A comprehensive and in-depth study of the threats faced by smart cities and the countermeasures implemented in their key areas

Abstract

A smart city focuses on enhancing and interconnecting facilities and services through digital technology to offer convenient services for both people and businesses. The basic infrastructure of smart cities consists of modern technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing and artificial intelligence. These urban areas utilize different networks, such as the Internet and IoT, to share real-time information, improving convenience for the inhabitants. However, the reliance of smart cities on modern technologies exposes them to a range of organized, diverse, and sophisticated cyber threats. Therefore, prioritizing cybersecurity awareness and implementing appropriate measures and solutions are essential to protect the privacy and security of citizens. This study aims to identify cyber threats and their impact on smart cities, as well as the methods and measures required for key areas such as smart government, smart healthcare, smart mobility, smart environment, smart economy, smart living, and smart people. Furthermore, this study seeks to evaluate previous research in this field, establish necessary policies to mitigate these threats, and propose an appropriate model for the infrastructure associated with IT networks in smart cities.

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Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i10.8629
1
Article
A comprehensive and in-depth study of the threats faced by smart cities and
the countermeasures implemented in their key areas
Mehdi Houichi1,*, Faouzi Jaidi2,3, Adel Bouhoula4
1 Higher School of Communication of Tunis (Sup’Com) LR18TIC01 Digital Security Research Lab, University of Carthage, Tunis 2083, Tunisia
2 Higher School of Communication of Tunis (Sup’Com), Innov’Com Lab\Digital Security Research Lab, University of Carthage, Tunis 2083,
Tunisia
3 National School of Engineers of Carthage, University of Carthage, Tunis 2035, Tunisia
4 Information Technology Department, Arabian Gulf University, Manama 4363, Bahrain
* Corresponding author: Mehdi Houichi, mehdi.houichi@supcom.tn
Abstract: A smart city focuses on enhancing and interconnecting facilities and services
through digital technology to offer convenient services for both people and businesses. The
basic infrastructure of smart cities consists of modern technologies such as the Internet of
Things (IoT), cloud computing and artificial intelligence. These urban areas utilize different
networks, such as the Internet and IoT, to share real-time information, improving
convenience for the inhabitants. However, the reliance of smart cities on modern
technologies exposes them to a range of organized, diverse, and sophisticated cyber threats.
Therefore, prioritizing cybersecurity awareness and implementing appropriate measures and
solutions are essential to protect the privacy and security of citizens. This study aims to
identify cyber threats and their impact on smart cities, as well as the methods and measures
required for key areas such as smart government, smart healthcare, smart mobility, smart
environment, smart economy, smart living, and smart people. Furthermore, this study seeks
to evaluate previous research in this field, establish necessary policies to mitigate these
threats, and propose an appropriate model for the infrastructure associated with IT networks
in smart cities.
Keywords:
smart city; digital technology; cybersecurity; privacy; Internet of Things
1. Introduction
A smart city embodies an urban landscape where modern digital technologies
converge to enrich various facets of urban life for its inhabitants (Stratigea et al.,
2015). Creating smart and sustainable infrastructure in cities depends on the
development of information technologies (ICT), including the Internet of Things
(IoT), sensors, artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, Web 4.0 technologies and smart
grids Central to this concept is the utilization of ICT infrastructure to gather, analyze,
and harness data for informed decision-making and streamlined service delivery
(Gracias et al., 2023). These cities prioritize sustainability by optimizing resource
utilization, reducing pollution, and advocating for eco-friendly practices (Sodiq et al.,
2019). Embracing a citizen-centric approach, they actively involve residents and
ensure accessible and responsive service provision. Collaboration among
government entities, the private sector, academic institutions, and community
stakeholders’ fosters innovation, driving continual enhancement and adaptation to
evolving urban challenges. As urbanization accelerates and the population increases,
the significance of smart cities in tackling common urban challenges like congestion,
CITATION
Houichi M, Jaidi F, Bouhoula A.
(2024). A comprehensive and in-
depth study of the threats faced by
smart cities and the countermeasures
implemented in their key areas.
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and
Development. 8(10): 8629.
https://doi.org/10.24294/jipd.v8i10.8629
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 15 August 2024
Accepted: 10 September 2024
Available online: 29 September 2024
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2024 by author(s).
Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and
Development is published by EnPress
Publisher, LLC. This work is licensed
under the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/4.0/

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
2
pollution, and infrastructure deficiencies grows (Shahidehpour et al., 2018). These
cities serve as catalysts for economic growth, attracting investments, fostering
entrepreneurship, and generating job opportunities. In line with the Sustainable
Development Goals, smart cities actively contribute to sustainable development,
resilience, and inclusive growth, thereby enhancing the overall quality of life. Many
countries such as Dubai, Tokyo, Singapore, Hong Kong, Seoul, Helsinki, London
and Riyadh, and India are currently making efforts to transform many cities into
smart cities. It is especially worth noting that Saudi Arabia has invested up to 5
billion US dollars in the development of the new NEOM smart city (Satterthwaite,
2007). Riyadh, located in Saudi Arabia, is implementing anti-speeding traffic
management measures, including the deployment of traffic control systems (ITS),
including various devices and closed-circuit television (CCTV). Advanced analytics
are employed to analyze traffic data historically, in real-time, and predictively,
enabling the reporting of incidents and traffic conditions within the framework of
traffic control units (Kim et al., 2023). Numerous emerging technologies are being
integrated to streamline the evolution into smart cities, although their adoption also
introduces inherent risks. A case in point is the deployment of sophisticated
technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT) in smart homes, aimed at offering
enhanced functionalities and convenience. Nevertheless, they also contain
vulnerabilities that hackers can exploit to remotely control smart home systems. This
experiment underscores the vulnerability of Z-Wave technology, commonly
employed in smart home systems. In this instance, researchers demonstrated how an
attacker could remotely open a smart door and disable the smart valve alert, thereby
concealing a fire hazard within the house without the user’s knowledge (Kim et al.,
2020). While smart mobility offers residents of smart cities enhanced freedom of
movement, it also presents a potential risk to life if exploited by attackers (Kim et al.,
2021). During the Black Hat conference, researchers successfully showcased the
remote hacking of an autonomous vehicle, leading to the forced activation of the
brakes while in motion (Miller and Valasek, 2015). Hence, the targeting of a pivotal
element within a smart city by a cyberattack could potentially lead to substantial
harm to both individuals and assets. Notably, state-sponsored hackers leveraging
advanced tools such as ransomware have emerged as significant threats to the
integrity and security of smart cities (Ji-Young et al., 2019). Attacks targeting the
fundamental infrastructure of smart cities not only serve the interests of cyber
attackers but also benefit cybercriminals. By exploiting vulnerabilities in smart
homes, cybercriminals can remotely control door locks or car key fobs to gain
unauthorized access.
Moreover, the proliferation of the Internet of Things (IoT) exposes new
vulnerabilities for intruders and other hostile actors to exploit. With billions of
interconnected “things” deployed in smart cities worldwide, there exists a multitude
of potential vulnerabilities and techniques that can be utilized (Sharma and Arya,
2023). Expanding on the aforementioned points, information security is paramount
in smart cities to ensure heightened levels of confidentiality, availability, and
integrity (Ismagilova et al., 2020). Additionally, it ensures the stability required by
national services and organizations to maintain and improve livable intelligent
environments. While smart cities aim to enhance productivity and efficiency,

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neglecting cybersecurity could pose significant risks to residents and authorities. In
summary, the primary security challenges faced by smart city environments are as
follows:
A vast and intricate attack surface: As cities progress in sophistication, they will
incorporate a larger array of systems and “systems of systems,” amplifying the risk
and consequences of potential attacks, thus necessitating improved control and
visibility measures (Törngren and Grogan, 2018). Moreover, the integration of
vendor solutions introduces complexity to intelligent city systems, particularly
during periods of rapid technological advancement.
Insufficient supervision and organization: Complex systems will require
stronger management and governance capabilities. Providing comprehensive updates
to leadership about complex incidents will demand additional resources and
capabilities.
In light of the ever-evolving cyber threats, researchers need to share info about
risks and ways to prevent and respond to them. Smart cities offer big economic
opportunities, but with more devices connecting, cyber attackers have more chances
to strike. So, securing these cities means teamwork between local governments and
businesses that rely on them. We also need to focus on identifying and protecting
crucial assets, and setting up basic security rules to keep things running smoothly.
Remember, a city’s smartness is judged by how well it handles governance,
transportation, environment, living conditions, healthcare, economy, and its people.
It’s crucial to ensure these areas meet minimum standards, quickly fix any problems,
and keep private info safe from public networks
The structure of this paper is outlined as follows: In Section 2, we delve into
foundational concepts pertinent to smart cities, including their benefits and
architecture. Section 3 offers a comprehensive examination of the main threats,
attacks, and countermeasures within the domains of smart city networks, elucidating
their functionality and proposing effective solutions drawn from recent literature.
Section 4 presents an analysis of cybersecurity threats in smart cities and
corresponding countermeasures. Finally, Section 5 synthesizes the principal findings
derived from our investigation, concluding with a discussion on potential avenues for
future research.
2. Literature review of smart cities
The primary objective of constructing smart cities is to elevate the living
standards of residents. To achieve this goal, a smart city optimizes its resources and
establishes an intelligent ecosystem through digital technology. This encompasses
the creation of inventive urban transportation systems, improvements to water supply
and waste management infrastructure, and the adoption of more effective approaches
for illuminating and heating buildings. Furthermore, it entails devising creative
approaches to promote democracy and citizen participation in decision-making
processes. Moreover, it involves guaranteeing a clean and secure environment,
providing accessible public spaces, and offering user-friendly financial services that
cater to the needs of the population without any restrictions or exclusions. It’s

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important to note that this integration is accomplished through the optimal utilization
of ICT, transforming residents into smart citizens of a smart city.
2.1. Smart city applications
The rise of smart city technology has led to the development of sectors such as
public services and traffic management, transportation, energy, water, healthcare and
waste management. Smart cities integrate a wide range of Internet of Things (IoT)
devices, from parking sensors and health monitoring to urban noise mapping, traffic
control, route coordination and smart lighting (Angelidou et al., 2018). These sensors
leverage IoT technology to operate seamlessly within the infrastructure of smart
cities. Moreover, the cloud acts as a central hub for storing and processing data
generated by smart city operations. Typically, smart city applications encompass
various sections, as depicted in Figure 1 which illustrates the core components of a
smart city, which include smart governance, smart education, smart buildings, smart
transportation, smart energy, and smart healthcare. Each of these components
represents a key sector within a smart city that relies on advanced technologies and
interconnected systems to improve urban living.
Figure 1. Smart city applications.
a. Smart government: Smart government requires the use of information and
communication technology (ICT) to improve various aspects of public
administration, including planning, management and operations (Houichi et al.,
2021). Broadly speaking, it is about the integration of ICT at various levels of
government for the purpose of providing effective information and better service to
citizens. Smart government represents an evolution from traditional e-government
practices towards more advanced and interconnected systems. By leveraging
instantaneous data, smart government initiatives aim to improve situational
awareness, enhance emergency response capabilities, reduce crime rates, and
enhance overall municipal services (Dou et al., 2023).

