus electricity supply is enhanced [35, 36].
The critical focus of the electricity sector in Ghana has been the financial sustainability from 2010 up to the
moment. High costs of operations, accumulation of debts and tariff inefficiencies are some of the challenges faced
by the sector. Tariffs have been adjusted, technical and commercial losses reduced, and introducing prepaid meters
which aimed at improving revenue collection are some of the reforms undertaken so far. Positive results have been
realized lately such as improvement of financial performance of the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) and other
utilities since the reforms were undertaken [36, 37].
A stronger foundation has been therefore set for further advancement in Ghana’s electricity sector from 2010 up
to the moment. The aim of the government is to increase the capacity of renewable energy continuously in electricity
generation with 10% of the renewable energy in the country’s energy mix by 2030 being a target. Energy efficiency
and security are expected to be enhanced by investing in smart grid technologies and regional power trade through
the West African Power Pool (WAPP). Achieving universal access to electricity, ensuring reliability in supply, and
maintenance of financial sustainability within the sector remain to be the focus of the Ghanian government [32].
Fig. 6 Percentage Contribu-
tion to Ghana’s Total Energy
Mix in 2022 [37]
61%
38%
1%
Thermal Hydropower Otherrenewable sources
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
2.2 Solar energy
Ghana’s geographical position is within the trophic with a solar radiation range from 4.0 to 6.5 kWh/m2/day, with an
annual period of sunlight from 1800 to 3000h. Highest solar radiation is received at the northern part of the country.
The potential of solar energy is approximated to be almost 35 EJ (Exajoules). The government through the Ministry
of Energy started a project of increasing solar energy among the rural areas and has distributed about 15,000 solar
systems in Ghana’s rural areas, equivalent to about 3.2MW of installed power. The Ministry of Energy was in charge
and was supported financially by the development partners [15–17].
Table 3 Installed generation
capacities in Ghana as of 2021
(MW) [36]
Plant Installed capacity Depend-
able
capacity
Hydro power plants
Akosombo 1020 900
Kpong 160 140
Bui 404 360
Sub − total 1584 1400
Thermal power plants
Takoradi Power Company (TAPCO) 330 300
Takoradi International Company (TICO) 340 320
Tema Thermal 1 Power Plant (TT1PP) 110 100
Tema Thermal 2 Power Plant (TT2PP) 87 70
Cenit Energy Ltd 110 100
Kpone Thermal power Plant 220 200
Ameri Plant 250 230
Sunon Asogli power (Ghana) Ltd 560 520
Karpowership 470 450
Trojan 44 39.6
Amandi 203 190
AKSA 370 350
Cenpower 360 340
Early Power/Bridge 144 140
Genser2155 131
Sub-total 3753
3480.6
Other Renewables
On-grid
VRA Solar (Navrongo)2 2.5 2
VRA Solar (Lawra)26.5 4.5
VRA Solar (Kaleo)213 10
BXC Solar2 20 16
Meinergy2 20 16
Bui Solar2 51 46
Sasana Biogas 0.1 0.1
Tsatsadu Hydro 0.05 0.05
Distributed Solar PV 30.9 –
Sub-total 144.05 94.65
O-grid
Solar 7.42 –
Wind 0.02 –
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
In 2013, the Volta River Authority (VRA) commissioned a 2.5MW project in Navrongo that is linked to the transmis-
sion network as part of the VRA’s renewable energy goal. VRA built a 12-Megawatt installation at Kaleo and Lawra in the
Upper West with nance from one of the development banks owned by the government of Germany. Negotiation has
been taking place for 57 acres of land in Bongo, Upper East region, with the goal of adding 100MW of solar power to
the transmission network. Interests were expressed by certain international and national developers among them Blue
Energy to develop a 155MW utility-scale project in the Western Region. Table4 shows an overview of sun radiation in
several of the country’s cities and towns [33]. Solar radiation map is shown in Fig.8.
2.3 Wind energy
Expanding wind sources is gaining even extra strength due to developing renewable sources of energy with international
context of negotiating for the reduction of greenhouse gases. Implementing and operating wind farms however, results
into signicant socio-environmental eects on the people within the large wind enterprises [37]. Ghana is endowed with
potential for wind energy, which can be utilised in generating enormous power. The power potential of wind is projected
to reach around 5000MW. Eastern coastal areas and hilltops near Volta Lake and Ghana’s border with Togo have the
highest potential for wind generation. The wind speed varies around the shore, ranging from 3.33 to 6.08m per second.
The preferred height for large-scale generation of wind power plant projects is 50m, and at this height wind speed in
Ghana is rated moderate to good, with recorded wind speeds ranging from 7.1 to 9.0m/s. Until recently wind energy has
Fig. 7 Total electricity gener-
ated (MW) [37]
2165 2170 2280
2828 2828
3633
3927
4520
5021
5309 5337 5481 5449 5,482
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Capacity (MW)
Table 4 Solar radiation for
some towns and cities in
Ghana [33]
Synoptic station Ground (kWh/m2/d) Satellite (kWh/m2/d) % Error
Accra 5.060 5.180 − 2.3
Kumasi 4.633 5.155 − 11.3
Navrongo 5.505 5.765 − 4.7
Abeti 5.150 5.192 − 0.8
Wa 5.520 5.729 − 3.7
Wenchi 5.020 5.093 − 1.5
Akuse 4.814 5.580 − 15.9
Ho 5.122 5.223 − 2.0
Kete Krachi 5.280 5.345 − 1.3
Yendi 5.370 5.632 − 4.8
Tokoradi 5.011 5.200 − 3.8
Bole 5.323 5.570 − 4.6
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
started receiving attention as a consequence of lobbying for being less expensive than other renewable energy sources,
though in the past it has been overlooked in Ghana according to multiple studies conducted. Several scientic studies
have been conducted in Ghana during the last two decades to determine the wind energy potential. The Department
of Ghana Meteorological Services has historically collected the wind data from 22 synoptic stations which reveals that
the speed of the wind in most regions of Ghana ranges from 1.7 to 3.1m/s within the height of 2m [38].
