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A CONSERVATION ACTION PLAN FOR
CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS
JING MAO, CHUNBIN LI, CHENHAOJIA LIU, ZHONG ZHAO, XIANMAO FAN, JIE WANG, QINGHUA LUO, TIAN ZHAO, WENBO
WANG, FENG OUYANG, JIYONG WANG, ZHIGANG QIAO, ZHIQIANG LIANG, WUYING LIN, PEI WANG, DAJIE GONG, WEISHI
LIU, FANG YAN, ANDREW A. CUNNINGHAM, BENJAMIN TAPLEY, SAMUEL T. TURVEY, and AMAËL BORZÉE
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND
2.1 OVERVIEW OF SPECIES
2.2 DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION TRENDS
2.3 THREATS, POTENTIAL THREATS AND LIMITING FACTORS
2.4 EXTINCTION RISK
2.5 CULTURAL VALUES
2.6 CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT
3. LONG TERM RECOVERY STRATEGY 2024 – 2044
3.1 JUSTIFICATION
3.2 CONSERVATION OF CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS: BARRIERS, CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES
3.3 VISION, GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
3.4 UNDERSTANDING AND RANKING THREATS
3.5 PROJECTS AND ACTIVITY TABLES
4. REFERENCES
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
FOREWORD
The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) belongs to the Family Cryptobrachidae in the Order
Caudata of the Class Amphibia, it is endemic to China and commonly known as "wawa yü" in China. They
are called "living fossils" since their body structure has undergone no disnct changes in over 160 million
years. The Chinese giant salamander plays the role of a top predator in the freshwater ecosystem because
it sits at the top of the food chain, and therefore has important top-down eects on the ecosystem and
maintains the stability and balance of the ecosystem. Meanwhile, the Chinese giant salamander is a state
protected animal (grade II); in 1995, it was included on CITES appendix I; it is the Crically Endangered
species (CR) in the Red Book of Endangered Animals in 1998, and the Red List of Vertebrates in 2016 and
2021. Therefore, the Chinese giant salamander is a agship for amphibian conservaon.
The Chinese giant salamander is strongly aected by mulple factors, including habitat destrucon,
climate change, over exploraon, pathogens, environmental contaminaon and low genec diversity.
There are small populaons in the eld, but high abundance in the hatchery. The creaon of natural
reserves and reintroducon are the two main approaches to protect them. However, the eecveness of
these approaches is not so obvious, so we need improve our acons. Of which, greater collaboraon
between the dierent stakeholders is crically important. First, there is a need to carry out further surveys
of populaons in the eld and those held on farms to know the status of these populaons. This is the key
basic work to support the protecon of the Chinese giant salamander. The second is to understand the
genec relaonships between populaons and idenfy their lineages. The Chinese giant salamander is
now known to be comprised of seven dierent lineages, and some of them have been described as new
species, including A. sligoi, A. jiangxiensis, and A. cheni. Where each of these occur in nature needs to be
claried. Apparently, dierent lineages need be conserved separately. The third is to strengthen the
protecon of wild populaons and standardize the arcial breeding work in farms and conservaon
breeding. For this to occur, we need the creaon of mechanisms to facilitate the appropriate release of
giant salamanders acknowledging that there are recommendaons in place but no complete guidance on
implementaon.
I hope and believe that the new acon plan will improve the eects of work to protect the Chinese giant
salamanders.
Jianping JIANG
Chengdu Instute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
August 4, 2024
In Chengdu
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS
JING MAO1,2, CHUNBIN LI1, CHENHAOJIA LIU2, ZHONG ZHAO2, XIANMAO FAN3, JIE WANG4, QINGHUA LUO5, TIAN ZHAO 6,
WENBO WANG7, FENG OUYANG 8, JIYONG WANG9, ZHIGANG QIAO10, ZHIQIANG LIANG11, WUYING LIN12, PEI WANG 13,
DAJIE GONG14, WEISHI LIU15, FANG YAN16, ANDREW A. CUNNINGHAM17, BENJAMIN TAPLEY17,18, SAMUEL T. TURVEY17,
and AMAËL BORZÉE 18
1College of Resources and Environment Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China.
2Gansu Green Camel Bell Environment and Development Center, Lanzhou, China. 3Bikou town Taihe Giant
Salamander Breeding Base in Wen County, Gansu Province, China. 4Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China. 5College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Changsha
University, Changsha, China. 6College of Fisheries, Southwest University, Chongqing, China. 7Department
of Life Sciences, Xianyang Normal University, Xianyang, China. 8 FAO/GEF wetland programme, Nanchang,
China. 9Guiyang Qianren Ecological Conservation Center, Guiyang, China. 10Henan Normal University,
Xinxiang, China. 11Hunan Fisheries Science Institute, Changsha, China. 12iConserve Eco-Technology Co.,
Shenzhen, China. 13Jishou University, Jishou, China. 14Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China.
15Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China. 16 School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.
17Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom. 18Amphibian Specialist Group, Species Survival
Commission, IUCN.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful for the kind support of Ocean Park Conservaon Foundaon Hong Kong.
RECOMMENDED CITATION
Mao J, Li C, Liu C, Zhao Z, Fan X, Wang J, Luo Q, Zhao T, Wang W, Ouyang F, Wang J., Qiao, Z., Liang, Z.,
Lin, W., Wang, P., Gong, D., Liu, W., Yan, F., Cunningham, A.A., Tapley, B., Turvey, S.T. and Borzée, A. 2024.
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders. Green Camel Bell.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
1. INTRODUCTION
Chinese giant salamanders (Andrias spp.) are the world’s largest amphibians. These salamanders are
economically important and are extensively farmed in China for their meat. Whilst Chinese giant
salamanders were consumed historically across China, a large-scale farming industry was established in
the early 2000s and giant salamanders were collected from the wild to stock these farms. Populaons of
Chinese giant salamanders have declined across China, and these declines have primarily been driven by
overexploitaon as well as habitat loss and degradaon. Giant salamanders in China were once considered
to be a single widespread species (Andrias davidianus) but genec analyses have revealed that there are
mulple species (likely at least seven) and that populaons across central, eastern and southern China
represent genecally disnct, local populaons. Currently four species are formally named and recognised
by the scienc community, and it is likely more will be described in future. China’s government has
supported releases of farmed giant salamander as a conservaon measure, but this has resulted in the
release of non-nave giant salamanders across China and there is a risk that wild populaons could
hybridise with released non-nave species. An urgent, large scale conservaon response is required if
Chinese giant salamanders are to persist in the wild, and this will require a collaborave and coordinated
strategy with all stakeholders.
Figure 1. A Chinese giant salamander in capvity in Europe, rescued from the illegal wildlife trade © Benjamin
Tapley / ZSL
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
2.1 OVERVIEW OF SPECIES
2.1.1 TAXONOMIC BACKGROUND
The Chinese giant salamander has tradionally been interpreted as a single geographically wide-ranging
species that occurred across mulple river basins and montane ecoregions. In 1924 a second species of
Chinese giant salamander was described (Megalobatrachus sligoi, Boulenger 1924) based on a single
specimen that was found in the Hong Kong Botanic Gardens. It is thought that this specimen was likely
brought to Hong Kong from the nearby Chinese mainland (Liu, 1950). This species was subsequently
synonymised with A. davidianus with lile juscaon (Thorn, 1968).
