The Effect of Reflective and Strategic Self-Talk on the Performance and Learning of Dart-Throwing Skills of Primary School Students

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Phys. Act. Child. 2024; 1(1):e459699 Journal Homepage https://doi.org/10.61186/PACH.2024.459699.1010
Physical Activity in Children Original Article
ISSN: 2783-5391
Copyright © 2024, Physical Activity in Children. This open-access article is available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) International
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The Effect of Reflective and Strategic Self-Talk on the Performance and
Learning of Dart-Throwing Skills of Primary School Students
Umit Dogan Ustun 1, *, Ramazan Seker 2
1Associate Professor, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey.
2Professor, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey.
*Corresponding Author:
Umit Dogan Ustun. Associate Professor, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University Faculty of Sport Sciences, Turkey. Email: rseker@mku.edu.tr
Received: 27 May, 2024; Revised: 24 June, 2024; Accepted: 07 August, 2024; Published: 27 August, 2024.
Abstract
Introduction: A review of the research literature showed that no research has been done on the effectiveness of interventions based on reflective
self-talk in children.
Objective: The present study aims to investigate how primary school students' performance and acquisition of dart-throwing
abilities were impacted by reflective and strategic self-talk.
Methods: With their parent's permission, 48 students, ages 10.27±1.06 on average, willingly participated in the retention and were
divided into three groups of sixteen at random: reflective, strategic, and control self-talk. They participated in the acquisition,
retention, and transfer stages. During the acquisition phase, the reflective group received self-talk instructions, challenges in dart-
throwing, and matching exercises between their self-talk and challenges during the throw. The strategic self-talk group utilized
training words before throwing darts, and they were requested to employ self-talk based on the situations they encountered.
Results: The findings demonstrated that the strategic self-talk group outperformed the reflective one in the last efforts at the
acquisition stage and retention test. Nonetheless, the reflective self-talk group outperformed the strategic one on the transfer test
by a wide margin. Strategic self-talk appears to have improved functional performance throughout the acquisition and
memorizing phases by influencing attention.
Conclusion: However, reflective self-talk proved beneficial during the transfer test because of the obstacles and difficulties
associated with applying the throwing skill.
Keywords:
Strategic Self-Talk, Reflective Self-Talk, Sports, Athletic Performance, Child, Schools
How to Cite: Dogan Ustun U, Seker R. The Effect of Reflective and Strategic Self-Talk on the Performance and Learning of Dart-
Throwing Skills of Primary School Students. Phys. Act. Child. 2024;1(1):33-38. doi: 10.61186/PACH.2024.459699.1010
1. Introduction
Children begin talking to themselves almost as
soon as they can speak. Self-talk is the term used to
describe this phenomenon, and studies have shown
that children utilize self-talk to control their thoughts
and actions (1) This aids in children's intellectual (2),
motor (3), and social and emotional competence (4).
Youngsters who talk to themselves more often exhibit
more emotional control, as well as greater effort and
perseverance (5). Engaging in self-talk can improve
individuals' performance in various situations by
effectively balancing personal needs with the demands
of the learning environment (6). Thus, this perspective
holds that self-talk helps students collect tools to finish
projects, stay focused, stay away from distractions,
learn from mistakes, and make corrections.
The creation and use of predefined self-talk signals
that may be applied to performance enhancement and
self-regulation constitute strategic self-talk (7).
Strategic self-talk can be articulated in an instructional
or motivating way, but its content is predefined and its
usage is required (8). Generally, several studies have
demonstrated the value of strategic self-talk. These
include Dematos et al., 2021 (9) (swimming endurance
performance), Blanchfield et al., 2014 (10) (exercise
task), Hatzigeorgiadis, 2011 (11) (meta-analysis),
Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2018 (12) (cycling task under high
environmental stress), Galanis et al., 2022 (13)
(performance and attention in breathing settings), and
Galanis et al., 2018 (14) (performance in distraction
situations). Nevertheless, not all self-talk therapies
need participants to employ established cue phrases.
While organic self-talk targets athletes through the
acquisition of metacognitive knowledge, strategic self-
talk treatments (e.g., Hardy et al., 2015) (15) concentrate
on the efficacy of repeating prepared self-talk signals.
