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Synthetic vs. natural antimicrobial agents for safer
textiles: a comparative review
Aqsa Bibi,
a
Gul Afza,
a
Zoya Afzal,
a
Mujahid Farid,
b
Sajjad Hussain Sumrra,
a
Muhammad Asif Hanif,
c
Bedigama Kankanamge Kolita Kama Jinadasa
d
and Muhammad Zubair *
a
Textiles in all forms act as carriers in transmitting pathogens and provide a medium of microbial growth,
especially in those fabrics which are used in sports, medical and innerwear clothing. More attention
towards hygiene and personal healthcare made it a necessity to develop pathogen-free textiles.
Synthetic and natural antimicrobial compositions are used to control and reduce microbial activity by
killing or inhibiting microbial growth on textiles. Synthetic metallic nanoparticles of Ag, Zn, Cu Ti and Ga
are the most commonly and recently used advanced nanocomposites. Synthetic organic materials such
as triclosan, quaternary ammonium compounds, polyhexamethylene biguanide, and N-halamines have
proven antimicrobial activity. Carbon quantum dots are one of the advanced nanomaterials prepared
from different kinds of organic carbon material with photoluminescence efficiency also work efficiently
in antimicrobial textiles. A greener approach for producing natural antimicrobial textiles has gained
significant importance and demand for personal care due to their less toxic effects on health and the
environment In comparison to synthetic. The naturally existing materials including extracts and essential
oils of plants have significant applications for antimicrobial textiles. Additionally, a number of animal
extracts are also used as antimicrobial agents include chitosan, alginate, collagen hydrolysate to prepare
naturally treated antimicrobial textiles. This review focuses on the comparative performance of
antimicrobial fabrics between synthetic and natural materials. Textiles with synthetic substances cause
health and environmental concerns whereas textiles treated with natural compositions are more safe
and eco-friendly. Finally, it is concluded that textiles modified with natural antimicrobial compositions
may be a better alternative and option as functional textiles.
1. Introduction to antimicrobial and
antiviral textiles
“Functional textiles,”another name for functional fabrics, are
materials with integrated components for managing or altering
a certain use. Functional fabrics come in enormous varieties
these days, including anti-microbial, anti-wrinkle, stain-
resistant, ame-retardant, temperature-regulating, and water-
repellent varieties. This review focuses on antimicrobial
textiles that may be modied by synthetic or natural composi-
tions and compared for safer health and the environment.
Textiles don't only perform the function of wearing or styling
but they have various other applications in many areas
including medical wear, sportswear, military wear and many
other elds. These specialized textiles for specic functions are
prepared by specialized techniques using agents that are crucial
to performing a specic role.
1
Textile products consist of yarn,
ber and lament which are made from natural and man-made
brous materials. Textiles that are active against microbes are
becoming more and more signicant in every business,
including the food, automotive, sports, and medical elds, as
well as the medical area.
2
Textiles can be classied as natural
and synthetic textiles which are being used in the form of
cotton, wool, silk nylon etc.
3
Textile of all types acts as a carrier
in transmitting pathogens because it is the most common
media for microbial growth especially in those fabrics which are
used in sportswear, medical wear and innerwear clothing.
4
The microbial-contaminated textiles produce various types of
infections, cross-infection, and infectious diseases in human
bodies such as nosocomial infection. This infection is commonly
observed in persons who were treated in a hospital and it is
considered to be nosocomial if the infection arises in two days
a
Department of Chemistry, University of Gujrat Pakistan, 50700, Pakistan. E-mail:
aqsa155991234@gmail.com; gulafza80@gmail.com; zoyaafzal30@gmail.com;
sajjadchemist@uog.edu.pk; muhammad.zubair@uog.edu.pk
b
Department of Environmental Science, University of Gujrat, 50700, Pakistan. E-mail:
mujahid.farid@uog.edu.pk
c
Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, 38400, Pakistan. E-mail:
drmuhammadasianif@gmail.com
d
Department of Food Science and Technology (DFST), Faculty of Livestock, Fisheries &
Nutrition (FLFN), Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila, Sri Lanka.
E-mail: jinadasa76@gmail.com
Cite this: RSC Adv.,2024,14, 30688
Received 20th June 2024
Accepted 9th September 2024
DOI: 10.1039/d4ra04519j
rsc.li/rsc-advances
30688 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
RSC Advances
REVIEW
aer admitting to the hospital or within a month aer dis-
charging the hospital. A variety of fungal, bacterial and viral
pathogens are cause of such infections.
5
In health care units
some bacteria like Staphylococci are transmitted by the polluted
particles of personal protective equipment of nurses, bed
clothing and curtain clothing while others like Pseudomonas are
spread by the moist places in the hospital through contact of one
person to another. The risk of virus transmission is also possible
by respiratory viruses and blood-borne viruses. These viruses may
survive on the surface for few hours or days.