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b. Smart healthcare: Smart medicine involves the use of modern technologies
such as wearable devices, Internet of Things (IoT), and mobile Internet to quickly
access information (Amin and Hossain, 2020). It facilitates the seamless connection
between individuals, healthcare facilities, and institutions, thereby enabling more
efficient management of healthcare needs. These strategies include key entities such
as doctors, patients, hospitals and medical research institutions. Smart healthcare; It
covers a variety of dimensions, including disease prevention, patient monitoring,
better diagnosis and treatment, better hospital management, healthcare decision-
making, and advances in medical research. Remote monitoring is possible through a
wireless network that connects smart devices to healthcare facilities and enables real-
time data analysis (Dağtaş et al., 2008). The implementation process of smart
healthcare within a smart city framework is depicted in Figure 2, which illustrates
the flow of information between patients, healthcare centers, and caregivers, using
various IoT devices such as sensors, cameras, GPS, Zigbee, Bluetooth, and others,
all interconnected through the internet. The figure highlights how both formal and
informal caregivers can monitor and manage patient health remotely, ensuring
efficient and responsive healthcare delivery.
Figure 2. Smart healthcare concept (Zamel and Naif, 2023).
c. Smart energy: The existing energy grid infrastructure is struggling to keep up
with the increasing demands of communities. There’s a pressing need for a more
reliable, scalable, manageable, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective energy
production system, leading to the development of a smart and modern energy grid
(Markovic et al., 2013). This advanced grid, empowered by information and
communication technology, allows for bi-directional communication and flow of
electricity among various grid components. It enables real-time monitoring, ensuring
efficient power distribution between the grid and consumers. Moreover, it promotes
the adoption of renewable energy sources, thus contributing to environmental
sustainability.
d. Smart transportation: In contemporary traffic management systems, the
objective is to optimize the utilization of existing infrastructure by integrating
modern technologies. This integration seeks to boost network efficiency, ensure the

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safety of vehicles and pedestrians, and minimize travel time. Meeting these goals
entails deploying efficient transportation systems along with effective management
protocols. Smart transportation systems provide various advantages, including the
mitigation of traffic congestion, enhancement of safety measures, time-saving
benefits, reduced fuel consumption, and overall improvement in service quality
(Jeong et al., 2021). The main components of the system include the monitoring and
recording system, weather information system, driver warning system, vehicle
information system and automatic safety and police system for increased security.
According to the ERSI definition, intelligent transportation systems are classified
into four groups: practical measures to prevent road safety, location-based services,
development of collaborative communication and global Internet services (Mun et al.,
2009). Traffic Private networks play an important role in the efficient transportation
system consisting of a high-speed vehicle network (Xia et al., 2021). The
implementation process of smart transportation in a smart city is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Smart transportation systems (Boukerche and Coutinho, 2019).
e. Smart building: Smart buildings employ a range of technologies including
sensors and grid systems to enable communication among various building
equipment (Jia et al., 2019). Additionally, they utilize smart meters to track energy
consumption and transmit data to the smart grid. These buildings are designed to
adjust their energy consumption according to the capabilities of the smart grid, while
also allowing building owners to control equipment remotely. The interaction
between smart buildings and the smart grid is essential to achieve the basic goals of
the smart grid. This collaboration offers many benefits, including responsive
feedback, better feedback, climax, and energy sharing. In general, the technical skills
of construction consist of two main parts: construction technology and external
technology.
In addition to the above-mentioned architectural features and functions of the
smart city, factors such as smart economy, security, logistics, education and
environment can also be included in the smart building process. Figure 4 shows the

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smart building and its components and illustrates the key components of a smart
building, including sensors and actuators, networking and communication systems,
software platforms, HVAC systems, and smart control devices (Silva et al., 2018).
Figure 4. Smart building and its components (Zhuang et al., 2020).
f. Discussion: The progression of smart cities signifies a notable stride in
improving the quality of life for urban dwellers. Smart cities aim to improve resource
use, improve service delivery and promote sustainable development through the use
of digital technologies and innovative solutions. The integration of various smart city
activities emphasizes a holistic approach to achieving these goals. A key advantage
of smart cities lies in the seamless integration of information and communication
technologies (ICTs) across various sectors, resulting in more effective governance
and service delivery. However, these advancements also bring forth challenges,
particularly in the domain of cybersecurity.
As smart cities continue to expand their interconnectedness, they become
increasingly vulnerable to cyber threats and attacks. The enormous amount of data
generated and transmitted in the urban environment creates an attractive target for
criminals looking to exploit security vulnerabilities. These concerns cover a wide
range of issues, from data breaches to identity theft to disruptions in critical
infrastructure and services. Additionally, the dependence on IoT devices and cloud
computing creates additional opportunities for cyber-attacks and requires strong
cybersecurity measures to protect private data and maintain the integrity of smart
city operations. Concerns such as data privacy, network security, and combating
cyber threats need to be comprehensively addressed to reduce risks and maintain
public and stakeholder trust. As a result, while smart cities hold promise for
improving the quality of urban life, they also pose serious cybersecurity challenges
that require effective measures. By implementing strong security measures such as
encryption, protocol authentication, and regular security assessments, smart cities
can better manage risk and ensure their digital infrastructures thrive against cyber
threats.

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2.2. Smart city architecture
In order to thoroughly explore and grasp the concept of smart cities, it was
essential to identify their foundational components. Through a comprehensive
review of pertinent literature, we outlined the essential elements of smart cities, as
depicted in Figure 5.
As illustrated in Figure 5, smart cities can be conceptualized within four
distinct layers. Positioned at the top of this hierarchy is the provision of services and
applications specifically designed for the inhabitants of smart cities. Below this
uppermost layer are the technological infrastructure, network communication
systems, and interconnected devices. Within the service and application layer, four
primary subcategories emerged: smart transportation, smart communities, smart
living, and smart environments.
Figure 5. Smart city architecture.
Smart transportation encompasses aspects such as smart parking and intelligent
mobility, while smart communities encompass domains like smart economy and
efficient governance. Additionally, the domain of smart living can be further divided
into key areas, including smart healthcare, smart individuals, smart residences, and
smart education. Finally, the category of smart environments encompasses sectors
such as smart factories, smart buildings, and intelligent energy management, each
contributing significantly to the overall framework of a smart city.
a. Service and application layer: Smart city services and applications are
designed with the overarching goal of enriching the lives of residents within these
urban environments (Rehan, 2023). Leveraging advanced technologies, these
services streamline access to urban amenities and utilities, ensuring efficient and
convenient utilization. Within the realm of transportation, smart systems offer a
diverse array of services, ranging from optimizing travel routes and sharing real-time
traffic updates to facilitating car and bike-sharing programs, thereby enhancing the
efficiency and accessibility of public transportation (Anwar and Oakil, 2023).
Moreover, smart solutions address parking challenges by providing citizens with
tools to identify available parking spaces swiftly. From a governmental standpoint,
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) fosters transparency, community
engagement, and effective crowd management, enabling swift responses to

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emergency situations based on real-time public data (Van Hoang, 2024). Smart
economy initiatives bolster labor market flexibility, regional productivity, and
competitiveness, further enhancing the economic landscape. Smart living services
empower residents to exchange real-time information, enabling them to address daily
challenges efficiently while fostering connectivity within the community. Health and
wellness are prioritized through remote monitoring and e-health services, delivering
personalized medical care to citizens (Miranda et al., 2024). In the realm of home
automation, smart systems empower users to remotely control IoT-enabled
appliances, fostering convenience and energy efficiency (Putra et al., 2024).
Additionally, urban infrastructure is optimized to enhance convenience, while
educational systems embrace technology to offer flexible learning options.
Environmental development is the mainstay of smart city initiatives, with digital
energy management systems that facilitate time control and improve energy
consumption and waste management. This dynamic approach promotes energy and
environmental sustainability in smart city programs (La Barbera, 2023). However,
many benefits provided by smart city technology also bring concerns about cyber
security. The increase in attacks against city services highlight the need for strong
security measures to protect the system and maintain public safety. To effectively
deal with emerging threats on the internet, police strategies need to change with a
strong emphasis on data analytics in future police operations (Ahmad et al., 2024).
b. Technology Layer: In addressing diverse challenges within smart cities,
cutting-edge technologies play crucial roles by leveraging the abundance of
generated data in efficient and secure ways. At the forefront is the Internet of Things
(IoT), which forms the basis for the development of urban infrastructure by
connecting various ICT tools and offering new solutions (Egbert and Leese, 2021).
Research projects have investigated the use of IoT technologies in different areas of
the smart city, including pollution management (Syed et al., 2021). Infrastructure
and cloud are examples of smart cities where data fragmentation has become a major
problem (De Nicola and Villani, 2021). Real-time data collection is enabled by
sensors in IoT devices such as RFID, infrared (IR), GPS, and laser scanners that are
fed into the cloud or storage, allowing remote control and management of devices
(Houichi et al., 2022). Artificial Intelligence (AI) is rapidly evolving to provide
complex services swiftly and efficiently, catering to both small-scale elements like
smart homes and large-scale infrastructure such as smart transportation (Raj et al.,
2022). Big data technology serves as a cornerstone for AI, facilitating the collection
and analysis of vast datasets generated in smart cities, empowering AI to make
informed decisions and predictions. Furthermore, blockchain and deep learning
technologies hold promise for enhancing automation services, allowing for
autonomous data learning and decision-making (Liu et al., 2020). Authentication
technology, viewed through a blockchain lens, is also under scrutiny for smart city
applications (Rejeb et al., 2021). Yet, privacy and security concerns pose significant
challenges as data traverses various sectors within smart cities. Blockchain seems to
be a possible solution that provides autonomy through smart contracts and
decentralized management, increasing the security of smart city operations (Waseem
et al., 2023). Additionally, cybersecurity research is being conducted to address
issues related to augmented reality (AR) technology in the smart city (Böhm et al.,