To summarize, the scenario is best represented by the
new reflective self-talk intervention protocol, which
involves first describing recurrent problematic
circumstances in and around sport, teaching context-
specific targeted self-talk and its efficacy, and then
developing alternative expressions that can be
employed in future situations (16). The novel reflective
self-talk intervention and conventional strategic self-
talk therapies vary in three key ways. Initially, as stated
in reflective interventions, organic self-talk arises from
athletic events and is always chosen by the individual
herself; in contrast, the cue words utilized in strategic
self-talk interventions are typically predetermined and

Ustun & Şeker
34 Phys. Act. Child. 2024; 1(1):e459699.
seldom chosen by the individual (17). Second, in
strategic self-talk interventions, the moment of
verbalizing the cue word is typically established before
or during task execution. Participants must determine
when to apply the self-instructions they have learned
in previous sessions during reflective self-talk
interventions. Third, targeted self-talk is not
mandatory in reflective self-talk interventions, unlike
the necessity of cue words in strategic self-talk
interventions. Reflective self-talk interventions are still
relatively new compared to the extensive research on
cue word interventions. Therefore, the researcher seeks
to investigate the impact of reflective and strategic self-
talk on the performance and learning of elementary
school students, considering the importance of self-
talk in children and the characteristics of reflective self-
talk.
According to (18), self-talk interventions in similar
contexts, such as physical education (PE), might be
built on studies on sports-based self-talk. Additionally,
it has been demonstrated how children may develop
new overhead-throwing motor abilities by using
strategic self-talk (19). Also, the benefits of self-talk have
been demonstrated for young children by
demonstrating how using self-talk signals improved
elementary school students' performance on soccer
tasks (11,20). A study (21) analyzed how instructional
and motivational self-talk affected fifth- and sixth-
grade elementary school student's performance on the
modified floor swimming test and the basketball
backstroke. They concluded that while both forms of
self-talk signals assist students in focusing better
during the breaststroke test, motivational self-talk
signals help them attempt more during the stroke test.
Ultimately, it was determined that a key factor in the
efficacy of self-talk is aligning the content of self-talk
signals with task requirements. Furthermore, another
study (3) examined how motivational and
instructional self-talk signals affected elementary
school PE students' performance on a novel and
acquired handball task. They discovered that students'
performance in such a task is enhanced by
instructional and motivating self-talk signals.
Consequently, the review of the related literature
revealed a scientific vacuum in the area of reflective
self-talk-based interventions for children, as there has
not been any research on this topic's efficacy.
Therefore, the current study was required to close the
gap so that students could utilize self-talk
interventions to enhance their performance and sports
teachers could employ a range of self-talk
interventions to support efficient learning in the
classroom.
2. Method
2.1. Research Method and Design
The current study used a hybrid model with an in-
group and out-group method.
2.2. Participants
The participants in this study were elementary
school students. The effect size of 0.36, the number of
groups, the frequency of measurement for seven
groups, the power of 0.80, the alpha threshold of 0.05,
and the total number of subjects were used to estimate
the sample size in the G-power software. Thus, 48
students, whose ages ranged from 10.27 to 1.06 years on
average, participated willingly and with parental
permission. They were then divided into three groups
of sixteen, consisting of reflective, strategic, and
control self-talk.
2.3. Measures
This study was conducted in four phases. Initially,
participants received a general education regarding
the goal and proper form of dart throwing, as well as
instruction in the appropriate and fundamental
technique. During the training session, the
participants were instructed to throw their darts
during the acquisition phase using their dominant
hand at a distance of 1.5 meters from the dartboard.
The dart board was 1.22 meters high from the ground
to the middle of the board (between the spots). They
were required to throw fifty test darts, divided into five
groups of ten throws each. Both the memorizing and
transfer phases were carried out one day following the
acquisition phase. During the retention phase, the
participants threw 20 throws, comprising two groups
of 10 trials from the same distance as the acquisition
phase. During the transfer phase, which took place ten
minutes later, they threw 20 darts, comprising two
groups of 10 attempts from a distance of two meters.
Each throw's score was determined by measuring the
absolute inaccuracy in centimeters between the dart's
center point and the point of contact (21).
2.4. Procedure
2.4.1. Strategic Self-Talk Protocol
During the 50-throw dart acquisition phase,
strategic self-talk was employed before the throw.
Phrases like "thumb adjacent to the middle finger and
pointer," "elbow bent to eye level," "concentrate on the
movement of your finger and the correct position,"
"elbow bent and open," and "hand back to the ear" were
utilized to draw attention to the proper dart execution.
