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A CONSERVATION ACTION PLAN FOR CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS

Authors:

Abstract

Chinese giant salamanders (Andrias spp.) are the world’s largest amphibians. These salamanders are economically important and are extensively farmed in China for their meat. Whilst Chinese giant salamanders were consumed historically across China, a large-scale farming industry was established in the early 2000s and giant salamanders were collected from the wild to stock these farms. Populations of Chinese giant salamanders have declined across China, and these declines have primarily been driven by overexploitation as well as habitat loss and degradation. Giant salamanders in China were once considered to be a single widespread species (Andrias davidianus) but genetic analyses have revealed that there are multiple species (likely at least seven) and that populations across central, eastern and southern China represent genetically distinct, local populations. Currently four species are formally named and recognised by the scientific community, and it is likely more will be described in future. China’s government has supported releases of farmed giant salamander as a conservation measure, but this has resulted in the release of non-native giant salamanders across China and there is a risk that wild populations could hybridise with released non-native species. An urgent, large scale conservation response is required if Chinese giant salamanders are to persist in the wild, and this will require a collaborative and coordinated strategy with all stakeholders.
A CONSERVATION ACTION PLAN FOR
CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS
JING MAO, CHUNBIN LI, CHENHAOJIA LIU, ZHONG ZHAO, XIANMAO FAN, JIE WANG, QINGHUA LUO, TIAN ZHAO, WENBO
WANG, FENG OUYANG, JIYONG WANG, ZHIGANG QIAO, ZHIQIANG LIANG, WUYING LIN, PEI WANG, DAJIE GONG, WEISHI
LIU, FANG YAN, ANDREW A. CUNNINGHAM, BENJAMIN TAPLEY, SAMUEL T. TURVEY, and AMAËL BORZÉE
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND
2.1 OVERVIEW OF SPECIES
2.2 DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION TRENDS
2.3 THREATS, POTENTIAL THREATS AND LIMITING FACTORS
2.4 EXTINCTION RISK
2.5 CULTURAL VALUES
2.6 CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT
3. LONG TERM RECOVERY STRATEGY 2024 2044
3.1 JUSTIFICATION
3.2 CONSERVATION OF CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS: BARRIERS, CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES
3.3 VISION, GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
3.4 UNDERSTANDING AND RANKING THREATS
3.5 PROJECTS AND ACTIVITY TABLES
4. REFERENCES
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
FOREWORD
The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) belongs to the Family Cryptobrachidae in the Order
Caudata of the Class Amphibia, it is endemic to China and commonly known as "wawa " in China. They
are called "living fossils" since their body structure has undergone no disnct changes in over 160 million
years. The Chinese giant salamander plays the role of a top predator in the freshwater ecosystem because
it sits at the top of the food chain, and therefore has important top-down eects on the ecosystem and
maintains the stability and balance of the ecosystem. Meanwhile, the Chinese giant salamander is a state
protected animal (grade II); in 1995, it was included on CITES appendix I; it is the Crically Endangered
species (CR) in the Red Book of Endangered Animals in 1998, and the Red List of Vertebrates in 2016 and
2021. Therefore, the Chinese giant salamander is a agship for amphibian conservaon.
The Chinese giant salamander is strongly aected by mulple factors, including habitat destrucon,
climate change, over exploraon, pathogens, environmental contaminaon and low genec diversity.
There are small populaons in the eld, but high abundance in the hatchery. The creaon of natural
reserves and reintroducon are the two main approaches to protect them. However, the eecveness of
these approaches is not so obvious, so we need improve our acons. Of which, greater collaboraon
between the dierent stakeholders is crically important. First, there is a need to carry out further surveys
of populaons in the eld and those held on farms to know the status of these populaons. This is the key
basic work to support the protecon of the Chinese giant salamander. The second is to understand the
genec relaonships between populaons and idenfy their lineages. The Chinese giant salamander is
now known to be comprised of seven dierent lineages, and some of them have been described as new
species, including A. sligoi, A. jiangxiensis, and A. cheni. Where each of these occur in nature needs to be
claried. Apparently, dierent lineages need be conserved separately. The third is to strengthen the
protecon of wild populaons and standardize the arcial breeding work in farms and conservaon
breeding. For this to occur, we need the creaon of mechanisms to facilitate the appropriate release of
giant salamanders acknowledging that there are recommendaons in place but no complete guidance on
implementaon.
I hope and believe that the new acon plan will improve the eects of work to protect the Chinese giant
salamanders.
Jianping JIANG
Chengdu Instute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
August 4, 2024
In Chengdu
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS
JING MAO1,2, CHUNBIN LI1, CHENHAOJIA LIU2, ZHONG ZHAO2, XIANMAO FAN3, JIE WANG4, QINGHUA LUO5, TIAN ZHAO 6,
WENBO WANG7, FENG OUYANG 8, JIYONG WANG9, ZHIGANG QIAO10, ZHIQIANG LIANG11, WUYING LIN12, PEI WANG 13,
DAJIE GONG14, WEISHI LIU15, FANG YAN16, ANDREW A. CUNNINGHAM17, BENJAMIN TAPLEY17,18, SAMUEL T. TURVEY17,
and AMAËL BORZÉE 18
1College of Resources and Environment Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China.
2Gansu Green Camel Bell Environment and Development Center, Lanzhou, China. 3Bikou town Taihe Giant
Salamander Breeding Base in Wen County, Gansu Province, China. 4Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, China. 5College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Changsha
University, Changsha, China. 6College of Fisheries, Southwest University, Chongqing, China. 7Department
of Life Sciences, Xianyang Normal University, Xianyang, China. 8 FAO/GEF wetland programme, Nanchang,
China. 9Guiyang Qianren Ecological Conservation Center, Guiyang, China. 10Henan Normal University,
Xinxiang, China. 11Hunan Fisheries Science Institute, Changsha, China. 12iConserve Eco-Technology Co.,
Shenzhen, China. 13Jishou University, Jishou, China. 14Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou, China.
15Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China. 16 School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China.
17Zoological Society of London, London, United Kingdom. 18Amphibian Specialist Group, Species Survival
Commission, IUCN.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful for the kind support of Ocean Park Conservaon Foundaon Hong Kong.
RECOMMENDED CITATION
Mao J, Li C, Liu C, Zhao Z, Fan X, Wang J, Luo Q, Zhao T, Wang W, Ouyang F, Wang J., Qiao, Z., Liang, Z.,
Lin, W., Wang, P., Gong, D., Liu, W., Yan, F., Cunningham, A.A., Tapley, B., Turvey, S.T. and Borzée, A. 2024.
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders. Green Camel Bell.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
1. INTRODUCTION
Chinese giant salamanders (Andrias spp.) are the world’s largest amphibians. These salamanders are
economically important and are extensively farmed in China for their meat. Whilst Chinese giant
salamanders were consumed historically across China, a large-scale farming industry was established in
the early 2000s and giant salamanders were collected from the wild to stock these farms. Populaons of
Chinese giant salamanders have declined across China, and these declines have primarily been driven by
overexploitaon as well as habitat loss and degradaon. Giant salamanders in China were once considered
to be a single widespread species (Andrias davidianus) but genec analyses have revealed that there are
mulple species (likely at least seven) and that populaons across central, eastern and southern China
represent genecally disnct, local populaons. Currently four species are formally named and recognised
by the scienc community, and it is likely more will be described in future. China’s government has
supported releases of farmed giant salamander as a conservaon measure, but this has resulted in the
release of non-nave giant salamanders across China and there is a risk that wild populaons could
hybridise with released non-nave species. An urgent, large scale conservaon response is required if
Chinese giant salamanders are to persist in the wild, and this will require a collaborave and coordinated
strategy with all stakeholders.
