POPs in the Vicinity of Waste Incinerators in Phuket, Thailand

Abstract

In 2018, there were two MSWIs in operation in Phuket, which incinerated 680 tons of dried garbage daily. The previous MSWI, completed in 1999, incinerated 250 tons of garbage per day. It stopped operation in 2012.
POPs have been studied at the MWIs in Phuket and its surroundings several times. For the first time in 1997, it became part of the Thailand Dioxin Sampling and Analysis Program, and emissions of PCDD/Fs into the air and concentrations in WI residues were measured. In 2009, as part of the Swedish EPA research, Umea University Sweden collected and analyzed samples of WI residues, sediments, and fish. EARTH and Anika collected samples of ash, sediment, fish, molluscs, and crabs around the incinerator and had them analyzed by the DR CALUX bioassay method for PCDD/Fs + dl-PCBs. The incinerator was also the subject of Greenpeace research in 2001, which focused mainly on heavy metals. We will return to the results of previous research in the discussion of the new analyses from this study. High concentrations of POPs, particularly PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, have been repeatedly detected around the MSWIs in Phuket, and PFASs and MCCPs were detected recently there. Given that these substances persist in the environment for a long time, they can contaminate the surrounding environment for extended periods and infiltrate food chains. This should be taken into account when making decisions about waste management on the island.

Full text

POPs in the Vicinity of Waste Incinerators in Phuket, Thailand
Penchom Saetang1, Arpa Wangkiat2, Nikola Jelinek3,4, *Jindrich Petrlik3,4, Lee Bell4, Sarah Ozanova3, Lenka
Petrlikova Maskova3
1 Ecological Alert and Recovery Thailand (EARTH), 211/2, Ngamwongwan Rd. 31, Nonthaburi 11000, Thailand
2 College of Engineering, Rangsit University, 12000 Pathum Thani, Thailand
3 Arnika – Toxics and Waste Programme, Seifertova 85, Prague CZ13000, Czech Republic,
jindrich.petrlik@arnika.org
4 International Pollutants Elimination Network (IPEN), PO Box 7256 SE-402 35, Göteborg, Sweden
1 Introduction
The number of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) installations and/or Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSWIs) in
developing countries is generally increasing1. These incinerators then become sources of pollution for the
communities due to toxic contaminants from air emissions and waste incineration (WI) residues1,2. These
contaminants include unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants (UPOPs) such as polychlorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (dl-PCBs),
polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) hexachlorobenzene (HCB), pentachlorobenzene
(PeCB) and recently also some per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)3,4. Waste incineration is listed among
major sources of UPOPs such as PCDD/Fs, in Annex C to the Stockholm Convention5.
PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs and chlorinated benzenes have been observed in emissions to air6 as well as in bottom ash, fly
ash7 and other air pollution control residues8,9 from waste incinerators (WIs).
In 2018, there were two MSWIs in operation in Phuket, which incinerated 680 tons of dried garbage daily.10 The
previous MSWI, completed in 1999, incinerated 250 tons of garbage per day.11 It stopped operation in 2012.10
However, the old waste incinerator was only run every two or three days when sufficient garbage had accumulated
to permit full operation.11
POPs have been studied at the MWIs in Phuket and its surroundings several times. For the first time in 1997, it
became part of the Thailand Dioxin Sampling and Analysis Program, and emissions of PCDD/Fs into the air and
concentrations in WI residues were measured12. In 2009, as part of the Swedish EPA research, Umea University
Sweden collected and analyzed samples of WI residues, sediments, and fish13,14. EARTH and Anika collected
samples of ash, sediment, fish, molluscs, and crabs around the incinerator and had them analyzed by the DR
CALUX bioassay method for PCDD/Fs + dl-PCBs15. The incinerator was also the subject of Greenpeace research
in 2001, which focused mainly on heavy metals16. We will return to the results of previous research in the
discussion of the new analyses from this study.
2 Materials and Methods
For the sampling in this study, we chose two sites near the MSWIs in Phuket where bottom and fly ashes are
currently or were previously landfilled. A sample from the original bottom and fly ash dumpsite, which is no
longer used but was also sampled for a study by Umea University in 2009,13 was marked as PHU-1-OLD. The
other two samples were taken from a recently used landfill for bottom ash and fly ash. Free-range chicken eggs
were collected at sites 0.4 and 0.3 km northwest of the waste incinerator chimney and the landfill with incinerator
residues, respectively. All samples were taken in December 2022. The pooled eggs bought from a supermarket in
Maha Sarakam in February 202217 were used as a reference sample.
All samples were analysed for their content of seven indicator PCB congeners which represent non dioxin-like
PCBs (ndl-PCBs)18, hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD), pentachlorobenzene (PeCB), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), 13
polychlorinated naphthalene (PCN) congeners, 16 PBDE congeners, three HBCD isomers, six novel BFRs
(nBFRs; 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE),
hexabromobenzene (HBB), octabromo-1,3,3-trimethylpheny-1-indan (OBIND), 2,3,4,5,6-
pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), and pentabromotoluene (PBT).), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), short- and
medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs), and 16 PFASs.
The analytes were extracted by a mixture of organic solvents, hexane: dichloromethane (1:1). The extracts were
cleaned by means of gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The identification and quantification of the analyte
were conducted by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry detection in electron ionization
mode for the analyses of PCBs, HCBD, PeCB, HCB, and PCNs. The identification and quantification of PBDEs
and nBFRs were performed using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry in negative ion chemical
ionization mode (GC-MS-NICI). The identification and quantification of HBCD isomers and TBBPA were
performed by liquid chromatography interfaced with tandem mass spectrometry, with electrospray ionization in
negative mode (UHPLC-MS/MS-ESI). The extract, which was prepared in the same way as for the other analyses,