2.4.2. Reflective Self-Talk Protocol
The advice in this part was to assist athletes become
more metacognitive and psychologically
knowledgeable so they can recognize psychological
obstacles and use self-talk to self-regulate. As a result,
the group's participants were first given a thorough
explanation of the various negative scenarios that
might arise when throwing darts, including increased
stress, diversions, and a decreased sense of confidence
when a dart misses the dart board. Then, a deliberate
self-talk phrase was selected for each of these scenarios
in case the participant met it before or during dart
throwing. For instance, he might tell himself "I can" if
he lacks the essential self-confidence, "I can manage it"
if he feels stressed and nervous, or "concentrate on the
target" if he is feeling unfocused. Alternatively, if he
believes that the dart-throwing method is not
performing effectively, he may use "self-talking words"
like "elbows to eye level" to address the technical
problem.
It is important to note that participants' usage of
self-talk phrases was voluntary and dependent on their
circumstances. The protocol of self-talk was based on
the recommendations of (22).
Throughout the whole study process, the control
group followed the same steps as the other research
groups and did not engage in any form of

Ustun & Şeker
Phys. Act. Child. 2024; 1(1):e459699. 35
psychological intervention or self-talk.
2.4.3. Manipulation Check Protocol
In this protocol, group self-talk is covered. Indeed,
according to Hardy (2005), this method guarantees the
accuracy of the experimental contexts the researcher
set. The development of the procedure was grounded
in the research conducted by Hatzigeorgiadis, et.al
(2008). Items included (a): Did you use self-talk each
time before throwing the dart? 1 for never to 10 for
always; b) How much did you utilize it for dart
throwing? 1 for never to 10 for always; and (c) do you
believe self-talk helps improve your dart throwing? 10
(very helpful) to 1 (not at all). The inspection protocol's
findings revealed that the usage of strategic self-talk
has a mean and standard deviation of 8.77±2.2,
reflective self-talk of 7.14±1.12, and without self-talk in
the control condition of 1.35±0.29.
2.5. Statistical Method
The data in this section were described using the
mean and standard deviation. The data analysis
employed in the acquisition stage included two-factor
ANOVA (category × group) with repeated
measurements in the category factor, and the data in
the retention and transfer stage involved one-way
ANOVA at the 0.05 level using SPSS version 26 software.
3. Results
The average age of the participants was 10.27±1.06
years and their gender were male. A two-factor analysis
of variance in Table 1 revealed a significant main
impact of the category on dart throwing performance
(η=0.87, p=0.001, F(4,180)=3.04). Furthermore, there was
a significant main impact of the group on dart
throwing performance (η=0.22, p=0.004, F (2, 45)=6.37).
Finally, there was a significant interaction between the
group and class effects on dart-throwing performance
(η=2.45, p=0.001, F (8,180)=18.85). Simplifying the
interaction effects' findings revealed that there was no
significant difference in the first group's (P=0.224),
second group's (P=0.487), and third group's (P=0.075)
performance. In the fourth category, the reflective
(p=0.040) and strategic self-talk groups outperformed
the control group (p=0.001), and the strategic group
outperformed the reflective group (p=0.031) by a
significant margin. In the fifth category, the reflective
(p=0.013) and strategic self-talk groups performed
better than the control group (p=0.001), and the
strategic group's performance outperformed the
reflective group by a significant margin (p=0.013). One-
way analysis of variance findings for the retention test
indicated that there is a significant difference between
the three research groups' approaches to learning how
to throw darts (η=0.24, p=0.002, F (2,45)=7.27). The
results of the follow-up test demonstrated that while
reflective (p=0.005) and strategic (p=0.005) self-talk
improved the acquisition of dart-throwing skills, there
was no significant difference in the throwing abilities
of the two groups-strategic and reflective-in the
retention test (p = 1.000). The one-way analysis of
variance results in the transfer test indicated a
significant difference in the three research groups'
learning of how to throw darts (η=0.40, p=0.001, F
(2,45)=15.34). Based on the findings of the follow-up
test, learning how to throw darts was enhanced by
reflective and strategic self-talk (p=0.001) and p=0.020
in the former case, and by p=0.023 in the latter case
compared to the strategic self-talk in the transfer test.
Table 1. Results of Variance Analysis.