Several studies ulising molecular tools have explored the populaon structuring of Chinese Andrias
(Murphy et al. 2000; Tao et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2017; Yan et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2019; Turvey et al.,
2019; Chai et al., 2022; Marr et al, In Press). Studies conducted by Murphy et al. (2000), Tao et al. (2005)
and Wang et al. (2017) all concluded that populaons of Andrias across southern, eastern and central
China represent local populaons that are genecally disnct from one another. A more comprehensive
study using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and single nucleode polymorphisms (SNPs) from both wild and
farmed salamanders found compelling evidence for the existence of ve to seven disnct species-level
clades, some of which were only known from individuals sampled on giant salamander breeding farms
(Yan et al., 2018). These clades were not consistently associated with specic geographical regions due to
the human-mediated transport and release of giant salamanders across China (Yan et al., 2018). A
subsequent study that ulised addional mtDNA data recovered the same seven clades and was able to
associate these with specic geographical locaons, demonstrang that dierent clades had largely
discrete distribuons that were associated with dierent watersheds and ecoregions (Liang et al., 2019).
Most recently, species delimitaon analyses using tree-based and alignment-based models using 30
mitogenomes found support for at least seven stascally-resolved Chinese species-level clades and most
models provided support for nine species-level clades (Marr et al., In Press).
Table 1. Overview of how dierent studies have referred to species level clades
Species
Clade according to Yan et al. (2018)
Clade according to Liang et al. (2019)
Andrias cheni
E
E
Andrias davidianus
B
G
Andrias jiangxiensis
U2
D
Andrias sligoi
D
B
Not currently named
A
A
Not currently named
C
F
Not currently named
U1
C
Aempts have been made to draw taxonomic conclusions from these and addional data. Turvey et al.
(2019) used near-complete mitogenomes from historical museum specimens that were collected prior to
the establishment of the large-scale farming industry and human-mediated movement of dierent Andrias
clades between watersheds and ecoregions. In this study, the authors were able to associate the specimen
that had been described as Megalobatrachus sligoi by Boulenger (1924) with one of the clades identified
by both Yan et al. (2018) and Liang et al. (2019), and thus resurrected A. sligoi as a valid species. In 2022
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Andrias jiangxiensis was described from wild specimens collected from within a protected area in
northwest Jiangxi Province (Chai et al., 2022). Most recently, Andrias cheni was described from Huangshan,
Anhui Province (Xu et al., 2023). Both Andrias jiangxiensis and Andrias cheni can be assigned to clades
reported by Yan et al. (2018) and Liang et al. (2019). It is likely that further clades will be described as
species new to science in the future.
Figure 2. The holotype of Andrias sligoi (aer Turvey et al., 2019)
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
2.1.2 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Chinese giant salamanders are the largest extant amphibians, growing to almost 2 m in total length, and
can weigh more than 50 kg (Wang et al., 2004). All Andrias species have large, broad aened heads and
small lidless eyes, aened bodies with obvious longitudinal folds, sturdy limbs, and a large compressed
tail. They are extremely variable in colouraon from black to dark red to numerous shades of brown, oen
with blotches (Sparreboom, 2004). Colour morphs are also reported from farms.
Figure 3. A Chinese giant salamander encountered during ecological surveys in Shaanxi Province © Benjamin
Tapley / ZSL.
Due to recent taxonomic changes and limitaons associated with small sample sizes, it is dicult to
summarise the key morphological dierences between all described and undescribed Andrias species.
Only a limited number of specimens of known provenance can be reliably associated with the clade that
corresponds to A. davidianus, and A. sligoi was described and subsequently resurrected based on a single
museum specimen. In their revision of A. sligoi as a valid species, Turvey et al. (2019) therefore refrained
from describing diagnosc morphological characters for either species based on such a small sample size.
The largest published account of a giant salamander is an individual that measured ve feet and nine
inches in length.
Andrias jiangxiensis is reported to dier from other Andrias species by the combinaon of the following
characters: 1) head length almost equal to head width; (2) head and lower jaw relavely smooth, with
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
small tubercles arranged irregularly; (3) lateral neck fold disconnuous with body fold at forelimb
inseron; (4) nger III disnctly longer than nger I; and (5) dorsum red-brown or yellow-brown in life,
with large, irregular black patches (Chai et al., 2022). The type series consists of animals with total lengths
ranging from 55.4-58.9 cm, but larger individuals up to 85 cm length were observed at the collecon site
(Chai et al., 2022).
Andrias cheni is reported to dier from other Andrias species by the combinaon of the following
characters: 1) head and torso at, head slightly longer than wide, and head width / head length rao 0.80-
0.98; (2) head and lower jaw relavely smooth, with small tubercles arranged irregularly; (3) lateral neck
fold disconnuous with body fold at forelimb inseron; (4) nger III longer than nger I, nger lengths
formula I < IV < III < II; (5) limbs are thick and short, with hind limbs longer than forelimbs, and forelimb
length /posterior limb length rao 0.78-0.96; (6) muscular tail, thick at base and gradually aening
posteriorly and distally, with tail length about 1/3 of total length (Xu et al., 2023). The type series includes
one specimen (the holotype) that has a total length of 97.4 cm (Xu et al., 2023).
2.1.3 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR
Note that the following informaon is not aributable to a specic Chinese Andrias species.
Figure 4. Chinese giant salamander larvae from a farm in Guizhou Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL
Chinese giant salamanders are thought to be sexually mature at 5-6 years of age (Cheng, 1998, Browne et
al., 2014). The reproducon cycle is seasonal, and gonad maturaon occurs from spring to summer when
water temperatures increase, food is more abundant and water ow decreases (Zhang et al., 2006;
Browne et al., 2014). Chinese giant salamanders breed via external ferlisaon in the aquac
environment, and spawning occurs in late summer in August and September (Zhang et al., 2006; Browne
et al., 2014). They typically spawn in dens under large rocks or cavies in the banks of streams and
subterranean caves, with dens typically having a single entrance (Wang et al., 2004; Luo et al., 2018; Liang
et al., 2019). Male Chinese giant salamanders prepare the nesng sites by clearing away sand and are
known to court females. Once a female enters a den, behaviours include head exposing, nest inspecon,
trailing, cloacal scenng, mouth contact and mounng the female’s back (Wu et al., 2010; Browne et al.,
2014; Luo et al., 2018). Males will mate with more than one female in a single den and clutches can exhibit
mulple paternies but are guarded by and aended by a dominant male known as a den master (Browne
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
et al., 2014). Eggs are 5-8mm when laid and increase to 15-20 mm when fully hydrated (Cheng, 1998,
Browne et al., 2014) and clutch size ranges from 300-560 eggs (Ge & Zheng 1994; Xiao et al., 2006; Liu et
al., 1999; Browne et al., 2014). Eggs are guarded by the male, and during brooding the male stops feeding
(Wu et al., 2010; Browne et al., 2014). Brooding and larval development occur unl early winter and the
larvae hatch at 3.0 cm in length (Ge and Zheng 1990). Larvae remain in the den unl the coldest period of
winter is over and yolk sacs have been absorbed, at which point they leave the den (Wu et al., 2010;
Browne et al., 2014). Larvae retain external gills unl they are 20 cm in length or approximately three
years old in the wild (Ge & Zheng 1994). Chinese giant salamanders have been known to survive for over
55 years (Ye et al., 1993). Generaon length is esmated to be 15 years (Liang et al., 2012).