was transferred into cyclohexane and diluted. The identification and quantification of MCCPs and SCCPs were
performed via gas chromatography/time-of-flight high resolution mass spectrometry (GC/TOF-HRMS) in the
mode of negative chemical ionization (NCI). Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to tandem–
quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS) was used for the identification and quantification of 16 PFASs1
in presented samples. Extraction of samples and analytical method were described elsewhere.19,20 All of the above-
mentioned analyses were conducted in a Czech-certified laboratory (University of Chemistry and Technology,
Department of Food Chemistry and Analysis).
All samples were also analyzed for their content of individual PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs and twelve dioxin-like PCB
congeners by HRGC-HRMS in the MAS laboratory, Münster, Germany. The accredited MAS_PA002, ISO/IEC
17025:2005 method was used to determine PBDD/Fs. The basic steps of the analyses can be summarized as
follows: addition of 13C12-labelled PBDD/F internal standards to the sample extract; multi-step chromatographic
clean-up of the extract; addition of 13C12-labelled PBDD/F recovery standards, and HRGC/HRMS analysis.
Quantification was performed according to the internal labelled PBDD/F standards (isotope dilution technique and
internal standard technique).
3 Results
The results of the analyses of WI residues and eggs are summarized in Table 1 below. The highest concentrations
of PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs (770 pg WHO-TEQ/g dry matter = dm), and PBDD/Fs (3.3 pg WHO-TEQ/g dm) were
found in the sample of the old ash and fly ash mixture. An order of magnitude lower concentrations, in the tens of
pg WHO-TEQ/g dm, were measured in the samples of ash with fly ash (PHU-2-FA) and ash (PHU-3-BA) from
the new landfill. Higher concentrations of PFASs, on the other hand, were found in the samples from the new
landfill (PHU-2-FA and PHU-3-BA). The concentrations of POPs in the mixed sample of free-range chicken eggs
greatly exceeded the values found in the reference sample of eggs from the Thai supermarket and, in the case of
PFASs, in the eggs from the supermarket in Jakarta. The exceptions were HCBD, PCNs, nBFRs, SCCPs and
TBBPA which were below the LOQ. The concentration of SCCPs, on the other hand, was much higher in the
reference sample from Maha Sarakam. The concentrations of PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs in PHU-EGG sample
exceeded the limit of 5 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat set for eggs in the European Union21 by more than ten times. PFOS,
PFOA, PFNA and PFHxS levels in eggs did not exceed maximum levels set in foodstuffs in EU. Highest level
was measured for PFOS and is closest to the limit set at level of 1.0 ng/g wet weight (ww)22.
Table 1. Summarized results of the analyses of the samples from Phuket and reference sample of eggs from Maha
Sarakam - supermarket. The results are in ng/g of dm for ash samples, and in ng/g of fat for eggs respectively.
PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs and PBDD/Fs in pg WHO-TEQ/g of dm for ash, and in pg WHO-TEQ/g of fat for eggs
respectively. Results for PFASs in eggs are per gram ww (eggs) or dm (ash). For PCDD/F, dl-PCB and PBDD/F
congeners below LOQ, half of LOQ levels were included in final levels.
Locality Phuket Phuket Phuket Phuket Maha
Sarakam
Sample ID (eggs) PHU-1-OLD
PHU-2-FA PHU-3-BA
PHU-EGG TH-REF-
EGG-2022
Matrix Ash Ash Ash Eggs Eggs
Number of eggs in pooled sample na na na 4 5
Fat content (%) na na na 11.9 11.4
PCDD/Fs (pg TEQ/g fat) 700 71.09 47.50 47.00 0.50
dl-PCBs (pg TEQ/g fat) 70 2.99 2.29 6.00 0.15
PCDD/F + dl-PCBs (pg TEQ/g fat) 770 74.08 49.79 53.00 0.65
PBDD/Fs (pg TEQ/g fat) 3.30 < 2.8 < 2.8 5.60 <1.2
PeCB 0.66 0.54 0.47 0.72 <0.10
HCB 0.53 0.33 0.83 2.31 0.58
HCBD <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 <0.1 <0.10
7 PCB 0.11 0.10 <0.02 3.39 < LOQ
13 PCN congeners NA <0.02 <0.02 < 0.2 < 0.2
SCCPs C10-C13 <5 18.2 <5 <50 640.89
1 PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, PFDoDA, PFTrDA, PFTeDA, PFBS,
PFHxS, PFOS, PFDS, PFOSA