Adaramola etal. [39] performed a study and found out that the wind energy economic feasibility in Ghana is depend-
ent on variables which include the kind of turbine used by the manufacturer. The research assessed the potential for
wind energy and the economic viability of erecting independent wind turbines for generating power at six places within
Ghana’s coastline. Those places were Adafoah, Warabeba, Aplaku, Mankoadze, Oshiyie, and Anloga (Fig.9). Adaramola
Fig. 8 Annual average solar radiation kWh/m2/day in Ghana (3-years average) [36]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
etal. [39], established that, the selected regions have low to medium wind speeds. The available data shows researchers
were chosen to conduct economic analyses on the selected small to medium-sized commercial wind turbines in order
to determine the best choice, allowing investment in wind energy resources by the government and stakeholders [40].
Four small sized commercial turbine model in size from 50 to 250kW: Polaris 15–50, CF-100, Garbi-150/28, and WES
30, in that order for generating wind energy were examined in terms of its performance and economic eciency. Cut-in
wind speeds and moderate wind speeds was ranging from 2.2–2.7m/s to 9.5–13m/s. The research found a signicant
association between wind turbine output and turbine size, with WES 30 producing the highest amount of energy in any
location. The survey also found that wind energy has not yet considerably inltrated the energy market in Ghana, thus
there is plenty of interest in investing in it. The VRA has nished the building of a 100MW wind power plant in Kpone at
the same time doing scoping studies for a 150MW facility that would be split evenly among communities living in Volta
and Greater Accra Regions [41, 42]. The potential for wind energy in Ghana’s coastal regions is great and encouraging,
and there is little doubt about that and with the right laws and incentives in place, it has the ability to provide massive
energy in the next coming decade in pursuit of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) number seven in Ghana. SDGs are
a globally call to action in eradicating poverty, safeguarding the environment, and ensuring that each one is enjoying
peace and prosperity by 2030 [31, 32].
2.4 Biomass
2.4.1 Wood fuel
Majority of Ghanaian homes use wood fuel for energy. Some Ghanaian homes have limited incomes and rely heavily
on plant and animal material as their primary source of energy. For cooking and heating, traditional and low-tech wood
systems are employed [19, 20]. Figure10 shows the details of wood fuel usage in Ghana, which is used by almost 90%
of the Ghanaian population for cooking. A survey was conducted in 2010 by the Ghana Energy Commission and the
results show that approximately 40% of the population in Ghana are fully relying on rewood for cooking and heating.
On average, homes consume almost 1065kg of logs annually. Although, there are crucial inequalities among localities
and regions, for the instance, overall use of wood fuel [15, 21]. Based on the survey, 62% of the people in rural places are
using rewood in comparison to almost 26% in the urban areas. In the same scenario, households in the urban areas
are consuming an average of almost 986kg of the rewood every year while the households in the rural areas are using
1113kg on average annually. The survey presented almost 72% of the population of the regions of Savannah who rely
on rwood in comparison to 57% and 52% for the costal and forest zones respectively (Fig.10) [44].
According to the statistics from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the quantity of wood fuel consumed in
Ghana increase almost by double from 2004 to 2008. During this time, the consumption of charcoal rosed from about
750 thousand kg to 1.5 million kg [46]. Moreover, it was observed that, about 90% of all the wood fuel utilised in Ghana
Fig. 9 Wind speed for some selected sites in Ghana [40]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
were obtained directly from the forest while the remaining were taken from residues that comes from sawmill and log-
ging activities. Relying heavily on wood for fuel is signicantly resulting into deforestation witnessed in the past decades
in Ghana [47]. Since the beginning of this century, forest cover in Ghana’s has been shrinking from 8 million ha to 1.6
million ha [19, 24, 25].
Regulating the wood fuel sector in Ghana has been challenging. The Energy Commission has recently started prohibit-
ing exporting charcoal produced from unapproved sources. Standing forests are among the sources which are considered
to be unapproved, while residue produced by the sawmills and the forest establishment purposely for producing charcoal
are considered approved sources. Energy Commission issues permit legitimately to exporters of charcoal according to
the guidelines from the government [48].
In the latest years, the upcoming programs and initiatives have been subjected to the implementation with the aim
of mitigating consumption of charcoal and the its consequences. Among these programs and initiatives are provision of
training to the traditional producers of charcoal to enable them adopt ecient production [48]. Partnership with donors
in dissemination and encouraging the utilization of the biomass energy technologies have also been (Fig.11). Further-
more, switching of traditional biomass to a source that is relatively clean such as through the provision of subsidies by
introducing Kerosene Distribution Improvement (KDI) in addition to the rural liqueed petroleum gas (LPG) schemes
in Ghana is also been used [8, 27]. Additionally, government has been supporting many programs in the urban centres
whose focus is to reduce the use of charcoal. As a matter of facts, during 1990s, Ghana National LPG Program introduced
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Wood Fuel Non -wood Fuel
Percentage(%)
Fuel
Ashan NorthernUppereastUpperwest
Western Central Greater AccraVolta
EasternBron Ahafo
Fig. 10 Source of Cooking Fuels for Households Ten Regions in Ghana [45]
Fig. 11 Common in the Ghanaian market, Gyapa Improved Cook Stove (Left) and the traditional coal pot (Right) [33]
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
an intensive programme with the campaigned targeting LPG as a viable a substitute to the use of rewood and charcoal.
The initiative focused on the urban-dwelling homes and the informal commercial sector which includes small scale food
sellers and the establishments that are involve in food catering in public organizations. According to the Kemausuor
[33] these initiatives were conrmed to be successful. Statistics available indicates that LPG consumption rose by more
than tenfold to 60,000 tonnes per year in 2004. LPG is being utilised by 70% of the total urban households in Ghana as
the major fuel for cooking especially in two regions which are Ashanti and the Greater Accra. Government attempted to
replicate the success of these urban project in rural areas and the result is laudable. Although, challenges have fraught
the existing initiatives and some of the challenges include richer household being able to use LPG as compared to the
rural poor household who are targeted and are intended beneciaries [50].