2.1.4 DIET AND ECOLOGICAL ROLE
Chinese giant salamanders are apex predators of stream and river environments (Song, 1994). Although
the diet of wild Chinese giant salamanders is poorly known, they have been documented to consume
crabs, shrimp, frogs, sh, invertebrates, snakes, waterbirds and water shrews (Hu, 1987; Song, 1994; Luo
and Kang; 2009). Chinese giant salamanders are also known to be cannibalisc (Song, 1994).
2.1.5 HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Chinese giant salamanders are aquac, and are known to inhabit clear, cool, slow to swi-owing streams
in well-vegetated, typically steep-sided valleys (Wang et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2018). Many remaining
populaons are associated with cave systems, oen in karst landscapes (Wang et al., 2017; Liang et al.,
2019). Streams inhabited by Chinese giant salamanders have caves and rocky banks and a pH of 6-7 (Wang
et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2018; Tapley et al., 2021). A study at a single site on released Chinese giant
salamanders found that male salamanders exhibited a preference to deep microhabitats with low
alkalinity whereas females preferred microhabitats with high water conducvity, low dissolved oxygen and
ammonium-nitrogen, and slow water movement (Zhao et al., 2023). Juveniles occupied microhabitats that
had low ammonium-nitrogen (Zhao et al., 2023). Forest cover and nitrates are other known predictors of
cryptobranchid salamander distribuon in the USA (Pugh et al., 2016; Jachowski and Hopkins, 2018), but
it is not known how important these parameters are for Chinese giant salamanders. Rocky cryptobranchid
microhabitats are detrimentally impacted by siltaon in the USA (Fobes, 1995) but the impact of siltaon
on Chinese giant salamanders has not been quaned.
Chen et al. (2018) developed a habitat suitability model using elevaon (190–1,330 m a.s.l.), forest cover,
mean annual precipitaon (≥732.6 mm mean annual precipitaon) and mean annual temperature (12.7–
16.8°C mean annual temperature), which was broadly congruent with the esmated historical IUCN range
map for Andrias davidianus (Liang et al., 2004).
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Figures 5 & 6. Chinese giant salamander habitat, Fanjingshan, Guizhou Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL.
Table 2. Mean (and range) for water and environmental parameters collected at sites where live Chinese giant
salamanders were collected during ecological surveys (aer Tapley et al., 2021).
Variable
Mean (range)
Altude (m)
923 (716–1,076)
Water temp. (oC)
18.7 (14.2–20.9)
Dissolved O2 (mg/l)
8.04 (7.50–8.68)
Salinity (ppt)
0.03 (0.00–0.09)
pH
7.53 (6.46–7.94)
Ammonia (ppm)
0.125 (0.00–2.00)
Nitrite (ppm)
0.40 (0.0–2.0)
Nitrate (ppm)
1.8 (2.0–5.0)
dKH
2.83 (0.3–3.8)
Flow rate (m/sec)
0.54 (0.09–0.93)
2.2 DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION TRENDS
2.2.1 HISTORICAL AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
The Chinese government has supported releases of farmed giant salamander as a conservaon measure.
This has resulted in the release of non-nave giant salamanders across China and greatly confuses the
interpretaon of geographical range data for individual species (Turvey et al., 2018, 2019; Yan et al., 2018;
Liang et al., 2019; Shu et al., 2021). In some cases, Andrias have been translocated outside of the genus’
natural geographical range (Shu et al., 2021) and up to four dierent species-level clades have been
detected at a single site (Shu et al., 2021).
Chinese Andrias are known to be invasive in Japan and readily hybridise with Japanese giant salamander
(Andrias japonicus); mtDNA specic to Chinese Andrias has been detected in environmental DNA surveys
11
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
of Japanese rivers, and some individuals exhibit intermediate morphology between Japanese and Chinese
species (Matsui et al., 2005; Fukumoto et al., 2015; Hara et al., 2023). Capve individuals of A. sligoi were
recently discovered in Japan (Nishikawa et al., 2024) and A. davidianus has been found in rivers around
Kyoto (Nishikawa et al., 2024). Clade U1 of Yan et al. (2018)/ Clade C of Liang et al. (2019) has also been
found in a river in Komatsushima (Nishikawa et al., 2024). This indicates that the Chinese giant
salamanders found in Japan have mulple origins. There are also unconrmed records of the species in
Taiwan, Province of China, but these have not been conrmed. However, Chinese giant salamanders that
were due to be illegally exported to Taiwan have been conscated in Fujian Province (IUCN SSC Amphibian
Specialist Group, 2023b).
Andrias cheni (Clade E of Yan et al., 2018 / Clade E of Liang et al., 2019)
The description of A. cheni is based on individuals that were collected from Qimen County, Anhui
Province prior to 1995 (Xu et al., 2023). This species is also reported from Xiuning, County, Anhui Province
and Qingyuan County, Zhejiang Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias davidianus (Clade B of Yan et al., 2018 / Clade G of Liang et al., 2019)
This species is only known to occur with certainty from Mabian Yi autonomous County, Meishan and Ya’an
in Sichuan Province (Liang et al., 2019; Turvey et al., 2019).
Andrias jiangxiensis (Clade U2 of Yan et al., 2018; Clade D of Liang et al., 2019)
Currently this species is only known to occur with certainty in Jiulingshan Naonal Nature Reserve,
Jing’an County, Jiangxi Province (Chai et al., 2022). This species has been recorded from Jing’an County
and Maoping township in Jiangxi Province, and Lianzhou in Guangdong Province (Liang et al. 2019).
Andrias sligoi (Clade D of Yan et al., 2018; Clade B of Liang et al., 2019)
Turvey et al. (2019) were unable to reliably associate this species with a specific region in China, but
Liang et al. (2019) indicate that A. sligoi has been recorded from Chongqing Municipality and Guizhou
and Hunan Provinces. The elevaon range of this species is thought to be between 390–1,300 m asl (Liang
et al. 2019).