Figure 1. A Chinese giant salamander in capvity in Europe, rescued from the illegal wildlife trade © Benjamin
Tapley / ZSL
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
2.1 OVERVIEW OF SPECIES
2.1.1 TAXONOMIC BACKGROUND
The Chinese giant salamander has tradionally been interpreted as a single geographically wide-ranging
species that occurred across mulple river basins and montane ecoregions. In 1924 a second species of
Chinese giant salamander was described (Megalobatrachus sligoi, Boulenger 1924) based on a single
specimen that was found in the Hong Kong Botanic Gardens. It is thought that this specimen was likely
brought to Hong Kong from the nearby Chinese mainland (Liu, 1950). This species was subsequently
synonymised with A. davidianus with lile juscaon (Thorn, 1968).
Several studies ulising molecular tools have explored the populaon structuring of Chinese Andrias
(Murphy et al. 2000; Tao et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2017; Yan et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2019; Turvey et al.,
2019; Chai et al., 2022; Marr et al, In Press). Studies conducted by Murphy et al. (2000), Tao et al. (2005)
and Wang et al. (2017) all concluded that populaons of Andrias across southern, eastern and central
China represent local populaons that are genecally disnct from one another. A more comprehensive
study using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and single nucleode polymorphisms (SNPs) from both wild and
farmed salamanders found compelling evidence for the existence of ve to seven disnct species-level
clades, some of which were only known from individuals sampled on giant salamander breeding farms
(Yan et al., 2018). These clades were not consistently associated with specic geographical regions due to
the human-mediated transport and release of giant salamanders across China (Yan et al., 2018). A
subsequent study that ulised addional mtDNA data recovered the same seven clades and was able to
associate these with specic geographical locaons, demonstrang that dierent clades had largely
discrete distribuons that were associated with dierent watersheds and ecoregions (Liang et al., 2019).
Most recently, species delimitaon analyses using tree-based and alignment-based models using 30
mitogenomes found support for at least seven stascally-resolved Chinese species-level clades and most
models provided support for nine species-level clades (Marr et al., In Press).
Table 1. Overview of how dierent studies have referred to species level clades
Species
Clade according to Yan et al. (2018)
Clade according to Liang et al. (2019)
Andrias cheni
E
E
Andrias davidianus
B
G
Andrias jiangxiensis
U2
D
Andrias sligoi
D
B
Not currently named
A
A
Not currently named
C
F
Not currently named
U1
C
Aempts have been made to draw taxonomic conclusions from these and addional data. Turvey et al.
(2019) used near-complete mitogenomes from historical museum specimens that were collected prior to
the establishment of the large-scale farming industry and human-mediated movement of dierent Andrias
clades between watersheds and ecoregions. In this study, the authors were able to associate the specimen
that had been described as Megalobatrachus sligoi by Boulenger (1924) with one of the clades identified
by both Yan et al. (2018) and Liang et al. (2019), and thus resurrected A. sligoi as a valid species. In 2022
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Andrias jiangxiensis was described from wild specimens collected from within a protected area in
northwest Jiangxi Province (Chai et al., 2022). Most recently, Andrias cheni was described from Huangshan,
Anhui Province (Xu et al., 2023). Both Andrias jiangxiensis and Andrias cheni can be assigned to clades
reported by Yan et al. (2018) and Liang et al. (2019). It is likely that further clades will be described as
species new to science in the future.
Figure 2. The holotype of Andrias sligoi (aer Turvey et al., 2019)
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
2.1.2 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Chinese giant salamanders are the largest extant amphibians, growing to almost 2 m in total length, and
can weigh more than 50 kg (Wang et al., 2004). All Andrias species have large, broad aened heads and
small lidless eyes, aened bodies with obvious longitudinal folds, sturdy limbs, and a large compressed
tail. They are extremely variable in colouraon from black to dark red to numerous shades of brown, oen
with blotches (Sparreboom, 2004). Colour morphs are also reported from farms.
Figure 3. A Chinese giant salamander encountered during ecological surveys in Shaanxi Province © Benjamin
Tapley / ZSL.
Due to recent taxonomic changes and limitaons associated with small sample sizes, it is dicult to
summarise the key morphological dierences between all described and undescribed Andrias species.
Only a limited number of specimens of known provenance can be reliably associated with the clade that
corresponds to A. davidianus, and A. sligoi was described and subsequently resurrected based on a single
museum specimen. In their revision of A. sligoi as a valid species, Turvey et al. (2019) therefore refrained
from describing diagnosc morphological characters for either species based on such a small sample size.
The largest published account of a giant salamander is an individual that measured ve feet and nine
inches in length.
Andrias jiangxiensis is reported to dier from other Andrias species by the combinaon of the following
characters: 1) head length almost equal to head width; (2) head and lower jaw relavely smooth, with
8
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
small tubercles arranged irregularly; (3) lateral neck fold disconnuous with body fold at forelimb
inseron; (4) nger III disnctly longer than nger I; and (5) dorsum red-brown or yellow-brown in life,
with large, irregular black patches (Chai et al., 2022). The type series consists of animals with total lengths
ranging from 55.4-58.9 cm, but larger individuals up to 85 cm length were observed at the collecon site
(Chai et al., 2022).
Andrias cheni is reported to dier from other Andrias species by the combinaon of the following
characters: 1) head and torso at, head slightly longer than wide, and head width / head length rao 0.80-
0.98; (2) head and lower jaw relavely smooth, with small tubercles arranged irregularly; (3) lateral neck
fold disconnuous with body fold at forelimb inseron; (4) nger III longer than nger I, nger lengths
formula I < IV < III < II; (5) limbs are thick and short, with hind limbs longer than forelimbs, and forelimb
length /posterior limb length rao 0.78-0.96; (6) muscular tail, thick at base and gradually aening
posteriorly and distally, with tail length about 1/3 of total length (Xu et al., 2023). The type series includes
one specimen (the holotype) that has a total length of 97.4 cm (Xu et al., 2023).
2.1.3 BREEDING BEHAVIOUR
Note that the following informaon is not aributable to a specic Chinese Andrias species.