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
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2021). Perception of smart city technology depends on factors such as your
experience, data privacy and security. When tangible benefits, such as good public
services, are clearly visible, users are more likely to discover good smart city
applications.
c. Network communication layer: Networking is a pillar of smart cities and
facilitates seamless interaction of different activities and services. Applications
necessitating short-range communication, such as smart grids, water services, and
energy-efficient buildings, typically leverage IEEE 802.15.4 (Zigbee), offering
longevity with minimal energy consumption. Alternatively, IEEE 802.15.1
(Bluetooth) can serve similar purposes, ensuring efficient communication (Zanaj et
al., 2021). For broader coverage and higher data rates, protocols like IEEE
802.11a/b/g/n find widespread use across smart city systems. The latest iteration,
IEEE 802.11n, operates across 2.4 and 5.1 GHz bands, employing advanced
techniques like OFDM and DSSS to enhance performance. Moreover, it facilitates
reservation-based operations through PCFs and best-effort operations via DCFs,
catering to diverse data traffic requirements, including real-time multimedia
(Chandramouli et al., 2019). In scenarios requiring cellular connectivity, 3G and 4G
protocols prove instrumental, offering packet switching for data and voice
communication. LTE, an advanced cellular technology, ensures global coverage
through roaming capabilities. Additionally, satellite communications are used in
applications such as UAVs, network monitoring and people transportation. It uses
frequencies of 1.53 and 31 GHz and uses TDMA and FDMA in the data link for
continuous transmission (Routray and Mohanty, 2021). Narrow-band technologies
emerge as efficient solutions for supporting numerous IoT devices within smart city
infrastructures, including grids and meters. However, despite their efficacy, security
remains a concern, rendering them vulnerable to cyber threats. To address this, ICN
routers are proposed for smart home networks, offering enhanced content
distribution and cybersecurity through increased caching capacities (Pruthvi et al.,
2023). Protecting wireless sensor networks (WSNs) within smart cities is paramount,
prompting research into anomaly detection technology and the development of attack
classification frameworks (Kanellopoulos et al., 2023a). These endeavors underscore
the critical importance of cybersecurity in safeguarding the integrity and
functionality of smart city networks.
d. Device and sensor layer: Devices and sensors are essential parts of smart
cities, enabling the integration of smart devices embedded in sensors and motors.
These tools play an important role in measuring, collecting and managing various
data (Kanellopoulos et al., 2023b). Data pertaining to citizen activities, parking
availability, and environmental conditions like light, noise, temperature, and
humidity are seamlessly gathered through IoT sensors and amalgamated via ICT
infrastructure (Rajendran et al., 2022). Citizens interface with this wealth of data
through tangible devices such as wearables and smartphones, enabling visual access
and control. Concurrently, equipped facilities leverage IoT sensors to monitor and
analyze real-time data, tailoring their responses to specific needs and objectives. The
emergence of smart city sensing heralds a transformative shift towards more
intelligent urban services, with extensive research exploring its current and historical
implications (Mortaheb and Jankowski, 2023. Despite the unparalleled connectivity

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afforded by the widespread adoption of IoT devices, concerns persist regarding the
security of end-node devices. This heightened connectivity, while enabling advanced
services, necessitates a renewed focus on confidentiality and security measures to
mitigate potential vulnerabilities and safeguard interconnected smart devices (James
and Rabbi, 2023).
e. Discussion: The breakdown of smart city infrastructure into distinct layers
offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex nature of these
urban environments. At the heart of smart cities are intricate networks of
interconnected devices and sensors, facilitating the seamless collection, analysis, and
utilization of vast data sets. This infrastructure supports a diverse range of services
and applications aimed at improving residents’ quality of life while promoting
sustainability and efficiency across various sectors. The utilization of Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) forms the backbone of smart city initiatives,
enabling real-time data exchange, automation, and connectivity. However, the
widespread integration of ICT also brings significant cybersecurity challenges. As
smart cities rely more on interconnected digital systems, they become increasingly
vulnerable to cyber threats and attacks. Malicious actors may exploit vulnerabilities
in smart city infrastructure to gain unauthorized access, disrupt services, or
compromise sensitive data, posing risks to citizen safety and privacy. The extensive
deployment of IoT devices, cloud platforms, artificial intelligence, and big data
analytics within smart city environments creates numerous entry points for
cyberattacks. While these technologies offer significant benefits in terms of
efficiency and innovation, they also introduce new avenues for exploitation if not
adequately secured. Concerns such as data privacy, network security, and resilience
against cyber threats must be addressed proactively to safeguard smart city
infrastructure and maintain public trust. Moreover, the interconnected nature of
smart city systems complicates cybersecurity efforts, necessitating a holistic
approach to risk management and mitigation. Policymakers, urban planners, and
cybersecurity professionals must collaborate to develop robust cybersecurity
strategies tailored to the unique challenges posed by smart city environments. This
may involve implementing encryption protocols, authentication mechanisms, and
intrusion detection systems to detect and thwart cyber threats in real-time.
In conclusion, while ICT plays a crucial role in driving the advancement of
smart cities, it also introduces inherent cybersecurity risks that must be effectively
addressed. By prioritizing cybersecurity awareness, investing in resilient
infrastructure, and fostering collaboration between stakeholders, smart cities can
mitigate risks and ensure the continued safety, security, and sustainability of urban
environments in the digital age.
3. Advances in smart city security
3.1. Literature review
In recent years, the significance of cybersecurity threats in the digital realm has
become increasingly apparent, evidenced by numerous incidents directly impacting
the security of nations and individuals (Khan, 2023). The evolution of digital

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technologies and cyberspace has not only revolutionized the way tasks are
accomplished, but it has also reshaped power dynamics on national and international
scales (Valencia Rojas, 2023). This shift in paradigm emphasizes the vital
importance of information systems, digital communication, and the wider digital
landscape in enabling well-informed decision-making processes. While we now
possess the capability to generate and manage vast amounts of information, the
security of this data has never been more precarious. To ensure the sustainability and
competitiveness of global infrastructures, significant investments have been directed
towards fortifying digital resources against security threats (Krishna et al., 2023).
Hassan et al (Hassan et al., 2024). highlight the interconnected nature of the modern
world, emphasizing the imperative of safeguarding information systems, both public
and private, to support organizational activities and maintain consumer trust. Indeed,
as noted by Marin et al., organizations demonstrating a robust commitment to
information security can foster enduring relationships with customers, a crucial
aspect also underscored in the context of smart city adoption (Marín Díaz et al.,
2023). Information security encompasses diverse domains, primarily focusing on
safeguarding data and information from unauthorized access, misuse, or alteration.
Ensuring confidentiality is paramount, particularly concerning sensitive data such as
personal or financial information, to mitigate risks of identity theft or reputational
damage. Furthermore, maintaining data integrity is essential to preserve accuracy
and reliability, preventing erroneous decisions or process errors (Duggineni, 2023).
Conversely, guaranteeing data availability is imperative to mitigate disruptions
caused by technical failures, cyber-attacks, or natural disasters, as underscored al
(Tahmasebi, 2024). Within the context of smart cities, the repercussions of
compromised data availability extend beyond inconvenience, impacting various
facets of urban life, including citizen welfare, economic stability, and public safety.
Thus, prioritizing robust information security measures is indispensable to
safeguarding the integrity and functionality of smart city infrastructures and ensuring
their resilience in the face of evolving cyber threats (Ahmad et al., 2024b). The
intersection of information security, information science and technology creates a
complex and interconnected environment. At the heart of this environment is data
science, an interdisciplinary field focused on extracting knowledge and insight from
data using techniques such as collection, cleaning, analysis, visualization and
modelling. Technology serves as a basis for information security and information
science, allowing them to be developed and integrated into modern infrastructure
(Adeleye et al., 2024). Technological advances have led to the growth of digital data
and the development of advanced tools and algorithms to process and analyze data
effectively. Key technologies that support information security and information
science include big data networking, cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI),
machine learning (ML), image encryption, and networking and communications
(Siripurapu et al., 2023). As Varghese (Varghese, 2024). highlights, the cloud has
become a transformative force in organizations, revolutionizing data storage,
accessibility, and processing capabilities. Cloud services offer scalable infrastructure
capable of accommodating vast datasets and hosting data science applications and
security solutions. Cloud providers maintain extensive data centers equipped with
diverse resources, enabling dynamic allocation and reallocation of computing