MCCPs C14-C17 <10 <10 <10 1590.00 345.95
sum HBCD < LOQ < LOQ < LOQ 7.50 <LOQ
sum of PBDEs < LOQ < LOQ < LOQ 849.53 <LOQ
209-BDE (decaBDE) < LOQ < LOQ < LOQ 770.31 <LOQ
sum of nBFRs < LOQ < LOQ < LOQ <LOQ <LOQ
TBBPA <1.5 <1.5 <1.5 <4.2 <4.2
sum of PFASsww <LOQ 0.43 0.13 2.69 0.10*
PFNAww <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.06 <0.01*
PFOAww <0.02 <0.02 0.04 0.01 <0.01*
PFOS <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.61 <0.01*
PFHxS <0.02 <0.02 <0.02 0.02 <0.01*
EFSA-PFASs 0.00 <0.02 0.04 0.69 <0.01*
Notes * Level measured in another reference sample – eggs from supermarket in Jakarta (JAK-SUP)23; na – not
applicable; NA – not analyzed; LOQ – level of quantification
4 Discussion
Probably the oldest measurement of PCDD/Fs from MSWI in Phuket was part of the Thailand Dioxin Sampling
and Analysis Program. At that time, the concentration of PCDD/Fs in the flue gases from the incinerator ranged
between 0.65 and 3.10 ng I-TEQ/m3,12 which was well above the European limit of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/m3. The
concentrations of PCDD/Fs in the bottom ash and fly ash were at levels of 8 and 468 pg WHO-TEQ/g dm,
respectively12. Higher concentrations of PCDD/Fs, ranging from 3,200 to 8,000 pg TEQ/g dm in fly ashes, were
found in a 2009 study by Umea University13,14, during which concentrations of dl-PCBs (in fly ashes 68 – 255 pg
TEQ/g dm) were also analyzed. In the ash taken directly from the furnace, values of 6.2 and 0.35 pg TEQ/g dm
for PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, respectively, were measured. This research also found high concentrations in the lake
sediment near the fly ash and ash landfill, specifically 2700 and 97 pg WHO-TEQ/g dm for PCDD/Fs and dl-
PCBs, respectively. In fish, this research found 1.2 to 5.6 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat of PCDD/Fs/dl-PCBs14. The original
Umea University study also cites new measurements of PCDD/Fs from June 2008 in emissions analyzed by a
Belgian laboratory, which found a concentration of 0.33 ng I-TEQ/m313. The results of bioassay analyses on dioxin
activity (DR CALUX) from the BioDetection Systems laboratory in Amsterdam, published in a 2011 report15, are
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Results of bioassay (DR CALUX) analyses for PCDD/Fs/dl-PCBs from Arnika/EARTH report15 and later
analyses by GC-MS24.
Locality Sample Fat content (%)
pg BEQ/g fat (dm)
pg WHO-TEQ/g fat (dm)
Mangrove Fish 1 1.6 42.5 7.75
Mangrove Crabs 1 0.84 43.6 NA
River mouth Shellfish 1 2.1 34.6 NA
Mangrove Shellfish 2 4.8 3.0 NA
Phuket - bay Fish 2 0.84 <LOQ NA
Phuket - bay Blue crabs 3 0.47 119.6 47.1
Phuket - bay Fish 5 0.38 <LOQ NA
Phuket - town Passerine birds eggs NA 6.1 NA
Near waste incinerator
Ash 1 na 3.9 NA
Near waste incinerator
Ash 2 na 4.3 NA
Mangrove Sediment na 24.5 22.2
The sediment concentration from the outlet was higher in the measurement from 2010 (24.5 pg BEQ/g dm) than
in the Umea University report from 2009 (1.8 pg TEQ/g dm)13,15. The higher level was measured in an outlet into
mangrove forest on the edge of area with dumped bottom ash and fly ash from the WI in 201015.
We also compared PCDD/Fs levels in fish samples from Phuket with other samples from localities like Map Ta
Phut (affected by petrochemical complex)25, Samut Sakhon (affected by small metallurgical plants and e-waste
open burning)25,26, Khao Hin Sorn (potentially affected by a number of small industrial facilities)25, Chanthaburi
(reference site, forest)25, Na Somboon (reference locality, ecological farm, clean site)17, Kalasin (affected by e-
waste dismantling and open burning)17. Fish samples from Phuket Bay had levels below LOQ measured by DR