6
In the early
pandemic of SARS-COVID-19, the public was advised to wear face
masks by the government and health professionals. However,
due to economic reasons and the limited availability of surgical
masks, people have to wear handmade woven or knitted cloth
masks. These masks have no ltering capacity as these can
entrap aerosols of infected persons which was also a reason for
the transmission of the corona virus. New antiviral textiles are
required for the protection and prevention of life-threatening
viral illnesses, as the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates the
necessity of producing enhanced protective equipment.
The demand for antimicrobial textiles is increasing with the
increasing pathogenic effect and these textiles play a signicant
role to limit microbial contact. These infections are of great
interest because of textiles use especially in medical health care
units, laboratories or clinics. Health care workers are the
carriers of spreading bacteria and viruses because of more
exposure to a different types of infectious diseases. For this
purpose, it is necessary to develop medical textiles which show
a wide range of applications inside and outside the body for
example in wound dressing, personal care products, hospital
clothing, waterproof surgical gown, gloves, footwear, face mask
and apparel.
7
The hygiene and protection of health care workers
are possible by wearing these antimicrobial textiles because
they are in direct contact with patients of sports injuries, road
accidents and infectious diseases.
8
The demand of these textiles
is rapidly increasing due to specic properties of nontoxicity,
biocompatibility and bio-absorbability.
Antimicrobial agents are the agents which were used to resist
the growth of microbes and most of them are biocides. There
are number of inorganic and organic substances used to reduce
microbial activity by killing or inhibiting microbial growth on
textiles. Numerous types of inorganic nanoparticles are incor-
porated in the textile industry to enhance antimicrobial fabri-
cation of textile for example, metal and metal oxides such as
silver, silver oxide, copper oxide, zinc oxide and titanium oxides
are being used to control bacterial attack by generating reactive
oxygen species via combining to intracellular protein and
directly damaging bacterial cell membrane. Moreover, synthetic
polymeric based materials are also used to provide microbial
free textiles. But there are various side effects associated with
the use of chemical based dyes as they can cause allergic reac-
tions, also some photosensitive antimicrobial materials can
change their composition upon exposure to sunlight and can
convert from useful form to toxic chemical. For these reasons,
numerous natural antimicrobials are being researched as
alternatives to chemicals to provide antimicrobial properties to
textile surfaces.
2. Chemistry of antimicrobial textiles
Natural materials and nanomaterials are found to have anti-
microbial and antiviral properties due to their stability, low
surface area and various other physical and chemical proper-
ties. They contain special qualities that make them perfect for
a wide range of uses, such as creating antimicrobial and anti-
viral fabrics. Textiles treated with an agent that prevents the
growth of microbes like bacteria, viruses, and fungi are known
as antimicrobial textiles. This may aid in halting the spread of
illness and infection. Textiles that have been treated with
a chemical that kills or prevents the development of viruses are
known as antiviral textiles. This can be crucial in stopping the
spread of respiratory viruses like COVID-19 and inuenza.
Because of the are-up of the irresistible infections brought
about by various pathogenic microorganisms and the
improvement of anti-infection opposition the drug organiza-
tions and the analysts are looking for new antibacterial
specialists. In the current situation, natural plant extracts and
nanoscale materials have arisen up as clever antimicrobial
specialists inferable from their high surface region to volume
proportion and the remarkable substance and actual proper-
ties. Nanotechnology is arising as a quickly developing eld
with its application in science and innovation to fabricate new
materials at the nanoscale level. The utilization of nanoparticles
is acquiring force in the current 100 years as they groups
characterized compound, optical and mechanical properties.
The metallic nanoparticles are generally encouraging as they
show great antibacterial properties because of their enormous
surface region to volume proportion, which is coming up as the
retreat and ow interest in the analysts because of the devel-
oping microbial opposition against metal particles, anti-
infection agents and the advancement of safe strains. Various
sorts of nanomaterials like copper, zinc, titanium, magnesium,
gold, alginate and silver have come up however silver nano-
particles have ended up being best as it has great antimicrobial
adequacy against microscopic organisms, infections and other
eukaryotic miniature organic entities.
3. Background of antimicrobial
chemicals and textiles
Antibacterial activities by synthesizing cotton fabric having
photosensitizers such as porphyrin were investigated which
show that photosensitized textiles play important role in bio-
medical applications. Photosensitized cellulose cotton textiles
can be synthesized by graing cellulose cotton fabric with
porphyrin using cyanuric chloride as a binding material. This is
an efficient method for avoiding chemical modication of the
cellulose fabric. Upon irradiation of visible light antibacterial
activities against S. aureus and E. coli were tested and S. aureus
showed promising antimicrobial activity (Ringot et al., 2011). In
another study antimicrobial activity on cotton fabric using
nanoparticles loaded with herbs Ocimum sanctum of water
extract was determined. The extract of herb was incorporated
into the nanoparticle of sodium alginate chitosan and coated on
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30689
Review RSC Advances
the cotton fabric by using pad dry cure method. The American
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) test was
performed which showed the maximum antimicrobial activity
on the cotton ber with the best washing durability. The
nanoparticles encapsulated with herbs show the function of
biocontrol agents in cotton fabric against bacteria.