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13
resources based on demand. Elasticity is a hallmark feature of cloud platforms,
allowing for automatic adjustment of resources to meet fluctuating workloads. This
flexibility allows users to scale resources up or down as needed without being
constrained by physical hardware investments. Additionally, dynamic scaling
ensures efficient resource utilization and cost-effectiveness (Kavitha et al., 2023).
The convergence of cloud computing and machine learning offers unparalleled
opportunities for scalable and flexible solutions in processing, analyzing, and
deploying AI-powered applications. Integrating machine learning with cloud
computing infrastructure facilitates the training of complex models and the
processing of large datasets (Li et al., 2024). ICT plays an important role in the
creation of smart cities that integrate infrastructure, architecture, objects and people
to improve and solve social, economic and environmental problems. Technologies
such as cloud computing, big data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain
and Internet of Things (IoT) form the basis of smart city initiatives. Security in smart
cities is considered a dynamic concept that includes both digital and physical
components to protect directly and indirectly. Security as a critical factor influences
technology acceptance, emphasizing its multifaceted nature that extends beyond
technical considerations to encompass subjective perceptions and human behavior.
The adoption of emerging technologies in smart cities fuels innovation and
underpins the development of smart environments, governance, and economies
(Nastjuk et al., 2022). Indeed, technology and innovation are integral to the fabric of
smart cities, distinguishing them from traditional urban centers. However,
dependence on advanced technology and a high degree of interoperability make
smart cities vulnerable to technological overload. Protecting infrastructure, systems,
and data from malicious activity is critical to the security, privacy, and reliability of
smart city services. Therefore, it is urgent to find and implement effective mitigation
strategies to address these problems. It is important to note that, although the security
and privacy issues facing smart cities are not entirely new, they are intensified in
relation to the nature of urban environments (Rizi and Seno, 2022). The proliferation
of thousands of devices and applications aimed at enhancing processes and citizen
well-being introduces vulnerabilities related to security and privacy. The risks
associated with smart systems driven by artificial intelligence, which not only collect
sensitive information but also wield control over city infrastructure, influence the
lives of citizens (Zamponi and Barbierato, 2022). Empirical studies, including
European projects, acknowledge the inherent challenges posed by big data, data
analytics, artificial intelligence, and machine learning in the context of smart city
development (Bibri et al., 2023). Security embodies a dynamic concept,
characterized by proactive measures aimed at averting harm through digital and
physical avenues, encompassing both direct and indirect threats. In the context of
smart cities, security is a holistic concern, addressing all facets of urban life and
permeating every aspect of its infrastructure. Thus, safety in smart cities transcends
mere technical parameters, intertwining with human behavior and subjective
experiences (Houichi et al., 2023). Cybersecurity is critical to protecting critical
infrastructure, systems and resources that play a vital role in the lives and well-being
of communities. Electricity-using infrastructures, transportation networks, water
treatment plants, communication systems and more need to be fully protected against

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cyber threats to prevent outages, unauthorized access or destruction and possible
damage to the city. Therefore, cybersecurity considerations, including adherence to
best security practices, critical risk assessment, and establishment of appropriate
controls, should be integrated into the design and planning of critical infrastructure
from the outset (Nurthen, 2023).
In conclusion, the discourse on cybersecurity within the context of smart cities
underscores the growing significance of safeguarding digital infrastructures against
evolving threats. The digital transformation of urban environments has
revolutionized societal processes and economic landscapes, necessitating robust
security measures to protect critical data and infrastructure. We have explored the
multifaceted nature of cybersecurity, encompassing aspects of information security,
data integrity, and system availability. Moreover, the convergence of technology,
data science, and innovation has paved the way for scalable solutions in addressing
cybersecurity challenges, particularly in the domains of cloud computing, artificial
intelligence, and machine learning. Our review has highlighted the intricate interplay
between technological advancements, governance frameworks, and societal
perceptions in shaping the security landscape of smart cities. The dynamic nature of
cybersecurity demands proactive measures and continuous adaptation to mitigate
risks and vulnerabilities. As we move forward, it is imperative to delve deeper into
existing research and solutions in this domain, examining their efficacy and
relevance in real-world smart city deployments. By studying the diverse works and
solutions implemented thus far, we can glean valuable insights and best practices to
inform future strategies for enhancing cybersecurity resilience in smart urban
environments.
3.2. Existent solutions for cybersecurity in smart city
In this section, we embark on an analytical exploration of existing research and
solutions tailored to fortifying the security infrastructure of smart cities. Our
approach is anchored in the utilization of prior studies and initiatives, serving as a
foundation for our analytical endeavors. As we delve into this investigation, our aim
is to leverage the insights and findings from previous research to inform and enrich
our own methodologies and conclusions, particularly focusing on existing solutions
developed by researchers. Several security and privacy solutions have been
introduced and are actively employed to address the pressing threats concerning
security and privacy within smart environments as illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Solutions for cybersecurity in smart city.

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a. Blockchain: Blockchain technology stands as a transformative force, offering
decentralized and distributed solutions crucial for the advancement of smart cities.
This peer-to-peer technique serves as a cornerstone for securely storing transactions,
agreements, and contracts across myriad computers, fundamentally reshaping how
data is managed within urban environments. Originally conceived for
cryptocurrencies like bitcoin and litecoin, blockchain has swiftly evolved to become
a linchpin in the pursuit of robust cybersecurity and privacy in smart city
infrastructures. Its decentralized architecture, highlighted in a comprehensive survey
by Singh et al., underscores its indispensability in fostering trust and reliability within
IoT ecosystems crucial for smart city development (Singh et al., 2023). The
decentralized nature of blockchain technology not only facilitates secure and
transparent communication among interconnected devices but also empowers diverse
applications to operate in a distributed manner. Pioneering research, exemplified by
Beng and Zhu blockchain-based security framework for smart cities, showcases its
pivotal role in fortifying communication networks and enhancing system resilience
(Meng and Zhu, 2024). Moreover, blockchain’s integration into various domains,
including vehicular communications, personal data management, and cloud-based
applications, underscores its versatility and adaptability in addressing multifaceted
cybersecurity challenges prevalent in smart urban environments. Furthermore, El
Majdoubi et al.’s blockchain-based access controls provide a robust framework for
data owners to manage access rights securely, ensuring the preservation of users’
privacy in smart city ecosystems (El Majdoubi et al., 2020). In essence, blockchain
technology emerges as a linchpin in the quest to fortify cybersecurity and privacy in
smart cities. Its transformative potential extends far beyond traditional applications,
offering scalable and decentralized solutions essential for building resilient and
secure urban environments capable of withstanding evolving cyber threats. Through
its innovative capabilities, blockchain promises to revolutionize the landscape of
smart city development, fostering trust, reliability, and resilience in the digital age
(Singh et al., 2020).
b. Cryptography: Algorithms employing cryptography techniques serve as the
bedrock for safeguarding security and privacy within information-centric smart city
applications, ensuring that unauthorized parties are barred from accessing data
during storage, transmission, and processing. This section explores the existing
cryptographic tools used in smart city applications. Traditional encryption algorithms
and standards, despite their robustness, often fall short for resource-constrained
smart devices due to high energy consumption and computational demands (Singh et
al., 2021). Consequently, there is a crucial need for lightweight encryption methods
suitable for practical cryptographic algorithm implementations. For example,
(Azzedin, 2023) proposed a mechanism designed for IoT-based scenarios that
enhances end-to-end communication security by protecting against distributed
Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. Similarly, (Lansky et al., 2022) developed a
lightweight authentication protocol leveraging public key encryption strategies to
fortify security in smart city applications. Moreover, the emergence of homomorphic
encryption has garnered significant attention owing to its prowess in performing
computations on encrypted data (Nguyen et al., 2024). This technique is especially
crucial in the evolving landscape of data processing within cloud environments,

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where data needs to be processed without decryption to maintain its security.
Homomorphic encryption enables computations on encrypted data without exposing
it, ensuring that privacy and security are preserved even during processing. This
encryption technique finds utility in diverse domains, ranging from safeguarding
electricity consumption in Smart Grid (SG) systems to addressing security and
privacy concerns in cloud computing and healthcare monitoring systems.
Furthermore, cryptographic approaches play a pivotal role in enhancing security and
privacy in cloud-based data storage environments, significantly bolstering data
security, especially in public cloud environments. These techniques also lend support
to well-established privacy preservation algorithms, enabling precise analysis results.
However, it’s imperative to acknowledge the susceptibility of cryptographic
algorithms to attacks, such as simple power analysis, which can manipulate data
integrity and device performance. Consequently, rigorous research into
cryptographic algorithms is essential to ensure data security and privacy.
Additionally, cryptography offers viable solutions for addressing privacy leakage
stemming from public access policies (Yang et al., 2020).
c. Biometrics: Biometrics serve as a prevalent method for authentication within
IoT-based infrastructures, relying on human behavioral traits to automatically
identify individuals using bio-data extracted from various sources such as faces,
fingerprints, signatures, and voices (Silasai and Khowfa, 2020). Among these
methods, brainwave-based authentication stands out for its remarkable accuracy and
efficiency (Sooriyaarachchi et al., 2020). Panda et al. proposed a mutual
authentication protocol to safeguard user privacy in storage devices effectively
(Panda and Chattopadhyay, 2020). However, it is crucial to acknowledge the
heightened risk of privacy breaches if biometric approaches are not implemented
correctly (Yang et al., 2021). Furthermore, the potential of biometrics extends
beyond authentication, with promising applications in diverse fields such as e-
business. In the realm of cybersecurity, biometrics can also play a pivotal role in
securing communication channels, as demonstrated by Rahman et al. Their study
proposed a cost-effective safety mechanism based on biometrics for unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) to detect and respond to cyberattacks effectively (Rahman et al.,
2024). This approach showcases the versatility of biometrics in addressing
cybersecurity challenges across various scenarios, emphasizing its potential
significance in ensuring the security and integrity of IoT-based systems.
d. Machine learning and data mining: Machine learning, a subset of artificial
intelligence, focuses on developing systems capable of learning from past
experiences. In the realm of smart cities, machine learning techniques offer
significant potential for enhancing various aspects of the smart city ecosystem,
including cybersecurity, traffic management, resource allocation, and more.
Specifically, in cybersecurity, machine learning techniques present promising
opportunities to enhance the efficiency of intrusion detection systems in IoT
environments, which are integral to smart cities. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
play a crucial role in monitoring and managing urban infrastructures. For instance,
Ahmad et al. demonstrated the benefits of using machine learning technologies to
improve security in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) (Ahmad et al., 2022).
Similarly, Bakshi et al. pioneered a machine-based approach to strengthen data