2.4.2 Agricultural residues
Reasonable size of residues is being generated in Ghana from dierent activities in forestry, agriculture, industrial and
homes that can be channelled for generating energy. Biomass originating particularly, from by-product of agriculture
has prominently been used in the production of second-generation biofuel. By-products of agriculture in Ghana are
categorised into three: animal waste, crop residues, and agricultural manufacturing by-products. Farmers typically dump
agricultural wastes on the land after harvesting the desired crop. The crop residues consist of a variety of material which
include; stalk of dierent cereal including rice, maize, sorghum and millet [51]. Based on Duku [43] the common by-
product emanating from post-harvest crop productions comes from rice, coconut and cocoa husks, sugar cane bagasse
and empty fruit bunch. Wastes from animals are usually cow dung which are used as fuel through burning.
Ghana has a signicant cocoa plantation area, and it is the country’s most important agricultural contribution. Cocoa
is a prominent crop planted in every forest region of Ghana, including the Volta, Western, Central, Brong-Ahafo, Ashanti,
and Eastern regions, totalling almost 1.75 million of acres. Cocoa pods are usually left on the farm so that it can act as
mulch. Certain husks are exported though they can generate power through compression process. Residues for example
stalks, husk and cobs from maize are signicant potential source of feedstock for producing biofuel. Maize quantity cobs
and stalk in Ghana is more than 550,000 tonnes with capacity of producing 17.65–18.77MJ/kg of energy [48].
Residues emanating from 300,000ha of plantation of palm are also available which is of signicant amount in Ghana.
The three major leftovers in farming sector are foliage, empty fruit bunch and shells. The shells are specically the best
in producing biochar and heat while empty fruit bunch has large amount of potassium. Fronds are used in fertilizer and
as a mulching material respectively. Ghana’s production of palm shells is estimated to be 193,000 tons annually. Coastal
areas of the country are predominantly known for coconut farming and therefore generate signicant amount of residues
in form of shells and husks which can potentially be deployed for the production of energy [51].
Ghana therefore produces signicantly high amount of stock of crops residues which potentially can be used in the
modern energy technologies. Alternatively, residues perform a substantial function in indigenous agriculture techniques
in Ghana and the alternative use should be done with a lot of care. Agricultural system utilizes very little synthetic input
and this is the reason for high amount of stock of crops residues. Crop residues left on the farm also, decay and replen-
ishes the soil fertility and in the absent of this, there is an adverse eect of productivity of agriculture and thus a threat
to food security [52].
Animal waste [53], have a considerable potential to generate signicant amount of energy especially in places where
animal keeping is mainly practised such as in the three northern regions of Ghana. Cattle rearing is the main source of
income for many people in the northern regions and results in the production of large amount of cow excrement. Each
family in the three northern areas has 15 cattle on average (Table5). Developing biogas plant is possible within the
Table 5 Cattle population in the three northern region of Ghana [24, 31]
Region Cattle PRODUCTION Number of cattle owning
households Number of cattle owning agri-
cultural households Average number of cattle
per agricultural household
Northern 982,278 98,090 85,142 11.5
Upper west 787,681 28,250 23,645 33.3
Upper east 454,112 47,577 39,441 11.5
Total 2,224,640 173,917 148,228 15.0
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
households because of large the amount of cow dung generated which can be tapped to produce energy for household
uses such as cooking and lighting.
2.5 Biogas
2.5.1 Status ofbiogas inGhana
Conventionally cow dung has been widely used as a source of energy for cooking in Ghana for many years. The practice
is widely spread in savannah and northern regions where there is inadequate charcoal and rewood for cooking among
the households. In Ghana, biogas technology gained popularity in the late 1960s, however in 1980s biogas technology
got the attention and support required from the government. The intervention of government was through dissemina-
tion schemes prior to the mid-1980s which aimed at providing energy for residential consumption [14, 19]. In 1986, the
Ministry of Energy established the rst biogas pilot plant, a 10 m3 Chinese xed dome digester, at the Shai Hill cattle
ranch in the Greater Accra Region with the support of Chinese government. One year after, United Nation Children Fund
(UNICEF) funded the building of several residential biogas units for demonstration in Kurugu and Jisonayilli in the north-
ern region. The Ministry of Energy of Ghana built one of the rst key comprehensive biogas demonstration project, the
“Integrated Rural Energy and Environmental Project,” in Apollonia, a community 46 km from Accra [19, 24]. The Apollonia
Biogas Plant used animal excrement and faecal matter and had a 12.5kW plant which provided electricity to light the
streets and homes in addition to cooking. Engineers from the Institute of Industrial Research and the Ministry of Energy
installed an average of nineteen xed-dome digesters, comprising of two 30 m3 and six 15 m3 Deenbandhu digesters,
as well as three 25 m3 and eight 10 m3 Chinese dome digesters [54].
Part of initial phase in the design and development of a national biogas program consultations were done in 2007 by
Kumasi Institute of Technology and Environment (KITE) which is a homegrown non-governmental organization dealing
with energy activities. It was carried out in partnership with business people who are engaged in the building of biogas
plant. Up to date only about 100 biogas digesters have been set up in Ghana which is a small number. Most of the biogas
plants are bio-sanitation intervention which are like waste treatment plants and latrines that are vastly found in health
and educational institutions [19, 24].
Government participation in biogas project has been minimal, and some private companies are marketing the tech-
nology majorly on business ground and mostly based on biogas service’s potential to improve sanitation. At least ten
biodigester providers have been actively engaged in designing and constructing of biogas plant among the institutions
and households [55]. Table6 contains a list of chosen service providers as well as some of the plants they have built.
A clear-cut strategy for promoting biogas technologies does not exist in Ghana, but a considerable number of biogas
plants have been constructed since 1996 [19, 33]. According to Kuamoah [4], the Ghanian government is promoting
biogas use for heating in the kitchens of institutions such as laboratories, barracks, boarding schools and many others.