9
Antimicro-
bial activities on the polyamide fabrics against the E. coli and S.
aureus bacteria were evaluated by synthesizing silver nano-
particles using stabilizing and reducing agents. Ag metal has
the most effective antimicrobial activity due to its high toxicity
against bacteria. Antimicrobial properties were successfully
found against these bacteria.
10
The antibacterial activity of the
dyed fabrics and the natural dye from the leaf of Melia composita
was tested against a different type of bacteria Staphylococcus
aureus,Bacillus cereus,Shigella exneri,Staphylococcus epi-
dermidis,Escherichia coli,Klebsiella pneumonia, and Proteus
vulgaris. Cotton, wool and silk (dyed fabric) along with the
impregnation of natural dye were evaluated against the test
bacteria. Among all the dyed fabrics silk exhibited a maximum
decrease in bacterial efficiency. Hence it was concluded that the
application of M. composita has maximum antibacterial efficacy
in sanitized clothing for protective and medical applications.
11
Majchrzycka and his coworkers (2017) manufactured reusable
antimicrobial nonwoven fabric which can be used for longer use
in Respiratory Protective Devices (RPDs) for industrial workers.
Scanning electron microscopy was used to evaluate the struc-
tural studies of the modied fabric. The modied fabric shows
the highest antimicrobial activity against bacteria while the
minimum is against moulds. This method is highly efficient for
ltering nonwoven together with biocidal properties in devel-
oping long-term RPDs.
12
In a study, the antimicrobial cotton
textile was manufactured by applying triclosan and sodium
pentaborate pentahydrate on the cotton textile with glucagon as
an emulsifying agent. This method is helpful in investigating
antimicrobial activity against six bacteria as well as some
viruses. The treated fabric was examined through critical anal-
ysis and results showed that treated fabrics achieved efficient
antimicrobial and antiviral properties.
13
Another method used
the reducing properties of viscose to reduce Au
3+
to AuNPs and
oxidize CHO/OH of cellulose to COOH, providing antimicrobial
nishing of viscose bers through direct formation of AuNPs
inside ber macromolecules without the need for any external
agents. The bers that were treated demonstrated strong
suppression of several harmful microorganisms, such as fungus
and bacteria. The current method for viscose nishing
(pigmentation and antimicrobial activity) has several important
advantages: it is one-pot, very simple, economical, green, and
industrially viable.
14
The self-cleaning property of the cotton
fabrics with the incorporation of zinc oxide nanoparticles
(ZnONPs) preferred over another photocatalyst due to best UV
blocking property and antibacterial property. The ZnONPs were
added photo-catalytically on cotton fabrics using a dip-pad-dry-
cure process.
15
The antibacterial activity will be assessed by
using stabilizer as polyvinylpyrrolidone and the irradiation of
gamma rays on the silk ber amended with silver nitrate. The
treated antibacterial silk bers are used in the surgical clothing,
bedsheets and gauze etc. The presence of silver nanoparticles
will maximize the thermal stability of the treated ber and can
be conrmed by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray
diffraction techniques. The treated silk ber shows maximum
antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli bacteria.
16
With the increase of emerging infectious diseases, there is
a need to secure the lives of healthcare workers by developing
antibacterial and antiviral personal protective equipment. The
personal protective equipment with a biocidal layer shows
greater than 99% efficacy against bacteria, viruses or pathogens
either suspended in air or liquid form.
17
Tayel and his other
researchers developed antimicrobial skin-protectant textiles
with the application of natural biological agents. The extracted
agents were incorporated into the cotton textile to evaluate the
antimicrobial potentialities against Staphylococcus aureus and
Candida albicans bacteria. This fabrication of cotton textile is
benecial in the production of hygienic gloves, bandages and
other skin protectants.
18
Zhang and Jiang (2018) reported that
quaternary ammonium compound QAC-modied fabric shows
improved antibacterial and hydrophobic properties against E.
coli,S. aureus and B. subtilis. The nanoparticle-coated ber was
found benecial in restoring hydrophobicity even aer dry
cleaning.
19
Sedighi and his colleagues treated polyester ber
with magnetic and electrically conductive materials. It has the
advantage of capping the magnetite particles which minimize
the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Hence the
treated fabric show 99% antibacterial activity against S. aureus.
The electrically conducting fabric is wearable and use in
biomedical, fuel cell and tissue engineering applications
because of its nontoxic behavior.
20
Pal and his research fellows
(2018) in this work investigated the antibacterial property on the
cotton fabric by the application of zinc oxide nanoparticles. The
results exhibited that the modied cotton fabric have maximum
antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia
coli.