Figure 4. Chinese giant salamander larvae from a farm in Guizhou Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL
Chinese giant salamanders are thought to be sexually mature at 5-6 years of age (Cheng, 1998, Browne et
al., 2014). The reproducon cycle is seasonal, and gonad maturaon occurs from spring to summer when
water temperatures increase, food is more abundant and water ow decreases (Zhang et al., 2006;
Browne et al., 2014). Chinese giant salamanders breed via external ferlisaon in the aquac
environment, and spawning occurs in late summer in August and September (Zhang et al., 2006; Browne
et al., 2014). They typically spawn in dens under large rocks or cavies in the banks of streams and
subterranean caves, with dens typically having a single entrance (Wang et al., 2004; Luo et al., 2018; Liang
et al., 2019). Male Chinese giant salamanders prepare the nesng sites by clearing away sand and are
known to court females. Once a female enters a den, behaviours include head exposing, nest inspecon,
trailing, cloacal scenng, mouth contact and mounng the female’s back (Wu et al., 2010; Browne et al.,
2014; Luo et al., 2018). Males will mate with more than one female in a single den and clutches can exhibit
mulple paternies but are guarded by and aended by a dominant male known as a den master (Browne
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
et al., 2014). Eggs are 5-8mm when laid and increase to 15-20 mm when fully hydrated (Cheng, 1998,
Browne et al., 2014) and clutch size ranges from 300-560 eggs (Ge & Zheng 1994; Xiao et al., 2006; Liu et
al., 1999; Browne et al., 2014). Eggs are guarded by the male, and during brooding the male stops feeding
(Wu et al., 2010; Browne et al., 2014). Brooding and larval development occur unl early winter and the
larvae hatch at 3.0 cm in length (Ge and Zheng 1990). Larvae remain in the den unl the coldest period of
winter is over and yolk sacs have been absorbed, at which point they leave the den (Wu et al., 2010;
Browne et al., 2014). Larvae retain external gills unl they are 20 cm in length or approximately three
years old in the wild (Ge & Zheng 1994). Chinese giant salamanders have been known to survive for over
55 years (Ye et al., 1993). Generaon length is esmated to be 15 years (Liang et al., 2012).
2.1.4 DIET AND ECOLOGICAL ROLE
Chinese giant salamanders are apex predators of stream and river environments (Song, 1994). Although
the diet of wild Chinese giant salamanders is poorly known, they have been documented to consume
crabs, shrimp, frogs, sh, invertebrates, snakes, waterbirds and water shrews (Hu, 1987; Song, 1994; Luo
and Kang; 2009). Chinese giant salamanders are also known to be cannibalisc (Song, 1994).
2.1.5 HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
Chinese giant salamanders are aquac, and are known to inhabit clear, cool, slow to swi-owing streams
in well-vegetated, typically steep-sided valleys (Wang et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2018). Many remaining
populaons are associated with cave systems, oen in karst landscapes (Wang et al., 2017; Liang et al.,
2019). Streams inhabited by Chinese giant salamanders have caves and rocky banks and a pH of 6-7 (Wang
et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2018; Tapley et al., 2021). A study at a single site on released Chinese giant
salamanders found that male salamanders exhibited a preference to deep microhabitats with low
alkalinity whereas females preferred microhabitats with high water conducvity, low dissolved oxygen and
ammonium-nitrogen, and slow water movement (Zhao et al., 2023). Juveniles occupied microhabitats that
had low ammonium-nitrogen (Zhao et al., 2023). Forest cover and nitrates are other known predictors of
cryptobranchid salamander distribuon in the USA (Pugh et al., 2016; Jachowski and Hopkins, 2018), but
it is not known how important these parameters are for Chinese giant salamanders. Rocky cryptobranchid
microhabitats are detrimentally impacted by siltaon in the USA (Fobes, 1995) but the impact of siltaon
on Chinese giant salamanders has not been quaned.
Chen et al. (2018) developed a habitat suitability model using elevaon (190–1,330 m a.s.l.), forest cover,
mean annual precipitaon (≥732.6 mm mean annual precipitaon) and mean annual temperature (12.7–
16.8°C mean annual temperature), which was broadly congruent with the esmated historical IUCN range
map for Andrias davidianus (Liang et al., 2004).
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Figures 5 & 6. Chinese giant salamander habitat, Fanjingshan, Guizhou Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL.
Table 2. Mean (and range) for water and environmental parameters collected at sites where live Chinese giant
salamanders were collected during ecological surveys (aer Tapley et al., 2021).
Mean (range)
923 (716–1,076)
18.7 (14.2–20.9)
8.04 (7.50–8.68)
0.03 (0.00–0.09)
7.53 (6.46–7.94)
0.125 (0.00–2.00)
0.40 (0.0–2.0)
1.8 (2.0–5.0)
2.83 (0.3–3.8)
0.54 (0.09–0.93)
2.2 DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION TRENDS
2.2.1 HISTORICAL AND CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
The Chinese government has supported releases of farmed giant salamander as a conservaon measure.
This has resulted in the release of non-nave giant salamanders across China and greatly confuses the
interpretaon of geographical range data for individual species (Turvey et al., 2018, 2019; Yan et al., 2018;
Liang et al., 2019; Shu et al., 2021). In some cases, Andrias have been translocated outside of the genus’
natural geographical range (Shu et al., 2021) and up to four dierent species-level clades have been
detected at a single site (Shu et al., 2021).
Chinese Andrias are known to be invasive in Japan and readily hybridise with Japanese giant salamander
(Andrias japonicus); mtDNA specic to Chinese Andrias has been detected in environmental DNA surveys
11
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
of Japanese rivers, and some individuals exhibit intermediate morphology between Japanese and Chinese
species (Matsui et al., 2005; Fukumoto et al., 2015; Hara et al., 2023). Capve individuals of A. sligoi were
recently discovered in Japan (Nishikawa et al., 2024) and A. davidianus has been found in rivers around
Kyoto (Nishikawa et al., 2024). Clade U1 of Yan et al. (2018)/ Clade C of Liang et al. (2019) has also been
found in a river in Komatsushima (Nishikawa et al., 2024). This indicates that the Chinese giant
salamanders found in Japan have mulple origins. There are also unconrmed records of the species in
Taiwan, Province of China, but these have not been conrmed. However, Chinese giant salamanders that
were due to be illegally exported to Taiwan have been conscated in Fujian Province (IUCN SSC Amphibian
Specialist Group, 2023b).
Andrias cheni (Clade E of Yan et al., 2018 / Clade E of Liang et al., 2019)
The description of A. cheni is based on individuals that were collected from Qimen County, Anhui
Province prior to 1995 (Xu et al., 2023). This species is also reported from Xiuning, County, Anhui Province
and Qingyuan County, Zhejiang Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias davidianus (Clade B of Yan et al., 2018 / Clade G of Liang et al., 2019)
This species is only known to occur with certainty from Mabian Yi autonomous County, Meishan and Ya’an
in Sichuan Province (Liang et al., 2019; Turvey et al., 2019).
Andrias jiangxiensis (Clade U2 of Yan et al., 2018; Clade D of Liang et al., 2019)
Currently this species is only known to occur with certainty in Jiulingshan Naonal Nature Reserve,
Jing’an County, Jiangxi Province (Chai et al., 2022). This species has been recorded from Jing’an County
and Maoping township in Jiangxi Province, and Lianzhou in Guangdong Province (Liang et al. 2019).
Andrias sligoi (Clade D of Yan et al., 2018; Clade B of Liang et al., 2019)
Turvey et al. (2019) were unable to reliably associate this species with a specific region in China, but
Liang et al. (2019) indicate that A. sligoi has been recorded from Chongqing Municipality and Guizhou
and Hunan Provinces. The elevaon range of this species is thought to be between 390–1,300 m asl (Liang
et al. 2019).