Ghana’s Strategy National Energy Plant (SNEP) had set a goal of reaching 1% biogas penetration in Ghana and to be used
in hotels for cooking, restaurants and kitchen of institutions by 2015 and 2% by 2020 [56]. Contrastingly, the goal has
not been achieved as at 2022 owing to many factors [57–59] such as slow or absence of implementation of policies for
example Strategic Environmental Sanitation Investment Plan [48–50, 61–63].
Table 6 Prole of selected service providers [60]
a Although Beta Construction Engineers Ltd appears to be the oldest among the lot, it should be noted that the company only ventured into
biogas construction in 2006
Company Date established Workforce
(Full time) Type of biodigester installed Number of
digesters
installed
Biogas Engineering Ltd 2002 6 CAMARTEC xed dome type, and euent
treatment plants 10
Biogas Technologies West Africa
Limited (BTWAL) 1994 148 Fixed dome and euent treatment plant 35
RESDEM 1996 Mostly bio-latrine digesters 25
UNIRECO 2001 5 Mostly bio-latrine digesters
Beta Construction Engineers Ltd 1975 25 Puxin biogas digester 12
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
2.6 Green financing situation inGhana
Green nancing is raising the level of nancial ows such as banking, micro-credit, insurance and investment [64] from
public, private and not for prot making sectors to prioritize sustainability in development [65, 66]. Development of
strategies for green nancing and the transitioning from the conventional development model to green economy is
becoming necessary because of conventional economic development models which are negatively impacted within
local and global environment. In spite of Ghana’s eorts in transitioning to green economy which is evident through,
implementing a number of policies and strategies related to green economy, Ghana has not signicantly achieved a lot
in this regard [67]. A study by Ali etal. [67] on implementation of green economy in Ghana as a roadmap for a sustain-
able development drive shows the geographical location of Ghana, environmental policies, possibility of green economy
among others as the main strength of Ghana’s green economy transformation eorts. The study however, found factors
which include weak institutions, insucient funding for green technologies innovation, inadequate long-term policies
for green strategies and many others as weakness for transformation eorts of Ghana’s green economy.
Ghana’s analysis of climate finance flows revealed that an average of USD 830 million was tracked yearly in 2019
and 2020. This represents just 5–9% of the investment requirement — estimated at USD 9.3–15.5 billion — which
highlights the critical necessity for increased climate funding to fulfil Ghana’s NDCs (UNFCCC, 2021) [68]. This disparity
is expected to expand since budgetary needs of the countries are usually underestimated due to a lack of expertise
and direction for adequate assessments, particularly on adaptation, as well unavailability of data from subnational
governments and people who are vulnerable [69] Overcoming financial constraints, Ghana’s micro and small-scale
renewable energy efforts requires innovative finance solutions [70]. Microfinance institutions (MFIs) make loans
specifically for renewable energy projects and typically collaborate with renewable energy suppliers or manufactur-
ers. Companies such as PEG Africa and Azuri Technologies provide Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG) solar systems, allows the
customers to get solar energy without having any upfront costs. Crowdfunding sites like M-Changa, SeedTribe, and
GoFundMe provide alternative fundraising methods. Community-based financing utilises resources within a com-
munity to fund renewable energy projects, fostering community ownership and local development. The Ghanaian
government provides incentives and subsidies to encourage renewable energy use, and Energy Service Companies
(ESCOs) offers energy services through a range of financing models. These various finance approaches enable people,
families, and small businesses to acquire clean and sustainable energy solutions despite financial constraints [70–72].
2.7 Renewable energy policy inGhana
Ghana’s energy strategy is mostly based on the Renewable Energy Act of 2011 (Act 832 of Ghana) [3, 73, 74]. The Act
recognises renewable energy as a non-exhaustible source of energy. Renewable energies are abundant in Ghana and
are being used to achieve sustainable development. In Ghana, the most important renewable energies are hydropower
(small or mini and medium capacity), biomass, solar energy, and wind. The Act is founded on the following premise:
meeting long-term demand via the use of public, private, and international investment; acceleration of privatisation
processes; and to ensure the optimal and sustainability in development and in operating every source of renewable
energy. Furthermore, total energy sources should be used rationally, with development programmes causing as little
environmental damage as possible. The energy generated should be adequate, dependable, and timely. Planning for
energy research and development activities is necessary to meet the country’s energy consumption demands [74, 75].
As part of its overall goal to increase domestic energy output from renewable sources, the Government of Ghana
has defined important targets for its energy industry. One of the objectives is to achieve a 10% in contribution to
renewable energy (big hydro) to the power generating mix by 2020. The government is expanding financial support to
meet the renewable energy objective. All of these targets at achieving the goals of the Renewable Energy Act [36, 76].
Ghana’s net metering policy seeks to promote renewable energy adoption, reduce dependency on fossil fuels,
and increase energy self-sufficiency [77, 78]. It will be available to residential, commercial, and industrial clients who
install renewable energy systems that meet technical and safety standards. Customers would require bidirectional
metres to monitor both imported and exported electricity. A pricing system would be established to credit excess
electricity exported to the grid. Grid connectivity standards would be implemented to assist with renewable energy
integration. The policy is still being created and refined, and its implementation will need significant coordination
among government agencies, utilities, and customers [79].
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
In general, while the Renewable Energy Act has laid the groundwork for Ghana’s renewable energy development, its
full impact will be determined by ongoing eorts to address implementation challenges, improve regulatory capacity,
and foster sector investment and innovation. Continuous monitoring and evaluation are essential to assess progress,
identify gaps, and promote policy adjustments to ensure the Act is successful in advancing Ghana’s sustainable energy
transition [80].
2.8 Challenges inthedevelopment oftherenewable energy industry
Based on Renewable Energy Master Plan of Ghana, government is committed to developing and promoting renewable
energy through demonstration of strong policy although investing in sector of renewable energy has been hindered
by certain factors which include challenges in climate of investment, inadequate technical know-how, lack of enough
experience in the developing renewable energy and socio-cultural and human barriers [11, 35].