21
S. Angeloni (2021) made a study about production of
antibacterial disposable textile by using the application of
essential oil having antimicrobial, antiviral and anti-
inammation properties were encapsulated within the variety
of wall materials. Tea Tree Oil
22
was encapsulated into the wall
of Gum Arabian (GA), b-cyclodextrin (b-CD) and poly-vinyl
alcohol (PVA) due to their biodegradable properties. The
results showed that depending on the wall material TTO/PVA
capsulated material show maximum antibacterial activity
against different bacteria as compared to other encapsulated
materials.
23
There are several processes by which antimicrobial
textiles can be prepared for various purposes. Durably func-
tionalized cellulosic textiles can now be made to be pollutant-
removing, air-permeable, hydrophobic, electrically conductive,
photoluminescent, self-cleaning, antibacterial, UV-protective,
ame retardant, and stain/water resistant without sacricing
comfort. Novel approaches utilizing a range of functionalizing
agents derived from metal salts can accomplish these charac-
teristics. To give cellulosic textiles these particular functions,
agents such as metal oxides, metal nanoparticles, and metal–
organic frameworks that are generated from metal salts are
used.
24
Cellulose-based textiles can be treated by natural agents
such as dyes or by synthetic organic agents to improve the
biocidal action of these textiles. It is also appropriate to pre-
30690 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
RSC Advances Review
activate cellulosic textiles or use cross-linkers to increase
mechanical qualities and durability
25
.Scutellaria baicalensis
extract was impregnated ultrasonically on the linen ber due to
green and effectual antimicrobial properties. With the help of
comparative analysis, it was found that the synergistic effect of
linen ber treated with SBE and baicalin exhibits greater anti-
microbial functionality as compared to just baicalin with the
minimum dosage of extract.
26
Szulc and other researchers
(2020) rst time used beeswax on cellulosic and polyester
fabrics to check their antimicrobial activities. Different micro-
bial strains were used but both treated fabrics show the highest
biocidal activity against Aspergillus niger mold. These modied
fabrics have many applications in sportswear activity, preven-
tion of skin infection in health and other clothing etc.
27
The goal
of this method is to create a mesoporous composite that will
allow essential oils to release under temperature control.
Zeolitic imidazole frameworks@microcrystalline cellulose, or
ZIF@MCC, is a mesoporous composite that was effectively
created by the fast growth of ZIF based on Zn and Co inde-
pendently within the MCC matrix. The encouraging results
showed that the rapid growth of ZIFs within MCC caused the
essential oil to be released under temperature control, extend-
ing the release period by more than 10 days. The mesoporous
composites that have been chosen will be utilized as reusable
tablets to regulate the release of volatile essential oils in heated
environments.
28
The sensitivity of uorescent fabrics to change
color when exposed to UV light makes them particularly desir-
able for use in military, sensing, and camping applications.
Although tetrahydroisoquinoline-containing aromatic
compounds are renowned for their biological and pharmaco-
logical properties, they are not used as uorescent materials. In
order to create luminous cotton fabrics, the current work
focuses on the synthesis of derivatives of tetrahy-
drothienoisoquinoline and their use in textile technology. The
synthesized tetrahydrothienoisoquinoline derivatives were
successful in producing long-lasting uorescent textiles, and
they may be used for more sophisticated applications such as
technical textiles, biosensors and sensors, smart labelling, and
anti-counterfeiting measures.
29
Palladium nanocluster self-
implantation is a novel approach currently being demon-
strated for the creation of UV protected cotton fabrics with full
shielding performance. Palladium precursor was used in two
distinct doses to immobilize palladium nanoclusters in situ
within native and cationized cotton in strongly acidic and basic
conditions. Palladium nanocluster implantation resulted in
a superior enhancement of the ultraviolet shielding effect. In
order to conrm the role of fabric cationization in the creation
of extremely durable UV-protective fabrics, the impact of
repeated washing cycles on the colorimetric data and the
outcomes of ultraviolet protection was also investigated.
30
There
are several reasons to produce these UV-blocking textiles, as UV
radiation can cause dangerous effects, from simple tanning to
highly malignant skin cancers.
31
Another strategy was studied
that uses in situ/thermal polymerization of benzoxazine (BZs)
within a cotton matrix to create cotton fabrics that are water-
resistant and UV-protective. There was no discernible wetting
of the water droplets. Aer 4 layers of poly-(Ph-o-BZ) and poly-
(Ph-p-BZ) polymers were added to cotton, the UVPF increased
dramatically from 1.4 for untreated cotton to 37.9 and 48.2,
respectively. Derivatives of poly-benzoxazines may one day be
used to make UV- and water-resistant textiles that could be
useful for military clothing.