Andrias “Guangxi Pearl River” (Clade A of Yan et al., 2018; Clade A of Liang et al., 2019)
Reported from Xing’an County, Guangxi Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias “Gansu” (Clade C of Yan et al., 2018; Clade F of Liang et al., 2019)
Reported from Qinzhou County, Gansu Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias “Hunan” (Clade U1 of Yan et al., 2018; Clade C of Liang et al., 2019)
Reported from Longhui County, Hunan Province (Liang et al., 2019).
Andrias “Qinghai”
In 1966, a giant salamander specimen was reportedly collected from the headwaters of the Yangtze River
in Qumalai County, Qinghai Province, at an elevaon of 4,200 m. If this record is correct, it could represent
a disjunct isolated salamander populaon or species occurring at an elevaon >2,000 m higher than any
other known populaon (Chen, 2011; Fei et al., 2012; Pierson et al., 2014). The existence or connued
survival of giant salamanders in Qinghai has not been conrmed in relavely recent small-scale survey
eorts (Pierson et al., 2014), and the taxonomic status of this populaon remains uncertain.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
2.2.2 ABUNDANCE AND POPULATION TRENDS
Chinese giant salamanders, even in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been declining since at
least the 1980s due to local consumpon and/or exploitaon for trade (Turvey et al., 2021). A further
escalaon in the decline of wild populaons in the early 2000s was driven by the development of the giant
salamander farming industry, and populaons declined due to extracon of wild animals across China to
stock farms (Cunningham et al., 2016; Turvey et al., 2018). In some places, surviving populaons may now
be restricted to caves due to high levels of exploitaon in accessible non-subterranean habitats (Liang et
al., 2019). Conversely, millions of individuals exist in farms (Cunningham et al., 2016).
There is an inferred dramac populaon decline of at least 80% across the range of Chinese giant
salamanders. Interviews conducted with freshwater resource users from 2013-2016 recorded that 46.9%
of over 2,900 people living within 1 km of the 97 eld survey sites had seen a giant salamander in their
lifeme, but across China, the mean me of last giant salamander sighngs was 18.96 years
earlier (Turvey et al., 2018). Only 24 salamander individuals were detected at just four sites during
extensive ecological surveys conducted in 2013-2016. These surveys took place in suitable habitat (and
oen at sites with local historical records) across the known range of Chinese giant salamanders (Turvey et
al., 2018). Evidence of electroshing or the use of poison (known methods for harvesng giant
salamanders) was observed at 25% of the study sites (Turvey et al., 2018; Tapley et al., 2021). Surveys
for Chinese giant salamanders in Qinghai Province from June and July 2017 found no direct evidence of
the species, although there were unveried reports of sighngs by local people, the most recent dang
from 2012 (Pierson et al., 2014).
Chinese giant salamander populaons are severely fragmented, and more than 50% of populaons are
inferred to occur in patches with no natural dispersal between them (IUCN SSC, 2023a, b). Wild
populaons of Chinese giant salamanders are now crically depleted or exrpated across large areas of
suitable habitat (Turvey et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2018; Tapley et al., 2021).
2.3 THREATS, POTENTIAL THREATS AND LIMITING FACTORS
2.3.1 RELEASES, HYBRIDISATION AND DISEASE
Since 2002, farmed Chinese giant salamanders have been released across China as part of a well-
intenoned ongoing programme by Chinese naonal and provincial governments. The aim of this release
programme is to restock wild populaons. From 2002 to 2019 at least 287,840 farmed salamanders were
released across China (Shu et al., 2021). However, these releases have not been informed by genec
screening, and the wide-scale transportaon and release of giant salamanders across China has already
resulted in the genec homogenisaon of some local populaons (Yan et al., 2018) and introducon of
non-nave species with as many as four non-nave species-level clades have been detected at some sites
(Shu et al., 2021). At least 10% of Chinese giant salamander releases are thought to have occurred outside
suitable habitat and some individuals have even been released in Beijing, more than 600km northeast of
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
nave Chinese Andrias range (Shu et al., 2021). Hybrids between Chinese and Japanese giant salamanders
are now invasive in parts of Japan (Fukumoto et al., 2015; Nishikawa et al., 2024). Given that Andrias spp.
from China are more closely related to each other than A. japonicus, it is likely that dierent species of
giant salamanders in China are able to hybridise. It is therefore likely that hybridisaon with both described
and undescribed congeners is a threat to this species. China's Aquac Wildlife Conservaon Associaon
(CAWCA) has acknowledged that there are at least ve species of giant salamanders in China and
recommend that releases of giant salamanders from farms should be prohibited unless animals are
genecally screened to conrm species identy. Unfortunately, there is no centralised mechanism in place
to ensure that genec screening is undertaken, that results are correctly interpreted, and appropriate
release sites for each species are idened.
Figure 7. The corpse of a Chinese giant salamander found at a site where farmed animals had been recently released
© Jay Redbond / ZSL
Ranavirus is known to cause disease in farmed Chinese giant salamanders (Geng et al., 2011; Cunningham
et al., 2016). There is a risk that pathogens that cause disease in farmed giant salamanders could be
inadvertently released with released salamanders, and this poses a threat to wild amphibians (Daszak et
al., 2003; Cunningham et al., 2016). Disease is likely a low threat to Chinese giant salamanders in the wild,
however it has been a historic driver for wild collecon to repopulate farms depopulated by ranavirosis
outbreaks (). Pathogens released with salamanders could cause disease in conspecics or in dierent
species present at release sites or even impact ecosystem processes, human health and livelihoods. The
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Internaonal Union for the Conservaon of Nature has published guidelines for reintroducons and other
conservaon translocaons (IUCN SSC, 2013), which require that diseases are considered in any
translocaon or release.
Unfortunately, there is no current evidence that the widespread and deliberate releases of farmed
individuals as a conservaon measure have resulted in the establishment of viable populaons (Shu et al.,
2021). However, dead giant salamanders have been reported at release sites (Fig. 7; Turvey et al., 2018).
2.3.2 OVEREXPLOITATION
The range-wide decline of giant salamanders across China has been aributed to overexploitaon for
various food markets (Wang et al., 2004; Feng et al., 2007; Dai et al., 2009; Cunningham et al., 2016;
Turvey et al., 2018, 2021; IUCN SSC, 2023a,b), and to habitat loss and degradaon resulng from
anthropogenic modicaon of freshwater habitats, including pollutant emissions and alteraon of ow
regimes and water turbidity from damming (Wang et al., 2004; Dai et al., 2009).
Figure 8. A Chinese giant salamander (likely farm bred) being sold in a supermarket in Guiyang © Benjamin Tapley /
ZSL
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Figure 9. Electroshing in Chinese giant salamander habitat © Thomas Brown / ZSL (le).
Figure 10. A bow hook targeng Chinese giant salamanders in a protected area in Guizhou Province © Benjamin
Tapley / ZSL (right)
Figure 11. Industrial-style Chinese giant salamander farm in Gansu Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL (le)
Figure 12. Industrial-style Chinese giant salamander farm in Shaanxi Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL (middle)
Figure 13. A farm using “wild type” farming methods in Gansu Province © Chenhaojia Liu (right)
In recent years there have been several reported cases of illegal internaonal trade in Chinese giant
salamanders, and animals have been seized from the illegal wildlife trade in the United States of America,
United Kingdom, Philippines, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore.