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sensing security in WSNs (Bakshi and Sahu, 2022). Additionally, AlQahtani et al.
created a novel model utilizing machine learning algorithms to effectively detect
attacks in Wi-Fi networks (AlQahtani et al., 2024). Moreover, machine learning
technologies have been crucial in bolstering defense strategies against intrusions.
Belavagi et al. developed a model that integrates game theory and machine learning
to detect and prevent intrusions in WSNs, highlighting the synergy between these
fields in cybersecurity (Belavagi and Muniyal, 2021).
Beyond cybersecurity, machine learning can be employed in predictive
maintenance of urban infrastructure, optimizing energy consumption in smart grids,
and enhancing public safety through real-time surveillance systems. Various
machine learning techniques, including supervised and unsupervised learning, show
promise in identifying the presence of botnets. However, challenges such as real-
time monitoring and adaptability to new attacks persist in machine learning-based
detection methods, emphasizing the need for continuous innovation and research.
Data mining offers another approach for managing security and privacy
concerns in smart city environments. Lofgran et al. illustrated how vast datasets
collected by sensors in smart cities can be utilized to extract valuable insights and
regulations, thereby enhancing service delivery (Löfgren and Webster, 2020).
Nevertheless, the use of data mining techniques raises concerns about the potential
disclosure of sensitive user information, such as location data. To address this issue,
privacy-preserving data mining techniques can be employed to protect user privacy
while still deriving actionable insights from collected data, ensuring that smart city
initiatives remain secure and privacy-conscious.
e. Internet of Things regulations: The Internet of Things (IoT) encompasses a
diverse range of communication technologies, including machine-to-machine
communication, sensors, wireless communication, and radio frequency identification.
Despite its rapid expansion, the IoT industry currently lacks comprehensive
regulation, resulting in significant security and privacy concerns (Karale, 2021). The
widespread use of unsecured smart devices across various sectors, such as military
and healthcare, combined with the susceptibility of IoT devices to hacking, has led to
the emergence of new cyberattacks exploiting vulnerabilities across all layers of the
IoT protocol stack. Although the IoT industry has long been aware of these security
and privacy challenges, recent cyberattacks on IoT devices have heightened the
awareness of the critical need for robust security measures and regulatory
frameworks (Ahmed and Khan, 2023). These attacks have served as a catalyst,
highlighting the imperative for implementing stringent security mechanisms and
regulations to safeguard internet-connected devices effectively.
f. Discussion: In this section, we conducted an in-depth analysis of existing
research and solutions aimed at bolstering the security infrastructure of smart cities.
Through the examination of prior studies and initiatives, we aimed to glean insights
and enrich our own methodologies and conclusions, with a particular focus on
solutions developed by researchers. Our exploration covered several key areas,
including blockchain technology, cryptography, biometrics, machine learning, data
mining, and IoT regulations. We found that blockchain technology stands out as a
transformative force in enhancing cybersecurity and privacy within smart cities.
With its decentralized architecture and versatility, blockchain offers scalable and

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distributed solutions crucial for building resilient urban environments. Cryptography
techniques play a pivotal role in safeguarding data integrity and confidentiality,
albeit with challenges such as energy consumption and susceptibility to attacks.
Biometrics offer promising authentication methods, with applications extending
beyond traditional authentication to areas such as e-business and UAV security.
Machine learning and data mining techniques present opportunities for enhancing
intrusion detection systems and extracting valuable insights from sensor data.
However, challenges such as real-time monitoring and privacy concerns necessitate
further research and development. Additionally, the lack of comprehensive
regulations governing IoT devices underscores the urgent need for robust security
measures and regulatory frameworks to safeguard internet-connected devices
effectively. Overall, while significant research efforts have been devoted to
enhancing the security of smart cities, continued evolution and improvement of
stakeholders and technical solutions are imperative. Collaborative efforts among
researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders are essential to address
emerging cybersecurity challenges and ensure the resilience and security of smart
city infrastructures in the face of evolving threats.
4. Analysis of cybersecurity threats in smart cities and
corresponding countermeasures
4.1. Cybersecurity risks in smart cities
Cybersecurity risks within smart cities are multifaceted and diverse, owing to
the wide array of technologies and interconnected systems present. In this section,
we delve into a comprehensive analysis of these risks, drawing insights from
extensive research in the field. By identifying and understanding the various threats,
we can develop effective countermeasures to fortify the security infrastructure of
smart cities. Through our analysis, we have categorized cybersecurity risks in smart
cities into distinct domains, each presenting unique challenges and vulnerabilities.
Through our analysis, we have categorized cybersecurity risks in smart cities into
distinct domains, each presenting unique challenges and vulnerabilities. These
domains include access control, which encompasses threats related to unauthorized
access to sensitive systems and data, posing risks to confidentiality and integrity.
Network vulnerabilities arise from weaknesses in network infrastructure, such as
vulnerabilities in communication protocols and data transmission mechanisms. Data
privacy concerns revolve around the protection of personal and sensitive information,
safeguarding against unauthorized disclosure or misuse. Vulnerabilities associated
with Internet of Things (IoT) devices, including insecure configurations, lack of
encryption, and susceptibility to remote attacks, constitute another significant
domain. Infrastructure vulnerabilities arise from weaknesses in physical systems,
including power grids, transportation networks, and communication systems.
Challenges related to human factors, such as user negligence, social engineering
attacks, and insider threats, are attributed to human behavior.
Additionally, issues concerning the absence of standardized security protocols
and regulations contribute to inconsistencies and gaps in cybersecurity frameworks,

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forming the domain of security standards and regulation. Our analysis employs a
structured framework to systematically examine each domain of cybersecurity risk
within smart cities.
By delineating the specific threats and vulnerabilities within each category, we
gain deeper insights into the underlying challenges and potential impact on urban
environments. the analysis underscores the critical importance of addressing
cybersecurity threats in smart cities comprehensively. By understanding the diverse
nature of these risks and their implications across different domains, stakeholders
can implement targeted countermeasures to mitigate vulnerabilities and enhance the
resilience of urban infrastructures. The detailed classification of risks presented in
Figure 7 serves as a valuable reference for policymakers, urban planners, and
cybersecurity professionals in devising effective strategies to protect smart cities
against evolving cyber threats.
Figure 7. Map of cybersecurity risks in smart city.
a. Access control deficiencies: Access control is a critical domain within the
realm of cybersecurity, especially in the context of smart cities, where the
interconnectedness of various systems and devices creates vulnerabilities that could
be exploited by malicious actors (Demertzi et al., 2023). One significant risk is
unauthorized physical access, where individuals gain physical access to critical
infrastructure or devices, potentially compromising their security. In a smart city
environment, this could lead to disruptions in essential services or even endanger
public safety (Petrova and Tairov, 2022). Additionally, the access control
mechanisms for public services need to be robust to prevent unauthorized individuals
from accessing sensitive data or resources, safeguarding the privacy and security of
citizens. Using good behavior is another important aspect of managing smart cities.
With the large amount of data provided by sensors and related devices, the problem
of misuse or ineffective access to this data arises, leading to privacy violations or
other illegal activities (Jaïdi et al., 2018). Effective controls are needed to ensure that
data is used accurately and in accordance with legal guidelines. Retailers and third
parties pose another major security challenge in smart cities. Many smart city
projects are dependent on third-party suppliers for various services and technologies,
increasing the risk of security breaches or data leaks if appropriate controls are not in
place (Telo, 2023). It is essential to vet and monitor third-party access carefully,

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implementing robust access control measures to mitigate these risks effectively.
Research in the domain of access control in smart cities has focused on developing
advanced authentication and authorization mechanisms to enhance security. Kalunga
et al. use a biometric authentication method to strengthen access control for critical
infrastructure and public services (Kalunga et al., 2020). Additionally, Ghorbel et al.
use blockchain technology to create tamper-proof access logs and audit trails,
improving transparency and accountability in access control processes (Ghorbel et
al., 2022). Furthermore, research has emphasized the importance of adopting a
comprehensive approach to access control, considering both technical and
organizational factors. This includes establishing effective access management
policies and procedures, conducting regular security audits and assessments, and
providing ongoing training and awareness to staff and stakeholders. Overall,
addressing cybersecurity issues in access management is essential to ensure the
integrity, confidentiality, and availability of information and services in smart cities.
By leveraging research-driven solutions and adopting best practices in access control
management, smart city stakeholders can strengthen their cybersecurity posture and
build trust among citizens and partners. Securing the access to sensitive data and
services in critical infrastructures as a main objective is a great challenge for deploying
secure smart cities that requires setting up trusted security policies (Remotti, 2021).
while security solutions have to remain compliant and regularly updated to follow and
track the evolution of security threats (Xia et al., 2023). To improve access control in
urban environments, it is important to adopt a comprehensive approach that includes
access detection, authentication and authorization, secure resource management, and
performance-based auditing. Firstly, deploying robust intrusion detection systems
allows for the timely detection of unauthorized access attempts or suspicious
activities, enabling quick response and mitigation. Second, implementing strong
authentication and authorization processes reduces the risk of unauthorized access by
ensuring that only authorized users have access to systems and private data. Thirdly,
practicing secure device management helps ensure that IoT devices are properly
configured, updated, and monitored to prevent potential vulnerabilities and
unauthorized access points. Finally, using role-based controls provides better control
of user rights and permissions, ensuring that people only access the tools necessary
for their role. By integrating these mitigation strategies, smart cities can significantly
enhance their access control mechanisms and bolster overall cybersecurity posture.
b. Infrastructure vulnerabilities: Infrastructure vulnerabilities represent a
significant cybersecurity concern in smart cities, as they encompass various
components essential for the functioning of urban systems. One area of vulnerability
is sensors, which collect data from the environment and transmit it to control systems
for analysis and decision-making. These sensors are susceptible to cyber-attacks,
which could result in the manipulation or spoofing of sensor data, leading to
inaccurate insights and potentially harmful decisions (Jaïdi et al., 2016). Furthermore,
compromised sensors could be exploited to gain unauthorized access to critical
infrastructure or to launch attacks on other systems within the smart city ecosystem
(Saber and Mazri, 2021). Control systems, which manage and regulate various
processes and devices in smart cities, are also vulnerable to cyber threats. These
systems often rely on interconnected networks and communication protocols,