32
The superior role of silver and
palladium metallic particles in acting as a mordant and
achieving the dyed cotton fabrics' excellence in colour fastness
with additional functions of antimicrobial potentiality and UV-
protective action is currently approved through a methodical
study that has been demonstrated. Antimicrobial potency
against Candida albicans,S. aureus, and E. coli was determined
by measuring the inhibition zone, and samples dyed without
a mordant and prepared with either silver or palladium
precursors were found to have a reduction percent within the
permitted range of excellence (93.11–49.51%).
33
Another work
involved the sequential surface modication of silk materials
dyed with silver and palladium precursors to provide superior
colour fastness, biocidal properties, and UV resistance. RPN dye
was used to colour the ready-made textiles. Outstanding UV-
blocking efficacy (UPF, 33.1 and UVB blocking percentage,
97.3%) was attained by the palladium-prepared silk dye. For
surface-manipulated coloured samples, biocidal performance
against E. coli,S. aureus, and Candida albicans was assessed. The
reduction percentage was also judged to be in the range of very
good to excellent (94.13–98.27%).
34
In a different work, optically
active PAN-nanopolymer was produced by thermally treating
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) for autocatalytic cyclization. This poly-
mer can then be used to make nanobers via solution blow
spinning. On the other hand, solution blow spinning is recog-
nized as a method for creating nanobers with high porosity
and a big surface area using a small amount of polymer solu-
tion. The nanobers in their manufactured state demonstrated
superior microbicide and photoluminescence. For carbon
nanobers made from PAN-nanopolymer (12.5% wt/vol), the
estimated microbial reduction percentages against S. aureus,E.
coli, and Candida albicans were 61.5%, 71.4%, and 81.9%,
respectively. Thus, the produced uorescent carbon nanobers
may nd use in anti-infective treatment.
35
The presented work
involved manipulating the surface of silk fabrics that had been
coloured using either palladium or silver as a substitute for
mordant. This was done to give the prepared samples both
biocidal and UV resistance. The results of the current investi-
gation show that surface-manipulated dyed samples had the
best UV resistance, color fastness, and color strength.
Outstanding UV-blocking efficacy was attained by the
palladium-prepared silk dye. For surface-manipulated coloured
samples, biocidal performance against E. coli,S. aureus, and
Candida albicans was assessed. The reduction percentage was
also judged to be in the range of very good to excellent (94.13–
98.27%).
34
4. Classification of antimicrobial
agents used on textiles
Numerous antimicrobial substances have been discovered to
inactivate viruses in various ways. Antiviral materials are not yet
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30691
Review RSC Advances
categorized in a standardized manner. According to their
chemical makeup, the materials widely utilized as antimicrobial
and antiviral agents are separated into synthetic and natural
agents as shown in Fig. 1. Synthetic antimicrobial compounds
can have a long-lasting impact on textiles and are effective
against a variety of microorganisms. They do, however, have
drawbacks, such as side effects that may be present, an impact
on bacteria that aren't the target, and water contamination.
Therefore natural antimicrobial agents are in great demand.
Natural antimicrobial agents are better for the environment and
human health than synthetic antimicrobial agents. They are
less prone to have negative effects like allergic reactions or skin
rashes. Additionally, they don't contaminate waterways or help
to spread antibiotic resistance. Several applications exist for
natural antibacterial agents. They can be added to textiles as
anishing treatment or applied to fabrics during the produc-
tion process. Compared to synthetic antimicrobial agents,
natural antimicrobial agents have a number of benets. They
are more efficient, effective, and safe. They are consequently
rising in the textile sector.
5. Synthetic materials for
antimicrobial textiles
There are a variety of antimicrobial agents used in the textile
sector. Antimicrobial agents that are synthesized in the labo-
ratory through various synthetic routes by using chemicals are
named as synthetic materials for antimicrobial agents. These
antimicrobial agents are in wide spread use because of their
various properties such as fast, effective and efficient microbial
action, easy preparation because of known procedures, easy
approach and long-term use without their deterioration. The
most commonly used antimicrobial agents in textile applica-
tions are based on metal salts (silver, zinc, copper, titanium
oxide, gallium), quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC),
Fig. 1 Classification of antimicrobial and antiviral agents.
Fig. 2 Mechanism of action of metal nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents. Metal nanoparticles inactivate the virus by destroying the spikes and
kill the bacteria and fungi by rupturing the cellular structures.
30692 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
RSC Advances Review
polybiguanide (such as PHMB), halogenated phenols (such as
triclosan), and N-halamines.
5.1. Inorganic nanomaterials as antimicrobial and antiviral
agents
Inorganic nanomaterials show versatile range of properties that
make them capable of combating Antiviral and antimicrobial
properties. Inorganic nanomaterials are divided into two cate-
gories, metal ions and carbon based nanomaterials. Metal ions
incorporated textiles show signicant antiviral activity as
compared to the carbon based nanomaterials.