Giant salamander populaons in areas of good-quality habitat have probably been in decline from at least
the 1980s, due to local consumpon and/or exploitaon for trade; this is several decades before the
development of the Chinese giant salamander farming industry (Turvey et al., 2021). Overall, 15.4% of
2,932 respondents in rural communies had consumed giant salamanders, with dates of last consumpon
ranging from the 1940s to 2010 (Turvey et al. 2021). Since the farming industry was established there has
been a major escalaon in levels of exploitaon (Turvey et al., 2018, 2021), including the illegal collecon
of wild giant salamanders to stock farms, which was sll occurring as recently as 2016 (Cunningham et al.,
2016; Turvey et al., 2021). A study on the Chinese giant salamander farming industry undertaken between
2013 and 2016 esmated that there were at least 42,000 wild-caught breeding adult giant salamanders
and 164,000 wild-caught subadults in farms across China at the me of the survey (Turvey et al., 2021).
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Interviews with both urban and rural user groups demonstrate wide-scale and largely unregulated illegal
hunng to stock farms at a country-wide scale to support demand by urban consumers for high-presge
rare meat (Turvey et al., 2021). Evidence for hunng during the same survey was widespread, with bow
hooks, electroshing and evidence of poisoning observed across the range of the Chinese giant
salamanders, even within protected areas (Turvey et al., 2018, 2021; Tapley et al., 2021).
2.3.3 HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION
Habitat loss and fragmentaon are highly likely to have a detrimental impact on remaining Chinese giant
salamanders. The top ve Chinese provinces for broad-scale deforestaon are all within the range of
Chinese giant salamanders (Ren et al., 2015), and giant salamanders are known to be associated with
forest cover (Wang et al., 2004). Good-quality aquac habitat for Chinese giant salamanders has declined
across China in recent decades due to water development projects, polluon, industrialisaon and
urbanisaon (Dai et al., 2009). Much of the surveyed habitat for salamanders in Qinghai Province was
deemed unsuitable for giant salamanders due to turbidity resulng from mining and erosion (Pierson et
al., 2014), and it is believed that Andrias davidianus has been exrpated from its type locality due to similar
aquac habitat degradaon (Dai et al., 2009). However, Chinese giant salamanders do occur in
approximately dierent protected areas. In some cases, these protected areas have been relavely
eecve at protecng wild populaons (e.g. Chai et al., 2022).
2.3.4 CLIMATE CHANGE
Chinese giant salamanders are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Species distribuon modelling
predicts that more than two thirds of currently predicted suitable habitat will be lost in all modelled
climate change scenarios (Zhang et al., 2019). Furthermore, approximately 25% of exisng naonal and
provincial nature reserves that currently have suitable Chinese giant salamander habitat are thought to
become unsuitable by 2050 due to the impact of climate change (Zhang et al., 2020). Climate change is
also known to impact amphibian pathogen disease dynamics (e.g. Price et al., 2019). However, none of
the studies on the potenal impacts of climate change on Chinese giant salamanders have aempted to
look at the impacts on individual Chinese giant salamander species.
2.4 EXTINCTION RISK
Currently, only A. davidianus and A. sligoi have been assessed by the IUCN (IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist
Group, 2023a, b). However, all described and putave species would likely qualify for being assessed as
Crically Endangered, as data for all species other than Andrias sligoi were incorporated into the IUCN Red
List assessment for A. davidianus due to the taxonomic uncertainty at the me the Andrias Red List
workshop took place.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Box 1. Exncon risk for dierent Andrias species according to the IUCN Red List.
2.5 CULTURAL VALUES
Figure 14. Poery vases dated from 5,000-6,000 years B.P. depicng Chinese giant salamander designs, unearthed
in Gansu Province © Benjamin Tapley / ZSL
Chinese giant salamanders have been depicted and used in China for more than 5,000 years, with some
of the earliest images of these animals associated with poery from the Yangshao culture of the Yellow
River region. Chinese giant salamanders are perceived to have a wide range of benets in tradional
medicine (He et al., 2018) and have been used for this purpose for at least 2,000 years (Strassberg, 2002).
However, a recent study of local communies living alongside Chinese giant salamanders found that whist
Chinese giant salamanders were used in tradional medicine (specically for skin ailments), no one
reported using salamanders for this purpose this century. They have also a long history of being exploited
for meat, with the rst record of human consumpon dang back more than 3,500 years ago (Ebrey, 1996;
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Browne et al., 2020). Chinese texts also suggest that two entwined Chinese giant salamanders could have
inspired the Taoist yin-yang symbol.
Some research has reported cultural taboos associated with Chinese giant salamanders and the
percepon that salamanders were ‘dirty’ or ‘bad luck’, which could have limited exploitaon historically
(Cunningham et al., 2016; Turvey et al., 2021). Chinese giant salamanders are well known by the human
communies that live alongside them, with 27 dierent names or name variants reported for giant
salamanders across their range in China, and with local tradions, stories and legends reported in 12
provinces (Turvey et al., 2021). Giant salamanders have a reported associaon with children due to their
general appearance and the reported crying sound they are said to make, with associated local stories of
babies (especially dead or illegimate babies) turning into salamanders. There are also local stories that
salamanders eat children, especially dead children; and that they are bad luck and that it is forbidden to
eat them because they had transformed from dead babies (Turvey et al., 2021). Use of salamanders varied
across dierent ethnic groups (Turvey et al., 2021). However, the widespread reported consumpon of
Chinese giant salamanders indicates that these taboos or negave associaons are insucient in liming
their exploitaon.
2.6 CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT
2.6.1. PROTECTION STATUS
Chinese giant salamanders were designated as a Class II state key protected wildlife species in China in
1988, which makes hunng or collecon illegal without an ocial permit (Dai et al., 2009), although this
legislaon only applies to A. davidianus. All Andrias species have been included on CITES Appendix I since
1975 a. The genus is considered a global priority for conservaon due to its evoluonary history and global
endangerment (Isaac et al., 2012). In 2012, President Xi Jinping iniated an ongoing naon-wide an-
corrupon campaign aimed at reducing the consumpon of rare animal products at ocial banquets, and
demand for consumpon of Chinese giant salamanders at banquets declined as a result (Turvey et al.,
2021). The COVID-19 pandemic led to further restricons on naonal trade in wild animal products in
China, although these restricons do not apply specically to giant salamanders (Borzée et al., 2021).
Since 2002, the Chinese government has been carrying out a naonal acon plan for Chinese giant
salamander reintroducon into the wild, but this reintroducon plan has not considered the
phylogeography of the genus (Yan et al., 2018). There is no published evidence to indicate that these
release programmes have resulted in the establishment of viable populaons (Turvey et al., 2018; Shu et
al., 2021).
Chinese giant salamanders are reported to occur in over 50 naonal, provincial and county-level nature
reserves, and in some cases giant salamanders are the main conservaon target of the protected area.
Determining whether these reserves are eecve in protecng Chinese giant salamanders is challenging.