Challenging investment climate: Investing in renewable energy is aected by quite a few barriers which include situ-
ation of macroeconomic, risk (perceived in the nancial sector), terms and conditions for nancing like commercial
rates of interest which are high, ination and depreciation of the currency being high. Though, there is availability of
mechanisms of nance to the entrepreneurs which include equity nance, venture capital fund among others, most of
them are not well developed in Ghana [11, 14].
Limited technological capacity: Few technical sta are experienced in undertaking technological work and carrying
out feasibility assessment, construction, operation, and management of renewable energy initiatives. No one is willing
to set up the renewable energy plants for the fear of failure in absence of trained sta to carry out training, maintenance
and operations of the plants, specically in regions where literacy level is low [81].
Insucient experience in renewable energy development: Scarcity of knowledge and experience in developing and
deploying technologies relating to renewable energy is an issue. Some machines do not have spare parts and equipment,
inecient facilities management and maintenance as well as lack of infrastructural support [36, 37].
Human and socio-cultural challenges: People tend to resist changes during the introduction of new technologies and
practices because of the fears that are not well dened. It crucial to understand the needs of the local people during
the design stage of renewable energy technologies. For example, the household may be reluctant to adopt renewable
energy due to the fear of unreliability resulting in failure to adopt. These are shown by rate of developing, circulating
and using renewable energy in Ghana [53].
Lack of public awareness: Many nations have signicant barriers to the implementation of renewable energy technology
[82]. The most prevalent challenges linked with this include a lack of information about the use, signicance, socioeco-
nomic, and environment related advantages of renewable energy and technology. Renewable energy technologies are
still in their early stages in Ghana, and therefore, many public sectors lack understanding about them. In addition, there
is lack of sucient training to the public sector to enable them make informed judgements. Lack of vital information
and awareness has created a void in the renewable energy technology industry [83].
2.9 Future outlook andsuggestions forrenewable energy inGhana
The renewable energy in Ghana is holding a considerable promise, strategic contingency of actions and sustainable
eorts from various stakeholders. The role of renewable energy sector is pivotal in shaping sustainability and resiliency
of energy landscape.
2.9.1 Future outlook
Renewable energy capacity in Ghana is expected to grow substantially, in the years to come. The commitment of the
government to increase allocation of renewable energy in national energy mix as stated in the Renewable Energy Mas-
ter Plan which is an ambitious plan with achievable target. Improvement in solar, and wind technologies, combined
with reduction in costs, increases the likelihood of adopting and integrating renewable energy sources. The rise in the
decentralization of the energy system for example mini-grid and o-grid solution will enhance contributions of energy
accessibility in remote and underserved areas, which therefore fosters inclusive development [37, 78].
In addition, the concern on the intensication of the global climate change, and the proactive stance of Ghana in
relation to renewable energy, international support will be encouraged. Aligning the country’s policies with the world’s
sustainability goals for example the SDGs and the Paris Agreement will moreover boost renewable energy initiatives in
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
Ghana. The existence of synergy between national eorts and international cooperation crucially helps to overcome the
barriers that exists and also accelerates the progress [78].
2.9.2 Suggestions
Strengthening Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: creation of a more favourable environment for investment of renewable
energy. Ghana should emphasize rening and enforcing the related policies and regulatory frameworks. This entails
ensuring coherence in policy, giving out clear incentive for renewable energy projects and simplication of administrative
related processes. Constant review and updates to the policies will assist in adapting to the changing market conditions
and technological advancement [76].
Enhancing Financial Mechanisms: Increase accessibility to nance is crucial to scale up the renewable energy related
projects. Financing models which include green bonds, energy performance contracts and crowdfunding platforms can
be created by the government in collaboration with nancial institutions. Moreover, expansion of subsidies, grants and
loans with low interest will act as an attraction to investors and developers on renewable energy projects [76].
Promoting Research and Development: Investment in research and development is important in driving the innovation
and improvement in eciency and reliability of technologies related to renewable energy. Establishment of research
centres and fostering partnership among universities, research institution and players from the industries can spark
technological advancement and oers support to localization of renewable energy solutions [77].
Capacity Building and Education: Building of a skilful workforce is important for the sustainable growth of renewable
energy sector. Implementation of the comprehensive training programs, incorporation of renewable energy curricula
in academic institutions and provisions of continuous professional development opportunities will enhance skills and
knowledge. Public awareness campaigns can also help in enhancing understanding and acceptance of renewable energy
among communities [78].
Encouraging Public–Private Partnerships: Strong public–private partnerships (PPPs) are useful in facilitation of resources,
expertise and the mechanism of risk-sharing. Platform for dialogue and collaboration among the public entities, private
companies and the civil society organizations can be created by the government to assist in fostering innovative solution
and drive large scale renewable energy projects [78].
Leveraging International Cooperation: there should be a continued engagement with international partners by Ghanian
government which is important in leveraging technical expertise, funding and best practices and acceleration of adopt-
ing advanced technologies and sustainable practices. Participation in global initiatives, forums and networks is crucial
in providing accessibility to the useful resources and insights. Through implementation of these, abundant renewable
energy, can be harnessed and the assurance of sustainability and resiliency of the energy in the future [78].
3 Conclusion
Ghana is relying mostly on imported petroleum fuel from fossils materials in addition to biomass and electricity as the
major source of energy. Depending on imported petroleum fuel is expensive and with negative environmental eects,
economic as well as political consequences. Ghana has ability to lower the reliance on petroleum fuel through produc-
tion of its own energy from sources that are renewable. If the right measures are properly taken, the potential renewable
resources available in Ghana such as hydropower, solar, wind, biomass, biogas could reduce the current energy demand
in Ghana by atleast 55%. In addition, renewable energy policies in Ghana have undergone signicant development in
recent years, reecting the country’s commitment to sustainable energy transition. The Renewable Energy Act of 2011
serves as the cornerstone, providing a regulatory framework to promote renewable energy deployment and investment.