5.1.1. Metal based antimicrobial materials. Inorganic
metals due to their tiny size and large specic surface area,
metal-based have been shown to have special physicochemical
properties that enable them to interact with viruses and other
microbes. Ag, Zn, Cu, Ti, Ga, are few of the metal and metal
oxide nanoparticles that have been used as antiviral agents
because to their wide spectrum of antiviral activity, durability,
and efficiency at much lower concentrations. They are also
helpful in preventing viral infections. Metal based NPs show
a signicant antiviral activity as compared to the nonmetallic
nanoparticles. The mechanism of action of metallic NPs is
shown in Fig. 2.
Metal based NPs act by either damaging the cell from the
inside or from the exterior site by damaging the protein capsule
of virus or bacteriophage. Metal NPs can bind with the virus
spike proteins, thus restricting its attachment with the host cell.
Also they can penetrate the cell wall of bacteria and release
metal ions inside the cell which damages the DNA containing
viral genome and also stops protein synthesis by interrupting
the ribosomal structure thus preventing the replication of
bacteria.
54
Metal nanoparticles can damage the mannoproteins
in cell wall of fungi and can penetrate the cell by endocytosis
thus damaging the intracellular structures. Metal nanoparticles
when reach inside the cell can release reactive oxygen species
which can trigger irreversible damage to cell structures.
55
5.1.1.1 Silver nanoparticles. For quite a long time silver has
been in need for the therapy of persistent injuries. In 1881, Carl
S. F. Crede relieved ophthalmia neonatorum utilizing silver
nitrate eye drops. Crede's child, B. Crede planned silver
impregnated dressings for skin graing.
56
In the 1940s, aer
penicillin was presented the utilization of silver for the treat-
ment of bacterial diseases limited. Silver again came in picture
during the 1960s when Moyer presented the utilization of 0.5%
silver nitrate for the treatment of consumes. He recommended
that this arrangement doesn't disrupt epidermal multiplication
and have antibacterial property against Staphylococcus aureus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and E. coli.
57
In 1968, silver nitrate was
joined with sulfonamide to shape silver sulfadiazine cream,
which lled in as an expansive range antibacterial specialist and
was utilized for the treatment of consumes. Silver sulfadiazine
is compelling against microbes like E. coli,S. aureus,Klebsiella
sp., Pseudomonas sp. It likewise has a few antifungal and anti-
viral effects.
58
As of late, because of the rise of anti-infection safe
microorganisms and impediments of the utilization of anti-
infection agents the clinicians have gotten back to silver
injury dressings containing changing degree of silver Table 1.
Silver ties to the bacterial cell wall and cell layer and
represses the breath interaction. The silver nanoparticles show
procient antimicrobial property contrasted with different salts
because of their very enormous surface region, which gives
better contact microorganisms. The nanoparticles get appen-
ded to the cell lm and furthermore inltrate inside the
Table 1 Different synthetic antimicrobial materials used for textile applications
a
Antimicrobial agents Textile material Application Active against Ref.
Chemicals
Ag-NPs Wound dressing, PPE Corona virus, S. aureus, E. coli and
C. albicans
Bacteria and virus 36–38
Zn-NPs Facemask SARS-CoV-2 and inuenza A virus Virus 39 and
40
Cu-NPs Masks, PPE, socks, wound
dressings
Corona virus, S. aureus, E. coli,
L. monocytogenes, S. epidermis, fungi
Bacteria, virus and
fungi
41–43
TiO
2
-NPs Cotton fabric, PPE,
polyester fabrics
S. aureus,E. coli, methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),
and Micrococcus luteus
Bacteria 44 and
45
Ga-NPs Masks, gowns, PPE S. aureus,Escherichia coli, and Candida
albicans
Bacteria and fungi 46
Triclosan Cotton fabrics Corona virus, bacterial control Bacteria and virus 47 and
48
Polyhexamethylene
biguanidine
Wound dressing Antiseptic Bacteria and fungi 49 and
50
QACs Masks, gloves,PPE Coronavirus, bacteria Bacteria and virus 51 and
52
N-Halamine Nonwoven fabric Avian inuenza Virus 52 and
53
a
PPE: personal protective equipment, AgNPs: silver nanoparticles, Cu-NPs: copper nanoparticles, ZnNPs: zinc nanoparticles, QACs: quaternary
ammonium compounds.
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30693
Review RSC Advances
microbes. The bacterial layer contains sulfur-containing
proteins and the silver nanoparticles connect with these
proteins in the cell as well as with the phosphorus containing
intensies like DNA. At the point when silver nanoparticles
enter the bacterial cell it frames a low sub-atomic weight district
in the focal point of the microorganisms to which the micro-
scopic organisms combinations consequently, safeguarding the
DNA from the silver particles.
59
The nanoparticles ideally
assault the respiratory chain, cell division at last prompting cell
demise. The nanoparticles discharge silver particles in the
bacterial cells, which improve their bactericidal action.