Releases of farmed individuals are known to occur in protected areas (e.g., Luo et al., 2009), and these
releases could include species of Chinese giant salamander that are locally non-nave. It has been
reported that releases of Chinese giant salamanders into protected areas have decreased in recent years
(IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2023a). However, Chinese giant salamander poaching has been
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
recently reported to occur in protected areas relavely recently (Tapley et al., 2015, 2021). Conservaon
breeding eorts are reportedly underway for both A. sligoi and A. davidianus at the Hunan Giant
Salamander Rescue Centre (IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 2023a) and there have been calls for
the establishment of more facilies in China for the conservaon breeding for all species of Chinese giant
salamander (Turvey et al., 2018, 2019).
3. LONG TERM RECOVERY STRATEGY 2024 2044
3.1 JUSTIFICATION
Chinese giant salamanders occur over a large geographical area and the threats posed to them are diverse,
and addressing these will require the acve parcipaon of many dierent stakeholders. There is now a
sucient evidence-base on which to act to prevent the imminent exncon of the named and unnamed
giant salamanders. To this end two NGOs, Green Camel Bell and the Zoological Society of London, worked
with the Chinese Academy of Science to organise a workshop on the conservaon of Chinese giant
salamanders (Mao et al., 2024), which was held in Lanzhou in October 2023. This mul-stakeholder
workshop brought together 32 stakeholders with experse in giant salamanders from across China,
including from regional and naonal governments, business, NGOs and academia (including genec,
ecological and conservaon research), together the IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. Of these 32
parcipants, 29 were Chinese naonals, thus ensuring that the acon plan is locally led.
Figure 15. Parcipants at the Conservaon Acon Plan Workshop for Chinese giant salamanders held in October
2023, Lanzhou © Green Camel Bell.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
3.2 CONSERVATION OF CHINESE GIANT SALAMANDERS: BARRIERS,
CHALLENGES AND DIFFICULTIES
Table 3. Results of the group discussion on current barriers, challenges and dicules in conserving
Chinese giant salamanders.
SPECIES DELIMITATION
The idencaon of the dierent Chinese giant salamander species is challenging, as they
have extremely similar morphology and there are no well-established guidelines for being
able to disnguish between them without genec analysis
Need for simplied morphological denions and simplied species idencaon to
facilitate conservaon and management
Conservaon should be at the species level or subspecies if these are idened in future.
Delimitaon of new species has an impact on the protecon that a new species will
receive.
Not all species currently receive legal protecon, so laws need to be updated to include
protecon for all species of Andrias nave to China
RELEASES FROM FARMS
Standardised guidelines for the releases of farmed salamanders exist at the naonal level
but these are not followed or enforced.
Improving the eecveness of releases
How should animals be selected for release?
Where is the best place to release animals?
How should animals be screened for diseases and which pathogens should be screened
for?
How should post release monitoring be undertaken?
MANAGEMENT OF
HABITAT
Irraonal delineaon of boundaries and funconal areas of protected areas, conicts
with neighbouring communies, and failure to enable communies to take an acve role
in conservaon management
Are exisng laws good enough in their wording, coverage and goal to be eecve?
Illegal shing and illegal trade could sll occur within some protected areas, unknown
ecacy of legal enforcement?
The habitat in the range of the Chinese giant salamanders is not adequately protected
The habitat and environmental requirements of dierent Chinese giant salamander
species are not adequately understood
IMPACTS OF FARMING
Preservaon of natural populaons in the wild as far as possible, retaining their natural
aributes (which may be lost in aquaculture releases)
How to dierenate between farmed and wild stocks for management
Huge losses in the farming sector and the need to promote raonal ulisaon of
remaining farm animals
We do not know enough about the current state and dynamics of the market; is there sll
a market demand for farmed salamanders, and/or is there sll a demand for illegal
collecon from the wild?
Unknown what will happen to the exisng farmed salamanders if there is no longer a
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
huge market demand for farmed salamanders. Improper disposal may become a new
threat to conservaon in the future.
LOW CONSERVATION
PROFILE
Lack of professional conservaon instuons, professional capacity to promote giant
salamander conservaon
Lack of adequate social aenon on the conservaon of giant salamanders
RESEARCH GAPS
We do not know enough about the distribuon, ecological requirements, status and
threats to wild populaons. There is a need for careful collecon of data on ecological
characteriscs and behaviour of wild populaons.
Taxonomy
There is a need for need for both ecological and social-science research programmes, to
understand both the biological/ecological and human dimensions of social-ecological
systems in which giant salamanders survive in China
There needs to be more research on the impact of global climate change
3.3 VISION AND OBJECTIVES
Vision: To eecvely conserve China's wild giant salamanders and
their habitats as a global model for wildlife conservaon.
Objecve: By 2043, each Chinese giant salamander species will occupy
suitable and stable habitat within its natural range, that support
healthy, viable wild populaons and genec diversity.
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A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
3.4 UNDERSTANDING AND RANKING THREATS
Workshop parcipants reviewed the exisng knowledge of Chinese giant salamanders and the dierent
threats they face and were tasked with analysing these threats and ranking them in order.
Figure 16. Ranked threats for Chinese giant salamanders
Workshop parcipants were then tasked with delving deeper into analysing the four threats that were
considered to pose the greatest risk to Chinese giant salamanders.