However, there are a number of challenges encountered in implementing the measures towards the full exploration of
these renewable energy resources which include; political interference in developing institutions for renewable energy
resources, and in implementations of the renewable energy policies in addition to many other challenges. Political
interferences discourage potential investors in the energy sector due to its high risk politically and nancially as well
as volatility hence increasing the rate of project abandonment. Moreover, nancing constraints hinder the scalability
of renewable energy projects, with high upfront costs and limited access to capital inhibiting investment. While these
obstacles remain, investing fully in renewable energy projects in Ghana will oer a greater opportunity of feasibility as
compared to the traditional energy sources such as fossil fuels. Ghana’s population in greater need of energy will be
provided adequately with energy for a higher and stable subsistence lifestyle and hence economic growth of the country.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
With greater potential of generating energy from renewable sources Ghana can reduce its vulnerability to economic
shocks which have bueted the country even currently. Renewable energy could be helpful in laying the foundation for
future energy and political stability, as well as environmental sustainability.
Author contributions Study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Rogers Kipkoech.
The rst draft of the manuscript was written by [Rogers Kipkoech] and Rogers Kipkoech1, Mohammed Takase, Arcadius Martinien Agassin
Ahogle, and Gordon Ocholla commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the nal manuscript.
Funding This research did not receive any funding.
Availability of Data and materials All data associated with work is embedded in the manuscript.
Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which
permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to
the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modied the licensed material. You
do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party
material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If
material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds
the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco
mmons. org/ licen ses/ by- nc- nd/4. 0/.
References
1. Arroyo FRM, Miguel LJ. The role of renewable energies for the sustainable energy governance and environmental policies for the mitiga-
tion of climate change in Ecuador. Energies. 2020. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ en131 53883.
2. IRENA, The Renewable Energy Transition in Africa, /publications/2021/March/The-Renewable-Energy-Transition-in-Africa, no. 3.1.1, pp.
1–48, 2021.
3. Owusu PA, Asumadu-Sarkodie S. A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change mitigation. Cogent Eng.
2016;3(1):1–14. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 23311 916. 2016. 11679 90.
4. Catherine K. Renewable energy deployment in Ghana: the hype, Hope and Reality. Insight Africa. 2020;12(1):45–64. https:// doi. org/ 10.
1177/ 09750 87819 898581.
5. Osei-Tutu P, Boadi S, Kusi-Kyei V. Electrical energy transition in the context of Ghana. Energy, Sustain Soci. 2021;11(1):47.
6. Acakpovi A, Issah MB, Fifatin FX, Michael MB. Wind velocity extrapolation in Ghana by Weibull probability density function. Wind Eng.
2018;42(1):38–50.
7. Mensah JT, Marbuah G, Amoah A. Energy demand in Ghana: a disaggregated analysis. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2016;53:924–35. https://
doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2015. 09. 035.
8. Sakah M, Diawuo FA, Katzenbach R, Gyam S. Towards a sustainable electrication in Ghana: a review of renewable energy deployment
policies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2017;79(2017):544–57. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2017. 05. 090.
9. Arthur R, Baidoo M. Biogas as a potential renewable energy source: a Ghanaian case study. Renew Energy. 2011;36(5):1510–6.
10. Eshun ME, Amoako-Tuour J. A review of the trends in Ghana’s power sector. Energy Sustain Soc. 2016;6(1):1–9. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/
s13705- 016- 0075-y.
11. Mejía-montero A, Jenkins KEH, Van Der Horst D, Lane M. Energy research & social science an intersectional approach to energy justice:
individual and collective concerns around wind power on Zapotec land. Energy Res Soc Sci. 2023;98(March):103015. https:// doi. org/ 10.
1016/j. erss. 2023. 103015.
12. Mejía-montero A, Lane M, Van Der Horst D, Jenkins KEH. Energy research & Social Science Grounding the energy justice lifecycle frame-
work: an exploration of utility-scale wind power in Oaxaca, Mexico. Energy Res Soc Sci. 2021;75(February):102017. https:// doi. org/ 10.
1016/j. erss. 2021. 102017.
13. Kumi EN. The electricity situation in Ghana: challenges and opportunities,” CGD Policy Pap., no. September, p. 30, 2017.
14. Gyam S, Diawuo FA, Kumi EN, Sika F, Modjinou M. The energy eciency situation in Ghana. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2018;82:1415–23.
15. Energy Commission-Ghana. Strategic National Energy Plan 2006–2020, vol 1;2006. p. 36.
16. Asumadu-Sarkodie S, Owusu PA. A review of Ghana’s energy sector national energy statistics and policy framework. Cogent Eng.
2016;3(1):1155274.
17. Atuguba RA, Tuokuu FXD. Ghana’s renewable energy agenda: legislative drafting in search of policy paralysis. Energy Res Soc Sci. 2020;64:
101453.
18. Bonan J. Access to energy and economic development in Ghana. Reports (2017).
19. Abdul-Rahman M, Seidu A, Abdul Rahman MM, Turgut M. Oil prices and economic growth nexus in Ghana: new empirical evidence. J
Econ Manag. 2023;19:1–25.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol.:(0123456789)
Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x Review
20. Bawakyillenuo S, Crentsil AO, Agbelie IK, Danquah S, Boakye-Danquah EB, Menyeh BO The landscape of energy for cooking in Ghana:
A review. Mod Energy Cook Serv 2021:1–56
21. Ghana Energy Commission. National energy statistics 2007–2016. Annu Energy Rep. 2017;2016:1–40.
22. Afful-Dadzie A, Mallett A, Afful-Dadzie E. The challenge of energy transition in the Global South: The case of electricity generation
planning in Ghana. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2020;126: 109830.
23. Ohene E, Hsu SC, Chan AP. Feasibility and retrofit guidelines towards net-zero energy buildings in tropical climates: a case of Ghana.
Energy Build. 2022;269: 112252.