5.1.1.2 Zinc nanoparticles. A person infected with Inuenza
A viruses and SARS-CoV-2 can spread the disease through liquid
droplets and aerosols. Face masks and other protective equip-
ment can help prevent the spread of these viruses, but they can
also become contaminated with viruses and need to be
disposed offproperly. Metal ions embedded in face masks and
protective equipment may inactivate respiratory viruses. Poly-
amide bers containing embedded zinc ions could inactivate
SARS-CoV-2 and Inuenza virus by combining with the virus
surface protein and thus damages the structure. The zinc
content and the virus inactivating property of the fabric remains
stable over 50 standardized washes.
39
Thus zinc-embedded
polyamide fabrics could be a promising new material for reus-
able protective equipment that offers protection against virus
spread.
Face masks can become a threat for spreading the Covid-19
as the respiratory droplets of an infected person can cross the
respiratory valve in masks and may spread to the nearby envi-
ronment. This disease spread can be controlled by using zinc
oxide nanoparticles in the respiratory valves as a membrane to
lter and inactivate the viruses from the exhaled air of the
infected person. Zinc oxide in the form of nanoowers can trap
the virus and denature the spike proteins thus causing inacti-
vation of Covid-19 virus.
60
This nanosynthesized membrane
lter does not causes any breathing discomfort along with
effective spread control of Covid-19 Table 1.
5.1.1.3 Copper nanoparticles. Ancient cultures employed
copper for antibacterial and antiviral purposes. With advance-
ments in textile technology, coating the textile with copper is
now a successful approach for metalizing the material and
realizing the antibacterial characteristic. COVID-19 is now
spreading rapidly over the world. Copper has been proved for
certain bacteria and viruses which have signicant effect
according to several researches, including Human-coronavirus
229E.
41
Human coronavirus 229E, which causes a variety of respi-
ratory symptoms from the common cold to more fatal outcomes
like pneumonia, can survive on surface materials like ceramic
tiles, glass, rubber, and stainless steel for at least ve days,
according to a recently published paper in mBio, a journal of
the American Society for Microbiology. Even if hand-to-hand
contact or surfaces contaminated by respiratory droplets from
sick people can transmit diseases more quickly and widely than
human-to-human transmission. The coronavirus was quickly
rendered inactive on copper and a variety of copper alloys,
which are generally referred to as “antimicrobial copper”. The
researchers came to the conclusion that antimicrobial copper
surfaces might be used in public spaces and at any large gath-
erings to help prevent the spread of respiratory viruses and
safeguard public health since exposure to copper totally and
irrevocably killed the virus. Metal oxide nanoparticles, like
copper oxide,
26
stand out for the most part in view of their
antimicrobial and biocide properties and they might be utilized
in numerous biomedical applications.
The primary processes behind copper oxides' antibacterial
action are still poorly understood. The antibacterial effects of
copper oxide are due to a number of mechanisms, including the
release of copper ions, direct contact between bacteria and
copper oxide, and reactive oxygen species,
61
which, when in
contact with the bacterial cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane,
result in cell death. The release of copper ions and the
production of ROS may be related to copper's antiviral action.
The viral genome can be destroyed, the viral envelopes can fall
apart, and copper can stop the multiplication of viruses all of
which can result in permanent damage to the viral membrane.
Due to the release of the Cu ion, which may harm viral lipid
membranes and nucleic acids and render the virus inactive, and
the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are
capable of harming viral proteins and lipids, copper has anti-
viral capabilities.
5.1.1.4 Titanium oxide nanoparticles. Titanium oxide is an
antimicrobial agent that is used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals
and several healthcare products. Titanium has many oxides but
the most common is TiO
2
which is most commonly used in
antimicrobial textiles. The main advantage of using TiO
2
is low
cost and less toxicity. Gedanken et al. investigated the creation
of a well-adhered bactericidal TiO
2
surface on organic cellulose
bers, reporting the antibacterial efficacy of apatite-coated TiO
2
xed onto cotton textiles by a dip-coating approach. They sug-
gested that an apatite-coated TiO
2
suspension's photocatalytic
activity might aid in microbial breakdown in textile applica-
tions.
62
When TiO
2
NPs are placed on the surface of cotton
bers as a coating, which are made up of aggregated nano-
particles with an average size dimension of less than 50 nm.
TiO
2
NPs-loaded cotton textiles have a bacterial reduction of
more than 95%, which is sustained even aer 20 washing cycles;
the bacterial reduction rises when the urea nitrate concentra-
tion employed in TiO
2
NPs production is increased.
63
5.1.1.5 Gallium nanoparticles. Gallium has drawn signi-
cant attention towards textile sector due to its amazing quali-
ties, which include minimal toxicity and great antibacterial
efficiency. These characteristics make gallium very appealing
for a range of applications, including the medical eld. Liquid
gallium is coated on fabrics which adheres strongly to the fabric
and thus kills 99% of pathogens including bacteria, viruses and
fungi within a very short time. The coating of gallium particles
on textile surfaces provide nucleation sites to adhere copper
ions by galvanic replacement, this dual coating provides far
better antimicrobial activity as compared to the single nano-
material. This antibacterial. Antiviral and antifungal coating
remains active over multiple washing cycles.