Andrias “Guangxi Pearl River” (Clade A of Yan et al., 2018; Clade A of Liang et al., 2019)
Reported from Xing’an County, Guangxi Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias “Gansu” (Clade C of Yan et al., 2018; Clade F of Liang et al., 2019)
Reported from Qinzhou County, Gansu Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias “Hunan” (Clade U1 of Yan et al., 2018; Clade C of Liang et al., 2019)
Reported from Longhui County, Hunan Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias “Qinghai”
In 1966, a giant salamander specimen was reportedly collected from the headwaters of the Yangtze River
in Qumalai County, Qinghai Province, at an elevaon of 4,200 m. If this record is correct, it could represent
a disjunct isolated salamander populaon or species occurring at an elevaon >2,000 m higher than any
other known populaon (Chen, 2011; Fei et al., 2012; Pierson et al., 2014). The existence or connued
survival of giant salamanders in Qinghai has not been conrmed in relavely recent small-scale survey
eorts (Pierson et al., 2014), and the taxonomic status of this populaon remains uncertain.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
2.2.2 ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION TRENDS
Chinese giant salamanders, even in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been declining since at
least the 1980s due to local consumpon and/or exploitaon for trade (Turvey et al., 2021). A further
escalaon in the decline of wild populaons in the early 2000s was driven by the development of the giant
salamander farming industry, and populaons declined due to extracon of wild animals across China to
stock farms (Cunningham et al., 2016; Turvey et al., 2018). In some places, surviving populaons may now
be restricted to caves due to high levels of exploitaon in accessible non-subterranean habitats (Liang et
al., 2019). Conversely, millions of individuals exist in farms (Cunningham et al., 2016).
There is an inferred dramac populaon decline of at least 80% across the range of Chinese giant
salamanders. Interviews conducted with freshwater resource users from 2013-2016 recorded that 46.9%
of over 2,900 people living within 1 km of the 97 eld survey sites had seen a giant salamander in their
lifeme, but across China, the mean me of last giant salamander sighngs was 18.96 years
earlier (Turvey et al., 2018). Only 24 salamander individuals were detected at just four sites during
extensive ecological surveys conducted in 2013-2016. These surveys took place in suitable habitat (and
oen at sites with local historical records) across the known range of Chinese giant salamanders (Turvey et
al., 2018). Evidence of electroshing or the use of poison (known methods for harvesng giant
salamanders) was observed at 25% of the study sites (Turvey et al., 2018; Tapley et al., 2021). Surveys
for Chinese giant salamanders in Qinghai Province from June and July 2017 found no direct evidence of
the species, although there were unveried reports of sighngs by local people, the most recent dang
from 2012 (Pierson et al., 2014).
Chinese giant salamander populaons are severely fragmented, and more than 50% of populaons are
inferred to occur in patches with no natural dispersal between them (IUCN SSC, 2023a, b). Wild
populaons of Chinese giant salamanders are now crically depleted or exrpated across large areas of
suitable habitat (Turvey et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2018; Tapley et al., 2021).
2.3 THREATS, POTENTIAL THREATS AND LIMITING FACTORS
2.3.1 RELEASES, HYBRIDISATION AND DISEASE
Since 2002, farmed Chinese giant salamanders have been released across China as part of a well-
intenoned ongoing programme by Chinese naonal and provincial governments. The aim of this release
programme is to restock wild populaons. From 2002 to 2019 at least 287,840 farmed salamanders were
released across China (Shu et al., 2021). However, these releases have not been informed by genec
screening, and the wide-scale transportaon and release of giant salamanders across China has already
resulted in the genec homogenisaon of some local populaons (Yan et al., 2018) and introducon of
non-nave species with as many as four non-nave species-level clades have been detected at some sites
(Shu et al., 2021). At least 10% of Chinese giant salamander releases are thought to have occurred outside
suitable habitat and some individuals have even been released in Beijing, more than 600km northeast of
13
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
nave Chinese Andrias range (Shu et al., 2021). Hybrids between Chinese and Japanese giant salamanders
are now invasive in parts of Japan (Fukumoto et al., 2015; Nishikawa et al., 2024). Given that Andrias spp.
from China are more closely related to each other than A. japonicus, it is likely that dierent species of
giant salamanders in China are able to hybridise. It is therefore likely that hybridisaon with both described
and undescribed congeners is a threat to this species. China's Aquac Wildlife Conservaon Associaon
(CAWCA) has acknowledged that there are at least ve species of giant salamanders in China and
recommend that releases of giant salamanders from farms should be prohibited unless animals are
genecally screened to conrm species identy. Unfortunately, there is no centralised mechanism in place
to ensure that genec screening is undertaken, that results are correctly interpreted, and appropriate
release sites for each species are idened.
Figure 7. The corpse of a Chinese giant salamander found at a site where farmed animals had been recently released
© Jay Redbond / ZSL
Ranavirus is known to cause disease in farmed Chinese giant salamanders (Geng et al., 2011; Cunningham
et al., 2016). There is a risk that pathogens that cause disease in farmed giant salamanders could be
inadvertently released with released salamanders, and this poses a threat to wild amphibians (Daszak et
al., 2003; Cunningham et al., 2016). Disease is likely a low threat to Chinese giant salamanders in the wild,
however it has been a historic driver for wild collecon to repopulate farms depopulated by ranavirosis
outbreaks (). Pathogens released with salamanders could cause disease in conspecics or in dierent
species present at release sites or even impact ecosystem processes, human health and livelihoods. The
14
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Internaonal Union for the Conservaon of Nature has published guidelines for reintroducons and other
conservaon translocaons (IUCN SSC, 2013), which require that diseases are considered in any
translocaon or release.
Unfortunately, there is no current evidence that the widespread and deliberate releases of farmed
individuals as a conservaon measure have resulted in the establishment of viable populaons (Shu et al.,
2021). However, dead giant salamanders have been reported at release sites (Fig. 7; Turvey et al., 2018).
2.3.2 OVEREXPLOITATION
The range-wide decline of giant salamanders across China has been aributed to overexploitaon for
various food markets (Wang et al., 2004; Feng et al., 2007; Dai et al., 2009; Cunningham et al., 2016;
Turvey et al., 2018, 2021; IUCN SSC, 2023a,b), and to habitat loss and degradaon resulng from
anthropogenic modicaon of freshwater habitats, including pollutant emissions and alteraon of ow
regimes and water turbidity from damming (Wang et al., 2004; Dai et al., 2009).
Figure 8. A Chinese giant salamander (likely farm bred) being sold in a supermarket in Guiyang © Benjamin Tapley /
ZSL
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Figure 9. Electroshing in Chinese giant salamander habitat © Thomas Brown / ZSL (le).
Figure 10. A bow hook targeng Chinese giant salamanders in a protected area in Guizhou Province © Benjamin
Tapley / ZSL (right)
Figure 11. Industrial-style Chinese giant salamander farm in Gansu Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL (le)
Figure 12. Industrial-style Chinese giant salamander farm in Shaanxi Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL (middle)
Figure 13. A farm using “wild type” farming methods in Gansu Province © Chenhaojia Liu (right)
In recent years there have been several reported cases of illegal internaonal trade in Chinese giant
salamanders, and animals have been seized from the illegal wildlife trade in the United States of America,
United Kingdom, Philippines, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore.