24. Boamah V. Forecasting the demand of oil in Ghana: a statistical approach. Manag Sci Bus Dec. 2021;1(1):29–43.
25. Seglah PA, Wang Y, Wang H, Neglo KA, Gao C, Bi Y. Energy potential and sustainability of straw resources in three regions of Ghana.
Sustainability. 2022;14(3):1434.
26. Afful-Dadzie A, Mensah SK, Afful-Dadzie E. Ghana renewable energy master plan: the benefits of private sector participation. Scient
Afr. 2022;17: e01353.
27. Cole MA, Neumayer E. The impact of poor health on total factor productivity. J Dev Stud. 2006;42(6):918–38. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/
00220 38060 07746 81.
28. Sansaniwal SK, Rosen MA, Tyagi SK. Global challenges in the sustainable development of biomass gasification: an overview. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev. 2017;80:23–43.
29. Vlek PL, Khamzina A, Tamene LD. Land degradation and the sustainable development goals: threats and potential remedies. CIAT
Publ. No. 440. Int. Cent. Trop. Agric. (CIAT), Nairobi, Kenya, p. 67, 2017.
30. Amanfo SE. Total factor productivity growth of Ghanaian electricity distribution utilities using data envelopment analysis and
Malmquist index (2000–2020). J Econ Finance Account Stud. 2021;3(2):233–48.
31. Bukari D, Tuokuu FX, Suleman S, Ackah I, Apenu G. Ghana’s energy access journey so far: a review of key strategies. Int J Energy Sect
Manage. 2021;15(1):139–56.
32. Ofei G. Business opportunities for renewable energy in Ghana. Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend (2016).
33. Kemausuor F, Obeng GY, Brew-Hammond A, Duker A. A review of trends, policies and plans for increasing energy access in Ghana.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2011;15(9):5143–54. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2011. 07. 041.
34. Kyere-Boateng R, Marek MV. Analysis of the social-ecological causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana: application
of the DPSIR framework. Forests. 2021;12(4):409.
35. Energy Commission-Ghana. National Energy Statistics 2020 Edition, pp. 1–12, 2021.. Available: www. energ ycom. gov. gh. [Accessed
on May, 2024]
36. Energy Commission, Ministry of Energy, “Ghana_Renewable_Map_Stanford,” Ghana Renew. Energy Master Plan, pp. 1–83, 2022.
37. Ghana Energy Commission. National Energy Statistics 2000–2022 edition, pp. 1–12, 2022. Available: http:// www. energ ycom. gov. gh/
old/ downl oads/ Energy_ Stati stics_ 2022p df. [Accessed on May, 2024]
38. Kankam S, Boon EK. Energy delivery and utilization for rural development: lessons from Northern Ghana. Energy Sustain Dev.
2009;13(3):212–8.
39. Adaramola MS, Quansah DA, Agelin-Chaab M, Paul SS. Multipurpose renewable energy resources based hybrid energy system for
remote community in northern Ghana. Sustain Energy Technol Assessments. 2017;22:161–70. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. seta. 2017.
02. 011.
40. Obeng GY, Hans-Dieter-Evers FO, Braimah AI, Brew-Hammond A. Solar photovoltaic electrication and rural energy-poverty in Ghana.
Energy Sustain Develop. 2008;12(1):43–54.
41. Acquah M. Decentralized rural electrication in Ghana-evaluation of technical and socio-economic aspects for sustainable solutions.
PhD diss., BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, 2014.
42. Adaramola MS, Agelin-Chaab M, Paul SS. Assessment of wind power generation along the coast of Ghana. Energy Convers Manage.
2014;77:61–9.
43. Duku MH, Gu S, Ben Hagan E. A comprehensive review of biomass resources and biofuels potential in Ghana. Renew Sustain Energy Rev.
2011;15(1):404–15. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2010. 09. 033.
44. Crentsil AO, Fenny AP, Ackah C, Asuman D, Otieku E. Ensuring access to aordable, sustainable and clean household energy for all in
Ghana. Ocas. Pap. Ser., 2020;62
45. Arthur R, Baidoo MF, Antwi E. Biogas as a potential renewable energy source: a Ghanaian case study. Renew Energy. 2011;36(5):1510–6.
https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. renene. 2010. 11. 012.
46. Adjakloe YDA, Boateng ENK, Osei SA, Agyapong F. Social sciences & humanities open gender and households ’ choice of clean energy: a
case of the Cape Coast. Soc Sci Humanit Open. 2021;4(1): 100227. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ssaho. 2021. 100227.
47. Mohammed YS, Mokhtar AS, Bashir N, Saidur R. An overview of agricultural biomass for decentralized rural energy in Ghana. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev. 2013;20:15–25.
48. Opoku EO, Gyimah J, Nyantakyi G, Nwigwe UA, Yao X. A focus on Ghana’s sustainable development: examining the interplay of income
inequality and energy poverty. Heliyon. 2024;10(1):22906.
49. Hanekamp E, Ahiekpor JC. Feasibility study of Ghana institutional biogas programme, Work Order 46: technical assistance to the Ghana
Energy Commission to develop a dedicated programme to establish institutional biogas systems in 200 boarding schools, hospitals and
prisons, and to, pp. 1–76, 2014
50. Edem Cudjoe Bensah AH. Biogas technology dissemination in Ghana: history, current status, future prospects, and policy signicance.
Int J Energy Environ. 2010;1(2):277–94.
51. Apotei GK. Biomass as an alternative source of energy in Ghana. (2019)
52. Energy Commission of Ghana, Sustainable Energy for All Action Plan - Ghana, Ghana Sustain. Energy All Action Plan, pp. 25–26, 2012
53. Bediako EB, Amorin R. The Ghana liqueed petroleum gas promotion programme: opportunities, challenges and the way forward. Innov
Energy Res. 2018. https:// doi. org/ 10. 4172/ 2576- 1463. 10001 97.