Stage
Source
SS
df
MS
F
P-Value
η2
Acquisition
Category
112.48
4
28.12
6.304
0.001
0.87
Category×Group
13.92
8
1.74
18.54
0.001
0.45
Error
16.61
180
0.092
Group
36.10
2
18.05
6.37
0.004
0.22
Error
127.5
45
2.83
Retention
Group
6.25
2
3.12
7.27
0.002
0.24
Error
19.33
45
0.430
Transfer
Group
14.04
2
7.02
15.34
0.001
0.40
Error
20.59
45
0.458
Figure 1. Dart Throwing Performance (Error) in Three Stages of Acquisition, retention and Transfer.

Ustun & Şeker
36 Phys. Act. Child. 2024; 1(1): e459699.
4. Discussion
The manipulation verification procedure was used
to guarantee the formation of self-talk situations. The
reflective self-talk group's students reported that they
used adequate self-talk throughout the skill
acquisition process, but in this particular setting,
reflective self-talk students used less self-talk. This is
because reflective self-talk is voluntary, but strategic
self-talk requires participants to use self-talk. The
findings of this study align with the theoretical
frameworks put out by Latinjak et al. (2019) in that they
indicate that in reflective self-talk interventions,
participants are required to decide when to use the
self-teachings that were covered in earlier sessions.
Targeted self-talk is optional in the context of reflective
self-talk interventions, whereas the use of signal words
is required in strategic self-talk interventions. As a
result, reflective self-talk interventions may result in a
decrease in the use of targeted self-talk (16).
The self-talk protocol's internal validity is
supported, on the whole, by the results of the self-talk
manipulation. The acquisition phase findings
demonstrated that both reflective and strategic self-
talk enhanced performance. In the final categories,
dart-throwing performance was positively correlated
with strategic self-talk as opposed to reflexive self-talk.
The results of this study support the benefit of strategic
self-talk and are in line with the findings of previous
studies (9,10,12,13), on the efficacy of these two self-talk
methods during the acquisition phase. The
interpretation of this finding suggests that attention
management plays a crucial part in the facilitation of
strategic self-talk, which is the foundation of self-
control. The degree of self-control one possesses may
be used to gauge their effectiveness in performance.
According to experimental research, those who
struggle to focus on relevant stimuli are more likely to
become distracted (23). The benefits of self-talk have
been discussed, including its ability to enhance
attentional processes (24) and manage internal and
external distractions. Thus, it appears from the current
research that educational strategic self-talk has
improved dart-throwing performance by enhancing
focus and decreasing distraction. Theodorakis et al.
(2000) noted that educational self-talk is more
beneficial for fine and precise activities like throwing
darts, but motivational self-talk is more beneficial for
gross motor abilities (requiring strength and
endurance). This observation is consistent with the
categories of motivational and educational self-talk.
The matching hypothesis was presented by Hardy
(2009), stating that motivational self-talk is more
efficient for activities requiring strength and
endurance, while educational self-talk is more effective
for tasks requiring precision and time (17). Participants
were able to identify painful events and develop
original self-talk expressions through the reflective
intervention. Literature reviews have demonstrated
the advantages of this strategy since athletes take
greater responsibility for their interventions (25). They
also appear to have connected self-talk to a good
experience and have reinforced this connection with
practice, considering that reflective self-talk contains
motivational elements. Thus, reflective self-talk may
raise emotional arousal, which in turn may raise effort
and enhance performance (26). Particularly when
contrasted with the large amount of research that has
already been done on signal word interventions,
reflective self-talk interventions are still in their
infancy. On the contrary, several therapeutic
paradigms, including cognitive behavioral
modification and rational emotive behavior therapy
(REBT), have been effectively used in the context of
sports (25,27), providing indirect support for the
efficacy of reflective self-talk therapies in sports. Both
reflective self-talk interventions and cognitive-
behavioral methods aim to uncover emotionally
charged automatic ideas in athletes, increase their
awareness of internal dialogue and organic self-talk,
and, in the event of inefficiency, replace these thoughts
with applied self-learning (22).
The current study's findings demonstrated that
improving one's retention and strategic self-talk at the
end of the acquisition phase improved one's dart-
throwing ability; which no similar research has been
conducted in this field. Consequently, self-talk is a
more behavior-oriented procedure than reflective
interventions that involve more complicated mental
processes since it is a technique meant to
communicate a message by indicators that are
predefined and employed based on a specified plan. To
put it succinctly, strategic self-talk refers to the use of
prearranged and trained self-talk signals intended to
elicit a certain response and, consequently, fulfill a
particular function, such as triggering mechanisms
that enhance performance or help achieve self-
regulation objectives. Sports performance is impacted
by strategic self-talk because it directs attention.