Table 4. The threat of wild release
Name of threat: Wild release
Descripon of the threat:
Unreasonable stock enhancement
Deliberate release of adults and larvae
Accidental escape from farms
Impact of the threat:
Genec contaminaon
Diseases transfers
Exceeding environmental carrying capacity
Causes of the threat:
Inadequate stock enhancement / release protocols (not managed by naonal regulaons, inadequate
23
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
supervision, standards need to be improved and enforceable)
Release: poor public awareness of wild salamander conservaon requirements
Escape: poor management of farmed populaons, natural disasters
What we know: Standardised guidelines exist for the release of Chinese giant salamanders from farms but
these guidelines are not enforced and could be improved. Releases are not undertaken following national
regulations, and there is inadequate monitoring
The need to release only locally-occurring species is not always known or appreciated
The identity of locally-occurring species also presumably isn’t known by the people doing the release
High number of releases
The environment is somemes assessed at the me of release, but subsequent monitoring of individual
releases is inadequate
Post release screening for genecs and disease does not always occur
What we assume:
Paral releases are successful (denion: stable populaons in the wild with natural reproducon)
Most of the released individuals are nave species
What else do we need to know:
The methods and standards that are needed to ensure adequate prerelease screening
The status of any exisng wild populaon at release sites
How sites and animals are chosen for release
Sources of released animals
How to test the eecveness of the release
What is currently done:
Relevant standards have been developed in the agricultural sector but there is no mechanism to implement
the standards
We are developing a beer understanding of Chinese giant salamander taxonomy to guide releases
What worked:
Some suitable arcial enrichment releases have had an enrichment eect on wild populaons (giant
salamanders being seen more frequently or seen again aer they have disappeared)
Published research provides some guidance (e.g., site selecon)
What hasn’t worked:
Failure to use genec screening to idenfy animals that are suitable for release
Failure to use health screening to idenfy animals that are suitable for release
No organisaon is coordinang or regulang the releases and their impacts
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
Improve post-release surveillance and monitoring
Detecon of origin and pathogen screening of all released individuals
Ensure that provenance of released animals is known, xed and traceable
What alternave acons exist:
Establishment of dedicated local release centres (original seed farm or rescue staon using animals of known
provenance)
Collecng wild founders for ex situ conservaon
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
Ensuring the appropriate species is released at the site
Ensuring that no diseases are introduced to wild populaons during releases
Reducing the number of accidental releases by idenfying how these potenally occur and suggesng how
these accidents might be migated in future
Remove non nave giant salamanders
Ensuring that the nave species in each locality is conserved, and that the maximum amount of species
diversity is protected over the largest possible area
Increased numbers of individuals of each species in the wild
24
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Statement: Chinese giant salamanders are deliberately released from farms into the wild on a large scale. These
releases are not well planned or coordinated and post-release monitoring is subopmal. Some animals also
escape from farms. This poses a threat to wild populaons through genec contaminaon and potenally
pathogen polluon. These releases are not known to have resulted in the establishment of any self-sustaining
giant salamander populaons
Table 5. The threat of habitat loss and degradaon
Name of threat: Habitat loss and degradaon
Descripon of the threat:
Human-induced: mining, sand dredging, infrastructure construcon, hydroelectric facilies, polluon,
deforestaon
Natural: increased intensity and frequency of oods, mudslides, droughts
The impact of the threat:
Reducing water quality, ow and other aquac condions directly aect habitat so that it can no longer
support the survival of salamanders
Causes habitat fragmentaon and disrupon of habitat connecvity
Causes of the threat:
Anthropogenic: economic development and industrialisaon
Destrucon by natural disasters
Climate change
What we know:
Acvies such as sand mining, dredging and polluon destroys habitat and / or cause habitat quality to
decline
Hydropower facilies reduce habitat connecvity and water ow
Hydropower facilies result in a reducon in breeding sites (complete submersion or exposure)
Direct destrucon of habitat by natural disasters
What we assume:
Noise and / or polluon caused by infrastructure development, such as reduced water quality, aects the
survival and behaviour of salamanders
What else do we need to know:
The effectiveness of existing conservation legislation and management to protect salamander habitat and
enforce bans against harmful activities in protected habitats
Hydrological and water quality requirements for salamander survival and reproducon
How noise and vibraon might impact the behaviour and survival of giant salamanders
What is currently done:
Habitat protecon through the establishment of nature reserves, prohibion of sand dredging in rivers,
removal of small hydroelectric power staons, sewerage jurisdicons, shing ban noces, prohibion on
the use of poison for shing
What worked:
Protected areas, prohibion of sand dredging, dismantling of small hydropower, sewage management,
prohibion of sh poisoning at least in some areas
What hasn’t worked:
Not all areas with giant salamander populations are protected. The scale and effectiveness of these mitigations
(prohibition of sand dredging, dismantling of small hydropower, sewage management, prohibition of fish
poisoning) is probably not sufficient?
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
Better spatial assessment of the level and ecological impact of different anthropogenic threats, associated with
spatial and population-level modelling to determine the likely impact they’re having on habitat integrity and
salamander population survival
25
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Centralised stockpiling and environmentally sound management of domesc waste
Arcial construcon of deep pools and other suitable habitats (vegetaon restoraon along riverbanks to
regulate small ecosystems)
Encourage urban migraon to reduce impact to giant salamander habitats
Habitat diversity is retained in small watershed management
What alternave acons exist:
Improved waste management in rural areas
Largescale Chinese giant salamander habitat restoraon
Spatial relocation of all harmful activities to landscapes that aren’t priorities for salamanders
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
Habitat restoraon, improved habitat connecvity, improvement of breeding habitats, wild populaon
recovery
Statement: Human-induced habitat loss and degradaon such as sand mining, dredging, and water facilies
disrupt giant salamander habitat quality and / or connecvity. Natural disasters have been idened as directly
aecng salamander habitats and even the animals themselves. We need better spatial assessment of the level
and ecological impact of different anthropogenic threats, associated with spatial and population-level
modelling to determine the likely impact they’re having on habitat integrity and salamander population
survival. We need further research to provide evidence of any impact of noise and vibraon on the physiological
well-being and behaviour of Chinese giant salamanders
Table 6. The threat of climate change
Name of threat: Climate change
Descripon of the threat:
Changes in temperature, extremes, temperature dierences, etc.
Changes in rainfall
Climate change driving the change in habitats (e.g. vegetaon)
Changes in frequency and severity of extreme weather events that can damage salamander habitat (e.g.
ooding, storms and associated forest loss and run-o)
The impact of the threat:
Temperature changes can aect the me and ability for salamander eggs to hatch and may impact larval
development and food availability for giant salamanders
Increase in extreme weather events e.g., ooding or drought, which can directly or indirectly aect
salamanders or their food and habitats
Salamanders will have to adapt to this climate change-induced habitat change to survive longer
Causes of the threat:
Global climate change caused by fossil fuel emissions, land use changes, food producon and over
consumpon
What we know:
There have been increases in extreme weather events in China and elsewhere
Current research shows that future climate change scenarios will make many protected areas unsuitable for
Chinese giant salamanders
What we assume:
Extreme weather events will connue to increase
That model predicons using China-wide data are locally relevant for each geographically restricted
salamander species in dierent areas of China
It is possible to make meaningful predicons about aquac habitat change and its varying future suitability
for salamanders at local scales
What else do we need to know:
If there are parcular species of giant salamander that may be impacted by climate change
26
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Whether giant salamanders can adapt to climate change
What is currently done:
Basic research on the impacts of global climate change on amphibian survival that has been done in China
and abroad
What worked:
Currently unknown
What hasn’t worked:
Currently unknown
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
Idenfy and designate more protected areas that will be suitable for Chinese giant salamanders under future
climate change scenarios
Further scienc research on environmental requirements and adaptability of giant salamanders, including
research on changing environmental factors and temperature
What alternave acons exist:
In situ protecon in the wild
If in situ conservaon is not possible, develop conservaon breeding programmes and undertake
translocaons
Assisted colonisaon
Gene bank preservaon
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
To have populaons of all Chinese giant salamanders occurring in the wild in at least some part of their
natural range under all predicted future climate change scenarios
Statement: Global climate change could aect the survival of Chinese giant salamanders
Table 7. The threat of collecon from the wild.
Name of threat: Collecon from the wild
Descripon of the threat:
There is illegal collecon and legal collecon
There may be a need to replenish farm stocks, community needs, etc.