Giant salamander populaons in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been in decline from at least
the 1980s, due to local consumpon and/or exploitaon for trade; this is several decades before the
development of the Chinese giant salamander farming industry (Turvey et al., 2021). Overall, 15.4% of
2,932 respondents in rural communies had consumed giant salamanders, with dates of last consumpon
ranging from the 1940s to 2010 (Turvey et al. 2021). Since the farming industry was established there has
been a major escalaon in levels of exploitaon (Turvey et al., 2018, 2021), including the illegal collecon
of wild giant salamanders to stock farms, which was sll occurring as recently as 2016 (Cunningham et al.,
2016; Turvey et al., 2021). A study on the Chinese giant salamander farming industry undertaken between
2013 and 2016 esmated that there were at least 42,000 wild-caught breeding adult giant salamanders
and 164,000 wild-caught subadults in farms across China at the me of the survey (Turvey et al., 2021).
16
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Interviews with both urban and rural user groups demonstrate wide-scale and largely unregulated illegal
hunng to stock farms at a country-wide scale to support demand by urban consumers for high-presge
rare meat (Turvey et al., 2021). Evidence for hunng during the same survey was widespread, with bow
hooks, electroshing and evidence of poisoning observed across the range of the Chinese giant
salamanders, even within protected areas (Turvey et al., 2018, 2021; Tapley et al., 2021).
2.3.3 HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION
Habitat loss and fragmentaon are highly likely to have a detrimental impact on remaining Chinese giant
salamanders. The top ve Chinese provinces for broad-scale deforestaon are all within the range of
Chinese giant salamanders (Ren et al., 2015), and giant salamanders are known to be associated with
forest cover (Wang et al., 2004). Good-quality aquac habitat for Chinese giant salamanders has declined
across China in recent decades due to water development projects, polluon, industrialisaon and
urbanisaon (Dai et al., 2009). Much of the surveyed habitat for salamanders in Qinghai Province was
deemed unsuitable for giant salamanders due to turbidity resulng from mining and erosion (Pierson et
al., 2014), and it is believed that Andrias davidianus has been exrpated from its type locality due to similar
aquac habitat degradaon (Dai et al., 2009). However, Chinese giant salamanders do occur in
approximately dierent protected areas. In some cases, these protected areas have been relavely
eecve at protecng wild populaons (e.g. Chai et al., 2022).
2.3.4 CLIMATE CHANGE
Chinese giant salamanders are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Species distribuon modelling
predicts that more than two thirds of currently predicted suitable habitat will be lost in all modelled
climate change scenarios (Zhang et al., 2019). Furthermore, approximately 25% of exisng naonal and
provincial nature reserves that currently have suitable Chinese giant salamander habitat are thought to
become unsuitable by 2050 due to the impact of climate change (Zhang et al., 2020). Climate change is
also known to impact amphibian pathogen disease dynamics (e.g. Price et al., 2019). However, none of
the studies on the potenal impacts of climate change on Chinese giant salamanders have aempted to
look at the impacts on individual Chinese giant salamander species.
2.4 EXTINCTION RISK
Currently, only A. davidianus and A. sligoi have been assessed by the IUCN (IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist
Group, 2023a, b). However, all described and putave species would likely qualify for being assessed as
Crically Endangered, as data for all species other than Andrias sligoi were incorporated into the IUCN Red
List assessment for A. davidianus due to the taxonomic uncertainty at the me the Andrias Red List
workshop took place.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Box 1. Exncon risk for dierent Andrias species according to the IUCN Red List.
2.5 CULTURAL VALUES
Figure 14. Poery vases dated from 5,000-6,000 years B.P. depicng Chinese giant salamander designs, unearthed
in Gansu Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL
Chinese giant salamanders have been depicted and used in China for more than 5,000 years, with some
of the earliest images of these animals associated with poery from the Yangshao culture of the Yellow
River region. Chinese giant salamanders are perceived to have a wide range of benets in tradional
medicine (He et al., 2018) and have been used for this purpose for at least 2,000 years (Strassberg, 2002).
However, a recent study of local communies living alongside Chinese giant salamanders found that whist
Chinese giant salamanders were used in tradional medicine (specically for skin ailments), no one
reported using salamanders for this purpose this century. They have also a long history of being exploited
for meat, with the rst record of human consumpon dang back more than 3,500 years ago (Ebrey, 1996;
18
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Browne et al., 2020). Chinese texts also suggest that two entwined Chinese giant salamanders could have
inspired the Taoist yin-yang symbol.
Some research has reported cultural taboos associated with Chinese giant salamanders and the
percepon that salamanders were ‘dirty’ or ‘bad luck’, which could have limited exploitaon historically
(Cunningham et al., 2016; Turvey et al., 2021). Chinese giant salamanders are well known by the human
communies that live alongside them, with 27 dierent names or name variants reported for giant
salamanders across their range in China, and with local tradions, stories and legends reported in 12
provinces (Turvey et al., 2021). Giant salamanders have a reported associaon with children due to their
general appearance and the reported crying sound they are said to make, with associated local stories of
babies (especially dead or illegimate babies) turning into salamanders. There are also local stories that
salamanders eat children, especially dead children; and that they are bad luck and that it is forbidden to
eat them because they had transformed from dead babies (Turvey et al., 2021). Use of salamanders varied
across dierent ethnic groups (Turvey et al., 2021). However, the widespread reported consumpon of
Chinese giant salamanders indicates that these taboos or negave associaons are insucient in liming
their exploitaon.
2.6 CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT
2.6.1. PROTECTION STATUS
Chinese giant salamanders were designated as a Class II state key protected wildlife species in China in
1988, which makes hunng or collecon illegal without an ocial permit (Dai et al., 2009), although this
legislaon only applies to A. davidianus. All Andrias species have been included on CITES Appendix I since
1975 a. The genus is considered a global priority for conservaon due to its evoluonary history and global
endangerment (Isaac et al., 2012). In 2012, President Xi Jinping iniated an ongoing naon-wide an-
corrupon campaign aimed at reducing the consumpon of rare animal products at ocial banquets, and
demand for consumpon of Chinese giant salamanders at banquets declined as a result (Turvey et al.,
2021). The COVID-19 pandemic led to further restricons on naonal trade in wild animal products in
China, although these restricons do not apply specically to giant salamanders (Borzée et al., 2021).
Since 2002, the Chinese government has been carrying out a naonal acon plan for Chinese giant
salamander reintroducon into the wild, but this reintroducon plan has not considered the
phylogeography of the genus (Yan et al., 2018). There is no published evidence to indicate that these
release programmes have resulted in the establishment of viable populaons (Turvey et al., 2018; Shu et
al., 2021).
Chinese giant salamanders are reported to occur in over 50 naonal, provincial and county-level nature
reserves, and in some cases giant salamanders are the main conservaon target of the protected area.
Determining whether these reserves are eecve in protecng Chinese giant salamanders is challenging.
Releases of farmed individuals are known to occur in protected areas (e.g., Luo et al., 2009), and these
releases could include species of Chinese giant salamander that are locally non-nave. It has been
reported that releases of Chinese giant salamanders into protected areas have decreased in recent years
(IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2023a). However, Chinese giant salamander poaching has been
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
recently reported to occur in protected areas relavely recently (Tapley et al., 2015, 2021). Conservaon
breeding eorts are reportedly underway for both A. sligoi and A. davidianus at the Hunan Giant
Salamander Rescue Centre (IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2023a) and there have been calls for
the establishment of more facilies in China for the conservaon breeding for all species of Chinese giant
salamander (Turvey et al., 2018, 2019).