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making them susceptible to unauthorized access, manipulation, or disruption. Cyber-
attacks targeting control systems could result in the disruption of essential services,
such as transportation, utilities, or emergency response systems, posing significant
risks to public safety and well-being (Shawe and McAndrew, 2023). Energy
efficiency initiatives in smart cities, while beneficial for sustainability and cost
savings, can also introduce cybersecurity vulnerabilities. Smart energy grids and
systems rely on interconnected devices and networks to optimize energy usage and
distribution. However, these systems are susceptible to cyber-attacks that could
disrupt energy supply, cause power outages, or manipulate energy consumption data
(Hemmati and Faraji, 2022). Ensuring the security and resilience of smart energy
infrastructure is critical to maintaining reliable and efficient energy services in smart
cities. Networks serve as the backbone of smart city infrastructure, facilitating
communication and data exchange among diverse devices and systems. However,
the interconnected nature of these networks also exposes them to cyber threats such
as unauthorized access, data breaches, and denial of service. Safeguarding smart city
networks necessitates robust encryption, access control, and monitoring mechanisms
to efficiently detect and counter potential threats. Research into infrastructure
vulnerabilities in smart cities has focused on developing innovative solutions to
bolster cybersecurity and resilience. Mehdi et al. use machine learning algorithms to
detect anomalies in sensor data, allowing early detection of cyber attacks or system
failures (Houichi et al., 2021b). Additionally, Omotunde implemented secure
communication protocols and encryption techniques to shield control systems and
networks from unauthorized access and data tampering. Additionally, the study
highlights the importance of integrating security considerations into the design and
development of smart city infrastructure from the very beginning. This involves
conducting thorough risk assessments, adhering to security-by-design principles, and
adopting standards and best practices for securing critical infrastructure components.
By addressing infrastructure threats and using research-based solutions, smart cities
can increase cybersecurity and reduce the risk of emerging threats. To effectively
combat an infrastructure crisis, a holistic approach focusing on vulnerability
assessment, risk management planning, behavioral vulnerability and regular
monitoring is essential. Routine assessments help identify vulnerabilities in physical
infrastructures such as electrical grids, transportation networks, and
telecommunications systems, allowing effective mitigation measures to be taken
before they can be exploited by attackers.
Second, developing a robust risk management plan allows city officials to set
priorities and effectively allocate resources to address identified vulnerabilities.
Thirdly, employing ethical hacking practices enables security professionals to
simulate cyberattacks and uncover potential security flaws, allowing for proactive
remediation efforts. Finally, implementing continuous monitoring mechanisms
ensures that any security incidents or anomalies are promptly detected and addressed,
thereby enhancing the overall resilience of smart city infrastructure. By adopting
these mitigation strategies, smart cities can strengthen their infrastructure resilience
and mitigate the impact of potential cyber threats.
c. Network vulnerabilities: Network barriers pose serious threats to
cybersecurity in smart cities, including many threats that can compromise the

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integrity, confidentiality, and availability of information and services. Among these
threats, Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks
stand out. These attacks seek to inundate smart city networks and infrastructure with
a deluge of malicious traffic, effectively rendering them inaccessible to legitimate
users (Omotunde and Ahmed, 2023). These attacks can disrupt essential services,
such as transportation systems, emergency response networks, or public utilities,
leading to widespread inconvenience and potential safety hazards. Interception of
communications represents another critical network vulnerability in smart cities, as it
involves the unauthorized monitoring or eavesdropping on data transmissions
between devices and systems (Tahirkheli et al., 2021). Cyber-attackers may exploit
weaknesses in network protocols or encryption mechanisms to intercept sensitive
information, such as personal data, financial transactions, or surveillance footage.
This compromises the privacy and confidentiality of communications, potentially
leading to identity theft, fraud, or surveillance abuses (Winn and Govern, 2009).
Unauthorized access to smart city networks and systems poses a significant
cybersecurity risk, as it allows malicious actors to gain unauthorized entry into
critical infrastructure or sensitive data repositories. Attackers can exploit weaknesses
in network security controls, such as weak passwords, unsupported software, or
malicious hardware, to bypass authentication and gain privileged access (Apata et al.,
2023). Once inside the network, attackers can escalate their privileges, steal data, or
launch further cyber-attacks, causing widespread disruption and damage.
Interoperability issues present another challenge in smart city networks, as they
involve the seamless integration and communication between diverse systems and
devices from different vendors or manufacturers (Kayode-Ajala, 2023).
Incompatibilities or misconfigurations in network protocols or standards can create
vulnerabilities that attackers may exploit to compromise the integrity or reliability of
interconnected systems. Moreover, interoperability challenges can hinder the timely
detection and response to cyber threats, exacerbating the risk of successful attacks
(Rao and Subbarao, 2024). Research in the field of network vulnerabilities within
smart cities has concentrated on devising advanced security measures and
technologies to effectively mitigate these risks. Rao et al proposed new methods to
detect and mitigate denial of service (DoS) and distributed denial of service (DDoS).
This approach involves the use of machine learning-based anomaly detection
algorithms and traffic filtering techniques (Abdulelah and Mustafa, 2020).
Additionally, Abdulelah used advanced security protocols such as Transport Layer
Security (TLS) to protect communication and data privacy (Ismagilova et al., 2022).
Additionally, the study highlights the importance of implementing robust access
control mechanisms and authentication protocols to prevent unauthorized access to
smart city networks. This includes multi-factor authentication, role-based
authentication (RBAC), and biometric authentication to authenticate users and
devices accessing network resources. Additionally, there’s an emphasis on the
necessity for comprehensive vulnerability management programs and regular
security audits to pinpoint and rectify potential security weaknesses in smart city
networks effectively. To effectively address network vulnerabilities within smart city
infrastructures, it’s essential to implement comprehensive risk assessment
methodologies and robust prevention systems. Regular risk assessments enable

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organizations to identify and prioritize potential vulnerabilities within their network
infrastructure. By analyzing the threat landscape and assessing the likelihood and
impact of various cyber threats, organizations can proactively identify vulnerabilities
and allocate resources accordingly to mitigate risks. Additionally, deploying
advanced prevention systems, such as intrusion prevention systems (IPS) and
firewalls, helps fortify network defenses and block malicious activities in real-time.
These systems can detect and prevent unauthorized access attempts, malware
infections, and other cyber threats and improve the overall effectiveness of smart city
networks. By combining risk assessment practices with robust prevention systems,
organizations can effectively mitigate network vulnerabilities and safeguard critical
assets and data within smart city environments.
d. Data privacy leak: Data privacy represents a critical domain in cybersecurity
risks within smart cities, encompassing various threats to the confidentiality,
integrity, and control of sensitive data collected and processed within urban
environments (Ribeiro-Navarrete et al., 2021). Data collection is a major challenge
as smart city operations collect large amounts of data from sensors, control systems,
and related devices. This information includes personal information about
individuals and location information, which raises privacy concerns regarding
acquisition, storage, and use (Lima et al., 2021). Unauthorized or excessive
collection of data may violate individual rights and increase the risk of data breach or
misuse. Data security is another key to data privacy in smart cities, focusing on
protecting collected data from unauthorized access, disclosure, or tampering (Hasan
et al., 2022). Weaknesses in data security measures, such as inadequate encryption,
insecure storage practices, or vulnerabilities in data transmission protocols, can
expose sensitive information to cyber threats (Shukla et al., 2022).
This presents substantial risks, such as identity theft, financial fraud, or
unauthorized surveillance. Ensuring robust data security controls and encryption
mechanisms is essential for mitigating these risks and safeguarding the
confidentiality and integrity of data in smart city environments (Babikian, 2023).
Data sharing and control present additional challenges in maintaining data privacy
within smart cities, as they involve the dissemination and governance of collected
data among various stakeholders, including government agencies, service providers,
and third-party vendors. Poorly defined data sharing policies or insufficient access
controls can lead to unauthorized data disclosures or breaches of privacy.
Additionally, lack of transparency and user control over data sharing practices can
erode public trust and confidence in smart city initiatives. Establishing guidelines
and procedures for data sharing and giving individuals greater control over their data
is important to adhere to privacy principles and respect user rights (Froomkin and
Colangelo, 2020). Personal and location data pose specific privacy risks in smart city
environments, as they provide insights into individuals’ behaviors, movements, and
preferences. Access to or misuse of personal information and location may result in
inbound tracking, profiling or targeted advertising, compromising privacy and
independence. Additionally, collecting and analyzing personal data from multiple
sources raises concerns about data aggregation and re-identification, potentially
leading to compromised privacy or discrimination (Rizi and Seno, 2022).
Implementation of privacy-enhancing technologies, such as anonymization

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techniques, multi-layered privacy, or data sharing methods, can help reduce these
effects and protect people’s privacy in smart city projects (Pratomo et al., 2023).
Research on information privacy in smart cities tries to solve these problems with
new solutions and methods to improve information and privacy. Pratomo et al.
proposed effective detection and anonymization methods to obtain sensitive data and
reduce the risk of unauthorized access or disclosure (Brauneck et al., 2023). In
addition, Brauneck explored the use of privacy-enhancing technology as an
integrated approach to enable data analysis and protection of individual privacy
(Pasandi, 2024). Additionally, the study highlights the importance of following
privacy principles and conducting privacy impact assessments (PIAs) to integrate
privacy considerations into the development and deployment of smart city
technology. This involves integrating privacy controls, such as granular consent
mechanisms or purpose limitations, into data collection and processing workflows to
ensure adherence to privacy regulations and standards. By leveraging research-
driven methodologies and best practices, smart cities can bolster data privacy
safeguards, mitigate privacy risks, and cultivate trust and confidence among
residents regarding the responsible handling of their personal data (Zhou et al., 2018).
Successfully addressing environmental privacy issues in a smart city requires a
proactive approach to privacy using design principles. Implementing privacy by
design means integrating privacy considerations into system design and operation
from the beginning. By incorporating privacy and control-enhancing features into
smart city infrastructure, organizations can reduce the risk of data breaches and
compliance. Additionally, implementing mitigation measures helps limit the
collection, storage and processing of personal and sensitive information to what is
strictly necessary for the intended purpose. Open data practices, such as providing
clear and easily accessible privacy policies and consent procedures, increase trust
and enable people to make informed choices about their data. Further more, granting
users control over their data through robust authentication and authorization
mechanisms, along with providing rights such as access, rectification, and deletion of
personal information, enhances transparency and accountability. Embracing these
mitigation strategies enables organizations to uphold data privacy principles and
safeguard the rights and interests of individuals within smart city ecosystems.
e. IoT devices issues: The proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices
poses a serious security problem in urban environments, as these connected devices
often do not have strong security measures and these devices remain vulnerable to
various cyber attacks (Sizov, 2024). One of the main concerns is the prevalence of
inefficient authentication mechanisms for IoT devices, which provide opportunities
for malicious actors to gain unauthorized access. Common problems include the use
of passwords or simple passwords and lack of authentication; This makes IoT
devices vulnerable to trust-based attacks such as brute force attacks or legitimate
objects (Bhardwaj et al., 2024). Additionally, vulnerabilities inherent in IoT devices
pose a considerable risk to smart city cybersecurity, as these devices may harbor
software bugs, design flaws, or outdated firmware that attackers can exploit to
compromise their security (Rafique et al., 2020). Such vulnerabilities may manifest
in various forms, including remote code execution, privilege escalation, or denial-of-
service (DoS) attacks, potentially allowing adversaries to seize control of IoT