54. Broni-bediako EPE. Economic eects of oil price volatility on developing countries: a case study of an oil exporting country. Int J Econ
Manag Sci. 2018. https:// doi. org/ 10. 4172/ 2162- 6359. 10005 09.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:530 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-06148-x
55. Opoko E, Caria S, Teal F, Zeitlin A. “ber 2009 1 Introduction 2 Identifying the impact of the PrImpacts of group-based micronance in
agriculture : evidence from Ghana ’ s Cocoa Abrabopa Association Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration Department
of Economics Revised November, pp. 1–15, 2009.
56. Cooper CJ, Laing CA. A macro analysis of crop residue and animal wastes as a potential energy source in Africa. J Energy South Africa.
2007;18(1):10–9. https:// doi. org/ 10. 17159/ 2413- 3051/ 2007/ v18i1 a3339.
57. Seetharaman KM, Patwa N, Saravanan, Gupta Y. Breaking barriers in deployment of renewable energy. Heliyon. 2019;5(1):e01166. https://
doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. heliy on. 2019. e01166.
58. Doghle JL. Assessing the cost-eciency and willingness to adopt biogas as a sustainable source of Renewable energy: the case of senior
high Schools in the Greater Accra Region,” no. June, 2018.
59. Elif Ş, Can Ş, Sharp JL, Anctil A. Factors impacting diverging paths of renewable energy: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2020. https://
doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2017. 06. 042.
60. Osei-Marfo M, Duncan AE, Barnie S, Owusu SN, Awuah E, de Vries N. Institutional involvement and collaboration in disseminating biogas
technology in Ghana. J Energy. 2022. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1155/ 2022/ 11651 36.
61. Osei-Marfo M, de Vries NK, Awuah E. People’s perceptions on the use of human excreta for biogas generation in Ghana. Environ Dev
Sustain. 2022;24(1):352–76. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s10668- 021- 01439-4.
62. Adjama I, Derkyi NSA, Uba F, Akolgo GA, Opuko R. anaerobic co-digestion of human feces with rice straw for biogas production: a case
study in Sunyani. Model Simul Eng. 2022. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1155/ 2022/ 26080 45.
63. Afotey B, Sarpong GT. Estimation of biogas production potential and greenhouse gas emissions reduction for sustainable energy manage-
ment using intelligent computing technique”. Meas Sens. 2023;25(December):100650. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. measen. 2022. 100650.
64. Acheampong M, Ertem FC, Kappler B, Neubauer P. In pursuit of sustainable development goal (SDG) number 7: will biofuels be reliable?
Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2017;75(7):927–37. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2016. 11. 074.
65. UNCT-GH-SDG, “The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) in Ghana,” 2017. [Online]. Available: https:// www. undp. org/ conte nt/ undp/
en/ home/ search. html?q= housi ng+ and+ econo mic+ devel opment.
66. World Health Organisation-Global Health Observatory (2023), “Ensure access to aordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for
all,” Our World in Data, https:// ourwo rldin data. org/ sdgs/ aor dable- clean- energy (accessed May 7, 2024).
67. Ali EB, Anufriev VP, Amfo B. Green economy implementation in Ghana as a road map for a sustainable development drive: a review. Sci
African. 2021;12: e00756. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. sciaf. 2021. e00756.
68. Kwakwa PA, Adusah-Poku F, Adjei-Mantey K. Towards the attainment of sustainable development goal 7: what determines clean energy
accessibility in sub-Saharan Africa. Green Finance. 2021;3(3):268–86.
69. Sandra Guzmán CM, Greta Dobrovich, Anna Balm. The state of climate nance in africa: climate nance needs of African countries,” 2022.
[Online]. Available: https:// data. world bank. org/ indic ator/ SH. XPD. CHEX. GD. ZS? locat ions= ZG
70. Ministry of Energy, “Ghana Renewable Energy Master Plan,” 2019.
71. Ghana Investment Support Programme and British International Investment, “Climate Finance in Ghana,” 2023.
72. Ponkshe P. Financing sustainable energy in the Ghanaian energy market-a comprehensive policy review and recommendations, 2022.
73. Aboagye B, Gyam S, Ofosu EA, Djordjevic S. Status of renewable energy resources for electricity supply in Ghana. Sci African. 2021;11:
e00660. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. sciaf. 2020. e00660.
74. Parliament of the Republic of Ghana, Act 832. 2011.
75. Agyekum EB. Energy poverty in energy rich Ghana: a SWOT analytical approach for the development of Ghana’s renewable energy. Sustain
Energy Technol Assessments. 2020;40:100760. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. seta. 2020. 100760.
76. Government of Ghana, “Renewable Energy Act 2011: Act 832.” pp. 1–27, 2011.
77. Renewable C, Generating E, Network D. NET METERING SUB-CODE for Connecting Renewable Energy Generating Systems to the Distribu-
tion Network in Ghana, no. 8, 2015.
78. Energy Commission Board, “Energy Commission for Connecting Renewable Energy Generating Systems to the Distribution Network in
Ghana Net Metering Code,” 2023.
79. Karbo RT, Frewer LJ, Areal F, Yu E. Using renewable energy to meet the energy needs of smallholder farmers: are there policies to promote
adoption in Ghana? Ghana J Agricult Sci. 2022;57(1):15–29.
80. Atta-Konadu IESBAR, Brew-Hammond A, Implementation of Renewable Energy Technologies - Opportunities and Barriers, Ghana Country
Study. 2002.
81. Ko AE. Technical & Economic Viability Analysis of Renewable Energy Technologies in Ghana. Proquest Inc, July 2005, pp. 1–260.
82. Peidong Z, Yanli Y, Jin S, Yonghong Z, Lisheng W, Xinrong L. Opportunities and challenges for renewable energy policy in China. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev. 2009;13(2):439–49. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2007. 11. 005.
83. Verbruggen A, Fischedick M, Moomaw W, Weir T, Nadaï A, Nilsson LJ, Nyboer J, Sathaye J. Renewable energy costs, potentials, barriers:
conceptual issues. Energy Policy. 2010;38(2):850–61.
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional aliations.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:
use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at
onlineservice@springernature.com