3. LONG TERM RECOVERY STRATEGY 2024 – 2044
3.1 JUSTIFICATION
Chinese giant salamanders occur over a large geographical area and the threats posed to them are diverse,
and addressing these will require the acve parcipaon of many dierent stakeholders. There is now a
sucient evidence-base on which to act to prevent the imminent exncon of the named and unnamed
giant salamanders. To this end two NGOs, Green Camel Bell and the Zoological Society of London, worked
with the Chinese Academy of Science to organise a workshop on the conservaon of Chinese giant
salamanders (Mao et al., 2024), which was held in Lanzhou in October 2023. This mul-stakeholder
workshop brought together 32 stakeholders with experse in giant salamanders from across China,
including from regional and naonal governments, business, NGOs and academia (including genec,
ecological and conservaon research), together the IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. Of these 32
parcipants, 29 were Chinese naonals, thus ensuring that the acon plan is locally led.
Figure 15. Parcipants at the Conservaon Acon Plan Workshop for Chinese giant salamanders held in October
2023, Lanzhou © Green Camel Bell.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
3.2 CONSERVATION OF CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS: BARRIERS,
CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES
Table 3. Results of the group discussion on current barriers, challenges and dicules in conserving
Chinese giant salamanders.
SPECIES DELIMITATION
The idencaon of the dierent Chinese giant salamander species is challenging, as they
have extremely similar morphology and there are no well-established guidelines for being
able to disnguish between them without genec analysis
Need for simplied morphological denions and simplied species idencaon to
facilitate conservaon and management
Conservaon should be at the species level or subspecies if these are idened in future.
Delimitaon of new species has an impact on the protecon that a new species will
receive.
Not all species currently receive legal protecon, so laws need to be updated to include
protecon for all species of Andrias nave to China
RELEASES FROM FARMS
Standardised guidelines for the releases of farmed salamanders exist at the naonal level
but these are not followed or enforced.
Improving the eecveness of releases
How should animals be selected for release?
Where is the best place to release animals?
How should animals be screened for diseases and which pathogens should be screened
for?
How should post release monitoring be undertaken?
MANAGEMENT OF
HABITAT
Irraonal delineaon of boundaries and funconal areas of protected areas, conicts
with neighbouring communies, and failure to enable communies to take an acve role
in conservaon management
Are exisng laws good enough in their wording, coverage and goal to be eecve?
Illegal shing and illegal trade could sll occur within some protected areas, unknown
ecacy of legal enforcement?
The habitat in the range of the Chinese giant salamanders is not adequately protected
The habitat and environmental requirements of dierent Chinese giant salamander
species are not adequately understood
IMPACTS OF FARMING
Preservaon of natural populaons in the wild as far as possible, retaining their natural
aributes (which may be lost in aquaculture releases)
How to dierenate between farmed and wild stocks for management
Huge losses in the farming sector and the need to promote raonal ulisaon of
remaining farm animals
We do not know enough about the current state and dynamics of the market; is there sll
a market demand for farmed salamanders, and/or is there sll a demand for illegal
collecon from the wild?
Unknown what will happen to the exisng farmed salamanders if there is no longer a
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
huge market demand for farmed salamanders. Improper disposal may become a new
threat to conservaon in the future.
LOW CONSERVATION
PROFILE
Lack of professional conservaon instuons, professional capacity to promote giant
salamander conservaon
Lack of adequate social aenon on the conservaon of giant salamanders
RESEARCH GAPS
We do not know enough about the distribuon, ecological requirements, status and
threats to wild populaons. There is a need for careful collecon of data on ecological
characteriscs and behaviour of wild populaons.
Taxonomy
There is a need for need for both ecological and social-science research programmes, to
understand both the biological/ecological and human dimensions of social-ecological
systems in which giant salamanders survive in China
There needs to be more research on the impact of global climate change
3.3 VISION AND OBJECTIVES
Vision: To eecvely conserve China's wild giant salamanders and
their habitats as a global model for wildlife conservaon.
Objecve: By 2043, each Chinese giant salamander species will occupy
suitable and stable habitat within its natural range, that support
healthy, viable wild populaons and genec diversity.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
3.4 UNDERSTANDING AND RANKING THREATS
Workshop parcipants reviewed the exisng knowledge of Chinese giant salamanders and the dierent
threats they face and were tasked with analysing these threats and ranking them in order.
Figure 16. Ranked threats for Chinese giant salamanders
Workshop parcipants were then tasked with delving deeper into analysing the four threats that were
considered to pose the greatest risk to Chinese giant salamanders.
Table 4. The threat of wild release
Name of threat: Wild release
Descripon of the threat:
• Unreasonable stock enhancement
• Deliberate release of adults and larvae
• Accidental escape from farms
Impact of the threat:
• Genec contaminaon
• Diseases transfers
• Exceeding environmental carrying capacity
Causes of the threat:
• Inadequate stock enhancement / release protocols (not managed by naonal regulaons, inadequate
23
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
supervision, standards need to be improved and enforceable)
• Release: poor public awareness of wild salamander conservaon requirements
• Escape: poor management of farmed populaons, natural disasters
• What we know: Standardised guidelines exist for the release of Chinese giant salamanders from farms but
these guidelines are not enforced and could be improved. Releases are not undertaken following national
regulations, and there is inadequate monitoring
• The need to release only locally-occurring species is not always known or appreciated
• The identity of locally-occurring species also presumably isn’t known by the people doing the release
• High number of releases
• The environment is somemes assessed at the me of release, but subsequent monitoring of individual
releases is inadequate
• Post release screening for genecs and disease does not always occur
What we assume:
• Paral releases are successful (denion: stable populaons in the wild with natural reproducon)
• Most of the released individuals are nave species
What else do we need to know:
• The methods and standards that are needed to ensure adequate prerelease screening
• The status of any exisng wild populaon at release sites
• How sites and animals are chosen for release
• Sources of released animals
• How to test the eecveness of the release
What is currently done:
• Relevant standards have been developed in the agricultural sector but there is no mechanism to implement
the standards
• We are developing a beer understanding of Chinese giant salamander taxonomy to guide releases
What worked:
• Some suitable arcial enrichment releases have had an enrichment eect on wild populaons (giant
salamanders being seen more frequently or seen again aer they have disappeared)
• Published research provides some guidance (e.g., site selecon)
What hasn’t worked:
• Failure to use genec screening to idenfy animals that are suitable for release
• Failure to use health screening to idenfy animals that are suitable for release
• No organisaon is coordinang or regulang the releases and their impacts
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
• Improve post-release surveillance and monitoring
• Detecon of origin and pathogen screening of all released individuals
• Ensure that provenance of released animals is known, xed and traceable
What alternave acons exist:
• Establishment of dedicated local release centres (original seed farm or rescue staon using animals of known
provenance)
• Collecng wild founders for ex situ conservaon
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
• Ensuring the appropriate species is released at the site
• Ensuring that no diseases are introduced to wild populaons during releases
• Reducing the number of accidental releases by idenfying how these potenally occur and suggesng how
these accidents might be migated in future
• Remove non nave giant salamanders
• Ensuring that the nave species in each locality is conserved, and that the maximum amount of species
diversity is protected over the largest possible area
• Increased numbers of individuals of each species in the wild
24
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Statement: Chinese giant salamanders are deliberately released from farms into the wild on a large scale. These
releases are not well planned or coordinated and post-release monitoring is subopmal. Some animals also
escape from farms. This poses a threat to wild populaons through genec contaminaon and potenally
pathogen polluon. These releases are not known to have resulted in the establishment of any self-sustaining
giant salamander populaons
Table 5. The threat of habitat loss and degradaon
Name of threat: Habitat loss and degradaon
Descripon of the threat:
• Human-induced: mining, sand dredging, infrastructure construcon, hydroelectric facilies, polluon,
deforestaon
• Natural: increased intensity and frequency of oods, mudslides, droughts
The impact of the threat:
• Reducing water quality, ow and other aquac condions directly aect habitat so that it can no longer
support the survival of salamanders
• Causes habitat fragmentaon and disrupon of habitat connecvity
Causes of the threat:
• Anthropogenic: economic development and industrialisaon
• Destrucon by natural disasters
• Climate change
What we know:
• Acvies such as sand mining, dredging and polluon destroys habitat and / or cause habitat quality to
decline
• Hydropower facilies reduce habitat connecvity and water ow
• Hydropower facilies result in a reducon in breeding sites (complete submersion or exposure)
• Direct destrucon of habitat by natural disasters
What we assume:
• Noise and / or polluon caused by infrastructure development, such as reduced water quality, aects the
survival and behaviour of salamanders
What else do we need to know:
• The effectiveness of existing conservation legislation and management to protect salamander habitat and
enforce bans against harmful activities in protected habitats
• Hydrological and water quality requirements for salamander survival and reproducon
• How noise and vibraon might impact the behaviour and survival of giant salamanders
What is currently done:
• Habitat protecon through the establishment of nature reserves, prohibion of sand dredging in rivers,
removal of small hydroelectric power staons, sewerage jurisdicons, shing ban noces, prohibion on
the use of poison for shing
What worked:
• Protected areas, prohibion of sand dredging, dismantling of small hydropower, sewage management,
prohibion of sh poisoning at least in some areas
What hasn’t worked:
• Not all areas with giant salamander populations are protected. The scale and effectiveness of these mitigations
(prohibition of sand dredging, dismantling of small hydropower, sewage management, prohibition of fish
poisoning) is probably not sufficient?
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
• Better spatial assessment of the level and ecological impact of different anthropogenic threats, associated with
spatial and population-level modelling to determine the likely impact they’re having on habitat integrity and
salamander population survival
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
• Centralised stockpiling and environmentally sound management of domesc waste
• Arcial construcon of deep pools and other suitable habitats (vegetaon restoraon along riverbanks to
regulate small ecosystems)
• Encourage urban migraon to reduce impact to giant salamander habitats
• Habitat diversity is retained in small watershed management
What alternave acons exist:
• Improved waste management in rural areas
• Largescale Chinese giant salamander habitat restoraon
• Spatial relocation of all harmful activities to landscapes that aren’t priorities for salamanders
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
• Habitat restoraon, improved habitat connecvity, improvement of breeding habitats, wild populaon
recovery
Statement: Human-induced habitat loss and degradaon such as sand mining, dredging, and water facilies
disrupt giant salamander habitat quality and / or connecvity. Natural disasters have been idened as directly
aecng salamander habitats and even the animals themselves. We need better spatial assessment of the level
and ecological impact of different anthropogenic threats, associated with spatial and population-level
modelling to determine the likely impact they’re having on habitat integrity and salamander population
survival. We need further research to provide evidence of any impact of noise and vibraon on the physiological
well-being and behaviour of Chinese giant salamanders
Table 6. The threat of climate change
Name of threat: Climate change
Descripon of the threat:
• Changes in temperature, extremes, temperature dierences, etc.
• Changes in rainfall
• Climate change driving the change in habitats (e.g. vegetaon)
• Changes in frequency and severity of extreme weather events that can damage salamander habitat (e.g.
ooding, storms and associated forest loss and run-o)
The impact of the threat:
• Temperature changes can aect the me and ability for salamander eggs to hatch and may impact larval
development and food availability for giant salamanders
• Increase in extreme weather events e.g., ooding or drought, which can directly or indirectly aect
salamanders or their food and habitats
• Salamanders will have to adapt to this climate change-induced habitat change to survive longer
Causes of the threat:
• Global climate change caused by fossil fuel emissions, land use changes, food producon and over
consumpon
What we know:
• There have been increases in extreme weather events in China and elsewhere
• Current research shows that future climate change scenarios will make many protected areas unsuitable for
Chinese giant salamanders
What we assume:
• Extreme weather events will connue to increase
• That model predicons using China-wide data are locally relevant for each geographically restricted
salamander species in dierent areas of China
• It is possible to make meaningful predicons about aquac habitat change and its varying future suitability
for salamanders at local scales
What else do we need to know:
• If there are parcular species of giant salamander that may be impacted by climate change
26
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
• Whether giant salamanders can adapt to climate change
What is currently done:
• Basic research on the impacts of global climate change on amphibian survival that has been done in China
and abroad
What worked:
• Currently unknown
What hasn’t worked:
• Currently unknown
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
• Idenfy and designate more protected areas that will be suitable for Chinese giant salamanders under future
climate change scenarios
• Further scienc research on environmental requirements and adaptability of giant salamanders, including
research on changing environmental factors and temperature
What alternave acons exist:
• In situ protecon in the wild
• If in situ conservaon is not possible, develop conservaon breeding programmes and undertake
translocaons
• Assisted colonisaon
• Gene bank preservaon
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
• To have populaons of all Chinese giant salamanders occurring in the wild in at least some part of their
natural range under all predicted future climate change scenarios
Statement: Global climate change could aect the survival of Chinese giant salamanders
Table 7. The threat of collecon from the wild.
Name of threat: Collecon from the wild
Descripon of the threat:
• There is illegal collecon and legal collecon
• There may be a need to replenish farm stocks, community needs, etc.