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
25
devices or disrupt their normal functioning. The heterogeneous nature of IoT
ecosystems further complicates vulnerability management, as different devices may
have diverse software stacks and update mechanisms, making it challenging to
ensure timely patching and mitigation of vulnerabilities (Lounis and Zulkernine,
2020). Insecure communication channels represent a critical security weakness in
IoT devices deployed across smart city infrastructures. Many IoT devices transmit
data over insecure protocols or unencrypted communication channels, exposing
sensitive information to interception or tampering by eavesdroppers or malicious
entities. Moreover, the absence of secure communication mechanisms exposes IoT
devices to man-in-the-middle attacks, wherein adversaries can intercept and alter
data exchanged between devices and backend systems, jeopardizing the
confidentiality and integrity of transmitted data (Fan et al., 2023). Furthermore,
supply chain attacks represent a substantial risk to the security of IoT devices in
smart cities, given that these devices are frequently produced by third-party vendors
and depend on intricate supply chains. Adversaries may target the supply chain to
inject malicious hardware or software components into IoT devices during the
manufacturing or distribution process, compromising their security and integrity.
Such attacks can have far-reaching consequences, allowing attackers to establish
persistent backdoors, steal sensitive data, or launch large-scale botnet attacks
leveraging compromised IoT devices. Furthermore, the lack of security awareness
among IoT device manufacturers, developers, and end-users exacerbates
cybersecurity risks in smart city deployments (Xenofontos et al., 2021). Many IoT
devices are designed with limited consideration for security best practices,
prioritizing functionality and cost-effectiveness over security. Additionally, end-
users may lack awareness of the security implications associated with IoT devices,
leading to poor configuration practices or failure to apply security updates, leaving
devices vulnerable to exploitation (Guerar et al., 2020). Research in the domain of
IoT device security has focused on addressing these vulnerabilities and mitigating
cybersecurity risks in smart city environments. Guerar have proposed enhanced
authentication mechanisms to strengthen access control and prevent unauthorized
access to IoT devices (Adel, 2023a). Moreover, research efforts have explored the
use of secure boot mechanisms, runtime integrity verification, and containerization
techniques to mitigate the impact of vulnerabilities and defend against supply chain
attacks. Furthermore, Yuvaraj implemented a secure communication protocol based
on Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt data sent between IoT devices and
backend systems, ensuring confidentiality and integrity. Additionally, researchers
have advocated for the adoption of security-by-design principles and security-
focused development frameworks to integrate security considerations into the entire
lifecycle of IoT devices, from design and development to deployment and operation.
By leveraging research-driven approaches and best practices, smart cities can
enhance the security of IoT devices, mitigate cybersecurity risks, and ensure the
integrity and resilience of their interconnected infrastructures. Additionally, many
recent activities require robotic systems such as Unmanned Ground Vehicles
(UGVs), terrestrial robots developed as an extension of human resources. These
UGVs can have their basic motion mechanisms, such as acceleration, braking, and
speed, controlled remotely, and with the integration of sensing and real-time

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
26
monitoring systems, they provide valuable tools for use in smart cities. This ideation
model is further enhanced by using a web application for front and back-end
management, creating a robust system for smart city applications (Vitunskaite et al.,
2019). To address security challenges associated with IoT devices in smart city
environments, implementing robust mitigation strategies is essential. Firstly,
ensuring secure access controls and protocols is essential to prevent unauthorized
access to IoT devices and sensitive data. By employing robust authentication
mechanisms and limiting access to authorized users, organizations can reduce the
likelihood of unauthorized manipulation or exploitation of IoT devices. Additionally,
deploying secure communications protocols, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS)
or Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS), encrypts data transmission between
IoT devices and backend systems, guarding against interception and tampering.
Moreover, implementing comprehensive security monitoring mechanisms enables
organizations to identify and respond to suspicious activities or anomalies in real-
time, enabling timely intervention to mitigate potential security breaches. By
integrating these mitigation measures, organizations can bolster the security posture
of IoT devices within smart city infrastructures, thereby minimizing risks and
ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of transmitted and processed data by these
devices.
f. Lack of security standards and regulation: Security standards play an
important role in reducing cybersecurity risks in urban environments, but there are
many problems that hinder their effectiveness (Atha et al., 2020). One significant
challenge is the fragmented development of security standards and regulations,
resulting in a lack of harmonization and consistency across different jurisdictions
and sectors. This fragmentation leads to confusion among stakeholders and may
create loopholes that adversaries can exploit to circumvent security measures.
Moreover, the rapid evolution of technology often outpaces the development of
relevant regulations, leaving smart city deployments vulnerable to emerging threats
that existing standards fail to address adequately (Izario et al., 2020). The integration
of legacy infrastructure poses another challenge to cybersecurity in smart cities, as
outdated systems may lack built-in security features and compatibility with modern
security standards. Legacy systems often rely on proprietary protocols or outdated
encryption algorithms, making them susceptible to exploitation by adversaries
(Benyahya et al., 2022). Additionally, the integration of legacy infrastructure with
newer, more secure systems can introduce vulnerabilities and create potential points
of entry for attackers to compromise the overall security posture of smart city
deployments. Compliance complexity adds another layer of challenge to
cybersecurity in smart cities, particularly concerning the diverse and overlapping
regulatory requirements that govern data privacy, cybersecurity, and critical
infrastructure protection (Scandizzo and Knudsen, 2024). Smart city stakeholders
face the challenge of navigating a complex regulatory environment, which demands
substantial resources and expertise to ensure compliance with relevant laws and
regulations. Additionally, the lack of clear and consistent regulatory guidelines may
result in compliance gaps or discrepancies, potentially exposing smart city initiatives
to legal and regulatory uncertainties. Regulatory challenges are increasing
cybersecurity concerns in smart cities, as regulators often struggle to keep up with

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
27
the rapid evolution of technology and emerging threats. Delays in updating
regulations or adapting them to new technological developments can create
regulatory gaps that adversaries can exploit to evade detection and prosecution.
Moreover, regulatory uncertainty may deter investment in cybersecurity initiatives,
as stakeholders may hesitate to commit resources to compliance efforts without clear
guidance from regulators (Lyon, 2020). Lack of expertise presents a final challenge
to effective cybersecurity regulation in smart cities, as many municipalities and
organizations lack the necessary knowledge and skills to navigate complex
regulatory requirements and implement robust security measures. The scarcity of
cybersecurity experts worsens this issue, as organizations find it challenging to
attract and retain skilled professionals capable of effectively addressing the
constantly evolving cybersecurity landscape (Adel, 2023b). Additionally, the
interdisciplinary nature of smart city cybersecurity requires collaboration among
various stakeholders, including policymakers, regulators, industry experts, and
cybersecurity professionals, further complicating efforts to develop and enforce
effective security standards and regulations (Asaju, 2024). Research on security and
regulation in smart cities has focused on addressing these issues and improving the
effectiveness of cybersecurity management. Asaju proposed frameworks for
harmonizing security standards and regulations across different jurisdictions,
facilitating interoperability and consistency in compliance efforts [145]. Moreover,
research efforts have explored the development of adaptive compliance frameworks
capable of dynamically adjusting to evolving regulatory requirements and
technological advancements, ensuring the resilience and agility of smart city
deployments in the face of regulatory challenges. Furthermore, researchers have
advocated for the development of cybersecurity capacity-building programs and
educational initiatives to address the lack of expertise in smart city cybersecurity. By
investing in training and professional development opportunities, municipalities and
organizations can empower their personnel with the knowledge and skills needed to
navigate regulatory complexities effectively and implement robust security measures
(Telo, 2023b). Additionally, the research focuses on the importance of stakeholder
collaboration and participation in regulatory processes so that regulatory frameworks
reflect the diverse needs and perspectives of stakeholders in a smart city. By
leveraging research-based approaches and best practices, smart cities can strengthen
cybersecurity governance frameworks, increase regulatory compliance, and reduce
cybersecurity risks. To effectively address security concerns and ensure robust
cybersecurity frameworks in smart city environments, it is imperative to adopt
comprehensive security standards and regulations. Firstly, the adoption of
international standards provides a solid foundation for cybersecurity practices,
aligning with globally recognized best practices and ensuring interoperability with
international partners. Additionally, implementing smart grid security standards
specifically tailored to the unique challenges of smart city infrastructures helps
mitigate risks associated with energy distribution and management systems,
safeguarding critical infrastructure against cyber threats. Moreover, articulating with
local and national frameworks enables smart city initiatives to adhere to regulatory
requirements and compliance mandates specific to their geographic regions. By
aligning with local and national cybersecurity frameworks, organizations can ensure

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
28
consistency and adherence to legal and regulatory obligations, thereby enhancing the
overall security posture of smart city ecosystems. These mitigation strategies
facilitate the establishment of robust security standards and regulations tailored to
the evolving threat landscape, ultimately contributing to the resilience and
sustainability of smart city infrastructures.
g. Human misbehavior: Human behavior plays a critical role in cybersecurity
risks within smart cities, with several common pitfalls posing significant challenges
to the overall security posture (Kitchin, 2016). Misconfiguration stands out as a
prominent risk factor, as human errors during the setup and configuration of smart
city systems can inadvertently expose vulnerabilities and weaken defenses. Whether
it’s improperly configured network settings or mismanaged access controls, these
misconfigurations can provide entry points for attackers to exploit and compromise
smart city infrastructure. Weak passwords are another prevalent issue in smart city
cybersecurity, as individuals often use easily guessable or reused passwords that are
susceptible to brute-force attacks. Despite awareness campaigns and best practices
advocating for strong, unique passwords, many users still prioritize convenience over
security, putting smart city systems at risk of unauthorized access and data breaches
(Abdel-Rahman, 2023). Moreover, the widespread adoption of default passwords
and the lack of password hygiene exacerbate this risk, underscoring the need for
robust password policies and user education initiatives. Software updates are
essential for maintaining the security of smart city infrastructure, yet human behavior
often presents barriers to timely patching and updates. Whether due to complacency,
ignorance, or logistical challenges, many individuals and organizations delay or
ignore software updates, leaving systems vulnerable to known exploits and
vulnerabilities (Bailey and Nyabola, 2021). This reluctance to update software can
have severe consequences in smart cities, where interconnected systems and devices
rely on up-to-date software to defend against evolving cyber threats. Dependency on
technology is another factor that influences human behavior and cybersecurity risks
in smart cities. As cities become increasingly reliant on technology to deliver
essential services and streamline operations, the consequences of technology failures
or cyber-attacks become more pronounced (Chaudhary, 2024). However, this
reliance on technology can also lead to complacency and overconfidence in the
resilience of smart city systems, potentially overlooking critical security gaps and
vulnerabilities. Digital exclusion presents a unique challenge to smart city
cybersecurity, as marginalized communities and individuals lacking access to digital
resources may be disproportionately impacted by cyber threats. The digital divide
exacerbates inequalities in cybersecurity resilience, leaving vulnerable populations at
greater risk of exploitation and harm. Moreover, digital exclusion can hinder efforts
to implement inclusive cybersecurity education and awareness initiatives, further
widening the gap between cybersecurity haves and have-nots. Research on human
behavior and cybersecurity in smart cities attempts to solve these problems through
technological solutions and ethical practices. Additionally, Chaudhary explored the
use of nudges and incentives to promote desirable cybersecurity behaviors, such as
timely software updates and adherence to security best practices. Furthermore,
researchers have advocated for the integration of cybersecurity education and
awareness initiatives into smart city planning and development efforts, ensuring that