Approaches that address the restricted capacity of
attention might justify the function of attention,
specifically, the efficiency of attention in challenging
settings, taking into account both the physical
demands and the importance of attention in sports.
Distractions of any kind, internal or external, are
minimized, and the processing of relevant signals is
constrained (28). Strategic self-talk signals can be
useful in preventing or lessening the severity of
distracting stimuli, protecting attention resources in
the process. Additionally, replenishing attentional
resources can assist in mitigating the negative
consequences of weariness. These characteristics might
lessen the negative impact that unfavorable conditions
have on attention processes and, in turn, performance.
To promote learning and enhance performance,
researchers employ educational self-talk signals in
strategic self-talk interventions (Latinjak, et al., 2010).
Intrigued by the possible use of self-talk signals, these
researchers tried to demonstrate that acquiring skills
and improving athletic performance could be achieved
by the repeated use of instructional signal words.
Meanwhile, other researchers have expressed rather
different views about the function of educational self-
talk signals in learning and performance.
The current study's findings demonstrated that, in
the transfer test, reflective self-talk, as opposed to
strategic self-talk, resulted in better dart-throwing skill
acquisition. That is, reflective self-talk performed better
under conditions of task complexity. This finding may
be explained by stating that reflective self-talk
interventions, in whatever form, are invariably athlete-
focused. These abilities, in turn, facilitate the
development of non-judgmental self-awareness, which
is followed by logical and experiential reasoning to
challenge, adjust, and replace self-regulatory
strategies. It is said to be beneficial for raising
awareness and sharpening one's intellect when
addressing problems (Ninan, 2008). According to

Ustun & Şeker
Phys. Act. Child. 2024; 1(1):e459699. 37
Latinjak et al. (2016), reflective self-talk interventions
enhance sensitivity to problem-related psychological
abilities and promote awareness of psychological
issues, both of which aid in self-regulation. Given that
the task's complexity has increased the obstacles
throughout the transition period, it appears that
students who engaged in reflective self-talk were better
equipped to handle these worries and challenges and
were able to adjust to changing circumstances during
the test. They also outperformed students who
engaged in strategic self-talk by retaining self-
confidence, increasing motivation, and managing
their emotions. For instance, the positive effects of
reflective interventions on participants' motivation,
emotions, and self-confidence both inside and outside
of the domain of athletic life has been well established
(22). Developing the "inner coach" is the particular goal
of reflective self-talk interventions. To help
practitioners become more effective and self-directed
self-talkers beyond the duration of the intervention
utilized, they, therefore, concentrate on strengthening
metacognitive abilities (e.g., planning, monitoring,
and evaluating thoughts) (29). One of the present
study's limitations is the children's weak information
processing, which required the researcher to
continually remind them of self-talk phrases.
Furthermore, as dart throwing was done in a school
setting, the ambient aspects of the institution could
have had an impact on the participants' performance.
This study was limited to male students. Finally, it is
recommended that future researchers investigate
reflective self-talk at different educational levels and
incorporate self-talk as circumstances and
consequences in their studies.
4.1. Conclusions
The results of this study emphasize the positive effect
of strategic and reflective self-talk on motor
performance and learning. But the important issue of
this research was to conduct it in school children,
because self-talk studies in the field of physical
education, especially at this age, are very limited.
Therefore, physical education teachers in schools are
recommended to use this psychological skill in
teaching movement skills.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to all participants who
participated in this research.
Footnotes
Authors’ Contribution: Study concept and design: DU.
U; S. R. Acquisition of data: S. R. Analysis and
interpretation of data: DU. U. Drafting of the
manuscript: DU. U; S. R. Critical revision of the
manuscript for important intellectual content: DU. U.
Statistical analysis: DU. U. Administrative, technical,
and material support: S. Study supervision: DU. U; S. R.
Conflict of Interests: The researcher confirms that there
is no conflict of interests in this study with any
participant.
Data Availability: The data that support the findings of
this study are openly available upon request from the
corresponding author.
Ethical Approval: Approval for this study was obtained
from the university. The author confirms that all steps .
The requirements of this study comply with ethical
guidelines. Participants were informed about the
characteristics of the study and gave written informed
consent.
Funding/Support: This research received no external
funding.
Informed Consent: Informed written consent was
obtained from all participants.
Supplementary Information accompanies this paper at
doi: 10.61186/PACH.2024.459699.1010
ORCID iD
Umit Dogan Ustun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1610-
2840
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