• Farmers and consumers may have a preference for wild individuals
• Enforcement may not be sucient based on historical data, but the situaon may have changed
• Based on exisng discussions, many stakeholders believe that wild collecon/exploitaon is now greatly
reduced, there is evidence of a reducon in the number of farms, and it is assumed that legislaon and
enforcement is eecve
The impact of the threat:
• Decrease in eecve populaon sizes of wild giant salamanders, inclusive local exrpaon of many
populaons and potenal exncon of some species in the wild
Causes of the threat:
• Removal of wild animals to supply farms
• Local use
• Personal use
• Community use
• Farm reintroduced due to disease outbreak
• Establishment of new farms
• Preference for wild meat
What we know:
• Substanal evidence to show that this was the most signicant cause of decline in the salamander populaon
in the recent past
• Survey reveals city dwellers' preference for wild meat
27
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
• That there have been eorts to improve the legislaon that protects China’s threatened biodiversity
What we assume:
• It was felt that the irraonal use of such phenomena had declined
• Fewer farms
• Legislaon is eecve, enforcement is beer
What else do we need to know:
• Baseline for all current use and demand for freshwater resources in salamander habitats
• What is the current demand for new stock on salamander farms
• Consumer demand for salamanders
• How eecve is the current enforcement
What is currently done:
• Legislaon and protecon of species by law was established
• There are corresponding regulaons in all parts of China, and there have been some cases of public interest
prosecuons
What worked:
• The eecveness of the exisng protecon and the current dynamics and drivers of human-salamander
interacons in natural habitats is not yet known
What hasn’t worked:
• As above
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
• List all Andrias as a State 1 protected species
• Science-based recommendaons to recognise mulple Andrias species in legislaon
• Further targeted research using mulple methods (ecological, social science), and eecve communicaon
of informaon to relevant policymakers and government agencies
• Enhancement of the parcipaon and oversight of civil society organisaons in the conservaon of giant
salamanders
• Promoon of law enforcement and enhancement of its eecveness
What alternave acons exist:
• Enhancement of law enforcement and enforcement eecveness, as well as local community law
enforcement
• Cizen science monitoring
• Educational and behaviour change campaigns, ideally fronted in ways that will be maximally receptive for target
audiences e.g. by Chinese celebrities
• Increased segregaon between farmed and wild animals; disnguish between farmed and wild salamanders,
and have a beer understanding of both, as well as hybridizaon
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
• Promote legislaon to include new species for protecon;
• Drive implementaon eorts
• Raise public awareness of protecon
Statement: Wild harvesng used to be the most signicant threat to Chinese giant salamanders. Although the
dynamics of farming systems may have changed over the past decade, there is sll a lack of evidence on whether
ulisaon remains a threat or not, the situaon is further complicated by potenal and a lack of enforcement
of exisng legislaon
28
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
3.5 PROJECTS AND ACTIVITY TABLES
Table 8. Themac conservaon acons needed, relave urgency and suggested responsible pares
Themes for
acon
Acon
Urgency of acon
(high, medium, low)
Responsible body
Wild capture
/ ulisaon
Regulaons and policies promote the
development of conservaon plans to
include new species;
High
Government, NGOs,
lawyers, democrac
pares, news media,
scholars
Promote the strength and eecveness
of implementaon;
High to Medium
Government, NGOs
Promote behaviour change in consumers
High to Medium
Government, media,
NGOs
Raise public awareness of exisng
conservaon legislaon
Medium
Government, media,
NGOs
Habitat loss
and
degradaon
Reduce surface source pollution such as
pesticides and fertilisers and reduce
other directly harmful activities within
salamander habitat e.g. mining,
deforestation;
High
Government,
community, NGOs
(monitoring)
Change local legislation to further
protect giant salamander habitat
High
Government, protected
area management
agencies
Establish new protected areas for giant
salamanders;
High
Government, protected
area management
agencies, scienc
research units,
community
Improved enforcement of existing
legislation that protects giant
salamanders;
High
Government, protected
area management
agencies
Reduce human disturbance and
destrucon of habitats through public
and community educaon;
High
Communies, NGOs,
schools, governments,
protected area
management
organisaons, media
Conduct presence / absence studies of
suitable habitats and include key
habitats for protecon
High
Government, Protected
Area Management
Agencies, Research
Instuons, NGOs
Ensure environmental impact
assessments of any development /
industrial work are undertaken and that
these require environmental
offsetting/restoration;
High
Government, Protected
Area Management
Agencies, Research
Instuons, NGOs
Restore and rehabilitate suitable
habitat;
Medium to high
Governments, protected
area management
organisaons,
29
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
businesses, research
instuons
Preserve the ecological integrity of
habitats when treang small
watersheds;
Medium
Government, protected
area management
agencies, scienc
research units
Implement centralised stockpiling and
environmentally sound treatment of
domesc, agricultural and industrial
polluon;
Medium
Government,
community, NGOs
(monitoring)
Where feasible, consider modifying
microhabitats to help salamanders
adapt to climate change (e.g. planng
large trees along river channels to x
sand and regulate water; arcially
modied caves and deep pools as
potenal habitats)
Low
Government, protected
area management
agencies, scienc
research units
Wild Release
Modify and rene exisng release
protocols to make them more
enforceable;
High
Government, research
instutes, scholars,
academic sociees,
Improve the supervision of the release.
local assessment is needed to ensure
suitable ecological conditions for
released salamanders. Before release,
conduct a comprehensive survey
(inclusive of genec analyses and
disease screening) of the release area
to clarify that the origin of individuals in
the wild is consistent with those that
should occur naturally at the release
site; aer release, assess the eects of
enrichment and release, including
impacts on the wild giant salamander
populaon as well as on other species
and the habitats in which they are
found;
High
Media, NGO's,
government, research
units,
Establish or screen professional, local
release centres, such as original seed
farms, or rescue staons, to specify the
origin of released individuals and test
for pathogens;
High
Government, Research
Instuons, Enterprises
Strengthen regulaon to eliminate
individual releases;
High
Government, media,
religious groups,
Strengthen farm management pracces
to reduce farm escapes (ecological
farming requires even more aenon
to the breeding of individuals from local
seed sources);
High
Government, farms,
protected areas, NGOs
30
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Prerelease training for individual
salamanders that are desned for
release;
Low
Businesses, research
instuons,
governments,
Climate
Change
Modelling predicts potenal future
habitats and unsuitable habitats in
preparaon for future relocaon for
conservaon;
Medium
Scienc research
instuons, protected
area management
instuons,
Research climate change adaptaon in
giant salamanders;
Medium
Scienc research
instuons, protected
area management
organisaons,
enterprises
Develop conngency plans for dealing
with extreme weather;
Low
Research instutes,
governments, protected
area management
organisaons,
businesses
Management
Promote cross-sectoral coordinaon
High
NGO, government,
media,
Mobilise more funding for salamander
conservaon and research (push for
government budgets)
High
Government, NGOs,
enterprises, research
instutes, media,
Relocaon Conservaon Research and
Pracce
Low
Research instutes,
governments, protected
area management
organisaons, NGOs
Promoon of
scienc
research
Comprehensive surveys of wild
populaons: comprehensive surveys of
historical distribuon areas, surveys of
extant populaons, etc.
High
Government, research
instutes, protected
area management
organisaons, NGOs,
Taxonomic studies of species
(combining morphology and genecs);
High
Research instutes,
enterprises, NGOs
Comprehensive research into threats
inclusive of social science and economic
studies;
High
Research instutes,
enterprises, NGOs
Develop tools that reect ecological
health (rapid, collegiate assessment)
based on an understanding of habitats,
species, and ecosystems;
High
Government, Research
Instuons, NGOs,
protected area
management
organisaons
Research on epidemics, diseases,
pathogens, and prevenon and control
of salamanders;
Medium to High
Government, Research
Instuons, Enterprises,
NGOs
Conduct conservaon breeding
research on small populaons with
special genec traits;
Medium to High
Scienc research units,
protected area
management
organisaons
31
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
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