Farmers and consumers may have a preference for wild individuals
Enforcement may not be sucient based on historical data, but the situaon may have changed
Based on exisng discussions, many stakeholders believe that wild collecon/exploitaon is now greatly
reduced, there is evidence of a reducon in the number of farms, and it is assumed that legislaon and
enforcement is eecve
The impact of the threat:
Decrease in eecve populaon sizes of wild giant salamanders, inclusive local exrpaon of many
populaons and potenal exncon of some species in the wild
Causes of the threat:
Removal of wild animals to supply farms
Local use
Personal use
Community use
Farm reintroduced due to disease outbreak
Establishment of new farms
Preference for wild meat
What we know:
Substanal evidence to show that this was the most signicant cause of decline in the salamander populaon
in the recent past
Survey reveals city dwellers' preference for wild meat
27
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
That there have been eorts to improve the legislaon that protects China’s threatened biodiversity
What we assume:
It was felt that the irraonal use of such phenomena had declined
Fewer farms
Legislaon is eecve, enforcement is beer
What else do we need to know:
Baseline for all current use and demand for freshwater resources in salamander habitats
What is the current demand for new stock on salamander farms
Consumer demand for salamanders
How eecve is the current enforcement
What is currently done:
Legislaon and protecon of species by law was established
There are corresponding regulaons in all parts of China, and there have been some cases of public interest
prosecuons
What worked:
The eecveness of the exisng protecon and the current dynamics and drivers of human-salamander
interacons in natural habitats is not yet known
What hasn’t worked:
As above
What acons can be taken to counter these threats:
List all Andrias as a State 1 protected species
Science-based recommendaons to recognise mulple Andrias species in legislaon
Further targeted research using mulple methods (ecological, social science), and eecve communicaon
of informaon to relevant policymakers and government agencies
Enhancement of the parcipaon and oversight of civil society organisaons in the conservaon of giant
salamanders
Promoon of law enforcement and enhancement of its eecveness
What alternave acons exist:
Enhancement of law enforcement and enforcement eecveness, as well as local community law
enforcement
Cizen science monitoring
Educational and behaviour change campaigns, ideally fronted in ways that will be maximally receptive for target
audiences e.g. by Chinese celebrities
Increased segregaon between farmed and wild animals; disnguish between farmed and wild salamanders,
and have a beer understanding of both, as well as hybridizaon
What are our goals in dealing with the threat:
Promote legislaon to include new species for protecon;
Drive implementaon eorts
Raise public awareness of protecon
Statement: Wild harvesng used to be the most signicant threat to Chinese giant salamanders. Although the
dynamics of farming systems may have changed over the past decade, there is sll a lack of evidence on whether
ulisaon remains a threat or not, the situaon is further complicated by potenal and a lack of enforcement
of exisng legislaon
28
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
3.5 PROJECTS AND ACTIVITY TABLES
Table 8. Themac conservaon acons needed, relave urgency and suggested responsible pares
Themes for
acon
Acon
Urgency of acon
(high, medium, low)
Responsible body
Wild capture
/ ulisaon
Regulaons and policies promote the
development of conservaon plans to
include new species;
High
Government, NGOs,
lawyers, democrac
pares, news media,
scholars
Promote the strength and eecveness
of implementaon;
High to Medium
Government, NGOs
Promote behaviour change in consumers
High to Medium
Government, media,
NGOs
Raise public awareness of exisng
conservaon legislaon
Medium
Government, media,
NGOs
Habitat loss
and
degradaon
Reduce surface source pollution such as
pesticides and fertilisers and reduce
other directly harmful activities within
salamander habitat e.g. mining,
deforestation;
High
Government,
community, NGOs
(monitoring)
Change local legislation to further
protect giant salamander habitat
High
Government, protected
area management
agencies
Establish new protected areas for giant
salamanders;
High
Government, protected
area management
agencies, scienc
research units,
community
Improved enforcement of existing
legislation that protects giant
salamanders;
High
Government, protected
area management
agencies
Reduce human disturbance and
destrucon of habitats through public
and community educaon;
High
Communies, NGOs,
schools, governments,
protected area
management
organisaons, media
Conduct presence / absence studies of
suitable habitats and include key
habitats for protecon
High
Government, Protected
Area Management
Agencies, Research
Instuons, NGOs
Ensure environmental impact
assessments of any development /
industrial work are undertaken and that
these require environmental
offsetting/restoration;
High
Government, Protected
Area Management
Agencies, Research
Instuons, NGOs
Restore and rehabilitate suitable
habitat;
Medium to high
Governments, protected
area management
organisaons,
29
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
businesses, research
instuons
Preserve the ecological integrity of
habitats when treang small
watersheds;
Medium
Government, protected
area management
agencies, scienc
research units
Implement centralised stockpiling and
environmentally sound treatment of
domesc, agricultural and industrial
polluon;
Medium
Government,
community, NGOs
(monitoring)
Where feasible, consider modifying
microhabitats to help salamanders
adapt to climate change (e.g. planng
large trees along river channels to x
sand and regulate water; arcially
modied caves and deep pools as
potenal habitats)
Low
Government, protected
area management
agencies, scienc
research units
Wild Release
Modify and rene exisng release
protocols to make them more
enforceable;
High
Government, research
instutes, scholars,
academic sociees,
Improve the supervision of the release.
local assessment is needed to ensure
suitable ecological conditions for
released salamanders. Before release,
conduct a comprehensive survey
(inclusive of genec analyses and
disease screening) of the release area
to clarify that the origin of individuals in
the wild is consistent with those that
should occur naturally at the release
site; aer release, assess the eects of
enrichment and release, including
impacts on the wild giant salamander
populaon as well as on other species
and the habitats in which they are
found;
High
Media, NGO's,
government, research
units,
Establish or screen professional, local
release centres, such as original seed
farms, or rescue staons, to specify the
origin of released individuals and test
for pathogens;
High
Government, Research
Instuons, Enterprises
Strengthen regulaon to eliminate
individual releases;
High
Government, media,
religious groups,
Strengthen farm management pracces
to reduce farm escapes (ecological
farming requires even more aenon
to the breeding of individuals from local
seed sources);
High
Government, farms,
protected areas, NGOs
30
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
Prerelease training for individual
salamanders that are desned for
release;
Low
Businesses, research
instuons,
governments,
Climate
Change
Modelling predicts potenal future
habitats and unsuitable habitats in
preparaon for future relocaon for
conservaon;
Medium
Scienc research
instuons, protected
area management
instuons,
Research climate change adaptaon in
giant salamanders;
Medium
Scienc research
instuons, protected
area management
organisaons,
enterprises
Develop conngency plans for dealing
with extreme weather;
Low
Research instutes,
governments, protected
area management
organisaons,
businesses
Management
Promote cross-sectoral coordinaon
High
NGO, government,
media,
Mobilise more funding for salamander
conservaon and research (push for
government budgets)
High
Government, NGOs,
enterprises, research
instutes, media,
Relocaon Conservaon Research and
Pracce
Low
Research instutes,
governments, protected
area management
organisaons, NGOs
Promoon of
scienc
research
Comprehensive surveys of wild
populaons: comprehensive surveys of
historical distribuon areas, surveys of
extant populaons, etc.
High
Government, research
instutes, protected
area management
organisaons, NGOs,
Taxonomic studies of species
(combining morphology and genecs);
High
Research instutes,
enterprises, NGOs
Comprehensive research into threats
inclusive of social science and economic
studies;
High
Research instutes,
enterprises, NGOs
Develop tools that reect ecological
health (rapid, collegiate assessment)
based on an understanding of habitats,
species, and ecosystems;
High
Government, Research
Instuons, NGOs,
protected area
management
organisaons
Research on epidemics, diseases,
pathogens, and prevenon and control
of salamanders;
Medium to High
Government, Research
Instuons, Enterprises,
NGOs
Conduct conservaon breeding
research on small populaons with
special genec traits;
Medium to High
Scienc research units,
protected area
management
organisaons
31
A conservaon acon plan for Chinese giant salamanders
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