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
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residents, businesses, and policymakers are equipped with the knowledge and skills
needed to mitigate cybersecurity risks effectively. By fostering a culture of
cybersecurity awareness and resilience, smart cities can empower individuals to
make informed decisions and take proactive steps to protect themselves and their
communities from cyber threats. Addressing cybersecurity risks stemming from
human behavior requires a multifaceted approach that combines education,
awareness, and ethical guidelines. First, investing in education and awareness
programs helps equip people with the knowledge and skills needed to effectively
detect and mitigate threats. Additionally, establishing ethical guidelines and
promoting ethical behavior among stakeholders fosters a culture of responsible
digital citizenship and accountability. Leveraging behavioral analytics and predictive
models enables organizations to identify and address potential security incidents
proactively, leveraging insights into user behavior to enhance threat detection and
response capabilities. Moreover, fostering collaboration and partnerships among
stakeholders encourages information sharing and collective action in combating
cyber threats. Lastly, engaging with the community promotes a sense of ownership
and responsibility for cybersecurity, fostering a collaborative environment where
individuals and organizations work together to safeguard smart city infrastructures.
By implementing these mitigation strategies, smart city initiatives can effectively
address cybersecurity risks associated with human behavior, creating a safer and
more resilient urban environment for all stakeholders.
4.2. NIST-based analysis
Diverse standards, models and frameworks are defined in literature for
incorporating trust-risk awareness solutions in smart cities infrastructures like the
NIST, ISO, FAIR frameworks (Shahzad et al., 2021). Risk Management (RM) based
approaches are key solutions for handling smart cities cyber security issues. RM
techniques consist mainly in the identification of cyber threats, the assessment of
their associated risks and the implementation of mitigation strategies. Within smart
city environments, it is highly recommended to consider adaptive and dynamic RM
approaches (Ksibi et al., 2023). taking benefits from AI techniques while preserving
the compliance with standards. In analyzing the cybersecurity threats in smart cities,
applying the NIST Risk Management Framework (NIST RMF) offers a structured
and methodical approach to managing and mitigating risks. The NIST RMF guides
smart cities through a lifecycle of risk management that includes preparation,
categorization, control selection, implementation, assessment, authorization, and
continuous monitoring. This approach not only enhances the security posture of
smart cities but also ensures alignment with industry standards and regulatory
requirements.
Preparation involves a comprehensive understanding of the smart city
ecosystem, identifying all critical assets and the relationships between interconnected
systems. For smart cities, this means mapping out components such as IoT devices,
data networks, and physical infrastructure. During this phase, it is essential to
anticipate potential threats, assess existing vulnerabilities, and prepare for effective
risk management strategies tailored to the city’s unique context.

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
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Categorization under the NIST RMF requires identifying the impact levels of
various systems and data within the smart city. This step helps prioritize security
efforts. For example, a breach in a smart grid system would be classified as high
impact due to its potential to disrupt essential services, whereas a breach in a public
information system might be lower in priority. By categorizing systems based on
their criticality, resources can be allocated efficiently, ensuring that the most
significant risks are addressed first.
Control selection is crucial in mitigating identified risks. In the context of smart
cities, selecting appropriate controls from the NIST SP 800-53 catalog allows for
targeted interventions. For example, employing strong access control measures, such
as multi-factor authentication, is vital to prevent unauthorized access to critical
infrastructure. Simultaneously, ensuring robust encryption protocols for data in
transit and at rest is essential to protect sensitive information. These controls should
be chosen with a focus on both preventive and detective measures, ensuring a
layered defense strategy.
Implementation of these controls must be integrated seamlessly into the existing
smart city infrastructure. This step goes beyond merely deploying technical
solutions—it involves ensuring that all stakeholders, from city administrators to end-
users, are aligned with the security objectives. For instance, regular updates and
patch management processes must be enforced across all IoT devices to minimize
vulnerabilities. Additionally, building security into the system design from the outset,
rather than as an afterthought, can significantly reduce potential risks.
Assessment within the NIST RMF is about verifying the effectiveness of the
implemented controls. In smart cities, this requires continuous vulnerability
assessments, penetration testing, and audits. For example, regularly testing the
resilience of critical infrastructure against simulated cyber-attacks can reveal
weaknesses that need addressing. This step is also an opportunity to refine and
enhance controls, ensuring they adapt to evolving threats.
Authorization involves a formal risk acceptance process, where smart city
systems are given the green light to operate based on their assessed risk levels. In
this context, city authorities must carefully evaluate whether the remaining risks are
within acceptable thresholds. This ensures that only systems that meet stringent
security requirements are allowed to operate, reducing the likelihood of catastrophic
failures.
Monitoring is an ongoing process, critical to the dynamic nature of
cybersecurity in smart cities. Continuous monitoring of networks, IoT devices, and
user activities allows for real-time detection of anomalies or malicious behavior.
Automated tools that provide alerts and enable swift responses to incidents are
essential in maintaining the security and resilience of smart city systems. Moreover,
continuous monitoring ensures that as the threat landscape evolves, smart cities can
adapt their security measures accordingly.
Through the application of the NIST RMF, smart cities can create a robust
cybersecurity framework that not only addresses immediate threats but also evolves
with the changing technological landscape. This ensures that smart cities remain
resilient and capable of protecting their critical infrastructures and citizens against
cyber threats.

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
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4.3. Recommendations
The opportunities for change are huge in the context of smart cities, where
technology and urban development merge. As we face the challenges of integrating
technology into urban environments, it is important to prioritize cybersecurity to
protect against emerging threats. To take full advantage of the smart city while
reducing cyber risks, the following recommendations are important:
Integrating Smart and Cyber City Strategies: Cities should develop
comprehensive security strategies that are compatible with the overall smart vision.
This involves conducting in-depth assessments to identify, evaluate and mitigate
risks associated with urban technology integration. By integrating cybersecurity
considerations into all aspects of smart city planning, cities can meet the challenge of
securing and verifying their digital infrastructure.
Cyber and data governance transformation: Establishing a strong governance
framework to manage information, assets and infrastructure is essential. Cities need
to define roles and responsibilities in the smart environment and promote multi-
institutional collaboration to effectively address technology challenges. Additionally,
effective partnerships with businesses, academia and industry can increase cyber
capacity, address knowledge gaps and increase cyber resilience.
Developing effective partnerships to improve cyber skills: With the ongoing
cyber skills gap, cities must use new methods to improve the cyber skills of their
citizens. Effective partnerships with service providers and new recruitment initiatives
can help cities increase their cyber capabilities and counter growing threats. By using
a collaborative approach to cybersecurity management, cities can leverage the
collective expertise of government, academia, and the private sector to better protect
themselves and respond effectively to cyber incidents.
As a result, the journey to realize the full potential of smart cities depends on
effectively managing cyber risks and creating a strong ecosystem. By prioritizing
cybersecurity, integrating smart city and cyber strategies, creating governance
frameworks, and developing effective partnerships, cities can meet the challenges of
the digital age and pave the way for a better urban future. As technology continues to
evolve, research and collaboration will be important to overcome these challenges
and ensure the long-term development of smart city initiatives.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we have explored cybersecurity challenges that smart cities face,
emphasizing the vulnerabilities inherent in the interconnected systems that define
these urban environments. While the integration of technologies such as IoT, AI, and
data analytics offers immense potential for enhancing urban life, it also introduces
significant risks, particularly in areas like access control, data privacy, network
security, and IoT device management. Our analysis underscored the need for
comprehensive cybersecurity frameworks that not only address current threats but
are also adaptable to future challenges. Looking ahead, future work should focus on
developing adaptive security systems that can dynamically respond to new and
emerging threats, leveraging AI and machine learning to anticipate and neutralize
attacks in real-time. Additionally, the exploration of advanced privacy-preserving

Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development 2024, 8(10), 8629.
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technologies, such as homomorphic encryption and differential privacy, is essential
for protecting sensitive data while enabling the data-driven insights crucial for smart
city operations. The development of global interoperability standards will be vital to
ensure secure and efficient communication across diverse systems within smart cities.
Addressing human factors in cybersecurity remains critical, with a focus on creating
user-friendly security solutions that promote cybersecurity awareness among citizens
and reduce the risk of human error. Furthermore, as smart cities continue to evolve,
the need for robust regulatory frameworks that can keep pace with technological
advancements becomes increasingly important. Future research must explore how
governments can develop and enforce regulations that balance innovation with
security. By addressing these areas, ongoing collaboration between policymakers,
industry stakeholders, and academia will be crucial in ensuring that smart cities are
secure, resilient, and capable of meeting the needs of their citizens.
Author contributions: Conceptualization, MH and FJ; methodology, MH; software,
MH; validation, MH, FJ and AB; formal analysis, MH; investigation, MH; resources,
MH; data curation, MH; writing—original draft preparation, MH; writing—review
and editing, MH; visualization, MH; supervision, FJ and AB; project administration,
MH; funding acquisition, FJ. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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