CALUX bioassay method as well as two samples from Chanthaburi reference site but measured by GC-MS in
201624. A fish sample from a mangrove area near the outlet from a waste incinerator, exhibited the third highest
level of 7.75 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat while the highest levels of 45 and 137 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat were measured in
samples from small pond in Kalasin, but one sample from Kalasin was also below the level of the sample from
Phuket17. While levels of dioxin-like compounds (measured by DR CALUX) in fish caugth in the bay further from
the shore in Phuket were low, levels observed in fish from the mangrove close to the outlet from the WI residue
storage were seen as elevated and much higher than those observed in fish samples taken by Swedish scientists
from Umea University ranging13 from 1.2 to 5.6 pg WHO-TEQ/g (measured by GC-MS).
Levels of dioxin-like compounds in wild birds’ eggs were not studied so often. There is detailed research on
passerine birds in Michigan, USA 27. Levels of dioxin-like compounds in birds’ eggs reported in that study were
higher than the level observed in the eggs from Phuket. However, the level measured in eggs from Phuket exceeded
the safe level of 5 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat set for poultry eggs in the EU21. High levels in blue crab samples was
discussed in a previous report about sampling in Phuket15.
The highest level of dioxin activity measured in crabs from mangrove forest by DR CALUX (43.6 pg BEQ/g fat)
was below the highest level of 51.69 pg TEQ/g fat observed in crabs from Map Ta Phut but it was more than 20-
times higher in comparison with a reference sample from clean locality in Klong Dan (2.78 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat)
25,28. Levels in shellfish of 3.0 (Asian green mussel) and 34.6 (Bivalvia) pg BEQ/g fat respectively were higher in
samples from Phuket than 0.71 and 1.11 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat in samples of Asian green mussel from Map Ta Phut
and bivalves from Klong Dan respectively25,28.
Pooled free-range eggs sample from Phuket belongs to samples with highest measured levels of PCDD/Fs + dl
PCBs in Asia29,30. They are, for example, comparable to the egg samples with highest level from Bantar Gebang
and higher than samples from Bangun. PCDD/Fs level of 47 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat is comparable to what was
measured in free-range egg samples from the vicinity of a medical waste incinerator in Accra, Ghana and/or in
eggs from Saginaw River, USA (affected by chemical industry) and from Kendalsari, Indonesia in the eggs
affected by aluminum smelters there30-33. The sum of 2.69 ng/g of PFASs measured in eggs from Phuket is
comparable with the level of 2.38 ng/g measured in eggs from the vicinity of a hazardous waste incinerator in
Aguado, Philippines34. However, it is lower in comparison with two pooled eggs samples from Bangun or two
samples from Bantar Gebang but higher in comparison with other egg samples from Indonesian localities29. Also,
the level of 1,590 ng/g fat of MCCPs was high in the egg samples from Phuket, and almost 5-times higher than
the reference sample from a supermarket in Maha Sarakam. The samples from Phuket are one of the first occasions
in which MCCPs were measured. They were below LOQ of 10 ng/g dm in all three ash samples.
5 Conclusions
High concentrations of POPs, particularly PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs, have been repeatedly detected around the
MSWIs in Phuket, and PFASs and MCCPs were detected recently there. Given that these substances persist in the
environment for a long time, they can contaminate the surrounding environment for extended periods and infiltrate
food chains. This should be taken into account when making decisions about waste management on the island.
Waste prevention and zero waste strategies, as recommended by the BAT/BEP Guidelines of the Stockholm
Convention, should be better reflected in decisions about further development. Alarmingly high concentrations of
POPs in the wastes produced by MSWIs highlight the need for far more cautious handling than simple landfill
disposal near mangrove swamps and local residences. Tightening internationally established regulations,
especially for PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs, and PFASs in wastes, would send a stronger signal for the management of WI
residues in developing countries.
6 Acknowledgments
This study was conducted as a part of the following projects: “Increasing Transparency in Industrial Pollution
Management through Citizen Science and EIA System Enhancement” financed by EU AID (EuropeAid 2017/389-
531) and co-financed by the Transition programme of the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Global Greengrants
Fund, Sigrid Rausing Trust and Thai Health Foundation. It is also part of a larger study focused on plastic waste
financially supported by Swedish government through IPEN.
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