64
Ga functions as
a synergistic antibacterial agent and as a glue between the cloth
and the copper. This study is particularly signicant because
30694 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
RSC Advances Review
the antibacterial fabric may be used to make masks, which at
this point in time, when COVID-19 is sweeping the world, can
signicantly minimize viral infection. A bioceramic-liquid
metal composite was created by adding gallium as a liquid
metal to hydroxyapatite. On textile coatings the mechanical
qualities remained unchanged, the gallium species added Ga as
an antibacterial agent to the coating. The HAp-Ga coating
demonstrated exceptional antibacterial efficacy against both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
65
Another combi-
nation that is very effective antimicrobial utilizing gallium is
Ag–Ga amalgamated nanoparticles in a suspension that may be
sprayed over a range of surfaces to impart antibacterial char-
acteristics. The results showed enhanced efficiency by the
combined effect of both nano-materials.
66
Ga is moving quickly
in the direction of broad-spectrum antibiotics to ght viruses,
fungus, bacteria, and other microbes.
46
Gallium–chitosan is an
example of such nanocomposites. The antibacterial effective-
ness of the chitosan–gallium nanocomposite is reported better
than that of controls like chitosan and gallium nitrate. The
chitosan–gallium nanocomposite potentially a strong antibac-
terial agent against Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections.
67
5.2. Organic materials as antimicrobial agents
Organic antiviral agents offer the advantages of rapid steriliza-
tion, simple production, and great effectiveness. They are oen
utilized in the synthesis of antiviral medications and in the
preparation of antiviral fabrics during textile nishing. Organic
substances can be directly converted into antiviral bers or
polymerized and copolymerized with other comonomers to
create antiviral coatings. Organic bases anti-microbial agents
such as N,N-dodecyl, methyl-polyurethane when incorporated
on surfaces or electrospun into ber, were able to inhibit the
growth of airborne Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and
Gram-negative Escherichia coli bacteria, they may also play role
in inactivating the Inuenza virus. N-Halamines was another
agent when coated on nonwoven fabrics, it can completely
inactivate Avian Inuenza
68
viruses by disrupted their RNA, and
were considered to be efficient against the production of
airborne pathogens in the poultry environment.
69
5.2.1. Triclosan. Triclosan is an aromatic compound con-
taining aromatic rings attached with ethers, phenols, and
chlorine in its structure, and it corresponds to halogenated
phenoxy phenols.
70
Due to its corrosive impact on bacterial
enzymes involved in cell wall formation, triclosan demonstrates
a broad spectrum of antibacterial and antifungal activity even at
low doses. Cotton textiles were chemically engineered by Iyi-
gundogdu along with other fellow scientists using 0.03% tri-
closan. According to their ndings, 94% coronavirus reduction
was seen aer 2 hours of exposure.
47
Triclosan is effective as
antibacterial agent against variety of bacteria, the bacteriocidal
activity of textiles is retained even aer several washings. It is
also an antiviral agent against inuenza virus and several other
viral strains Fig. 3.
Triclosan works by interacting with the bacterial cell
membrane which causes the membrane to become porous so
that the bactericidal triclosan can penetrate the cell. It binds to
membrane and cytoplasmic targets and shows bactericidal
action by disrupting the structure of bacteria. It causes bacte-
riostatic action by inhibiting the synthesis of fatty acids which
are needed for the synthesis of cell membranes.
71
NAD is
required the synthesis of bacterial fatty acids, when triclosan
binds to NAD to make a complex the fatty acid formation will
not be facilitated and so bacteriostatic action occurs.
5.2.2. Polyhexamethylene biguanide. Polyhexamethylene
biguanide is known as PHMB, also is a common biocide with
many uses. It has been employed as an antiseptic agent in
hospitals to prevent wound infections, as a disinfectant in food
production, and in swimming pool sanitation.
49
The biocide interacts with the bacteria cells' surfaces when
the fabric that has been treated with PHMB comes into touch
with a bacterium and is then transmitted to the cytoplasm and
cytoplasmic phospholipids in the bacterial membrane. Because
this biocide is positively charged, it mostly reacts with nega-
tively charged species, which causes aggregation and increases
uidity and permeability. Due to the interior material leaking
out through the outer membrane, thus causes the death of the
attacking pathogen Fig. 3.
PHMB can be applied during a paddy-cure process or
immediately exhausted onto cellulose material. The interaction
of the cationic molecule with anionic phospholipids within the
bacterial cell wall, which results in cell wall destruction, is the
basis for the antibacterial effect of positively charged
compounds. Market-ready wound dressings currently include
PHMB as an antibacterial ingredient.
5.2.3. Quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC). World-
wide, microbial infections affect people. Numerous quaternary
ammonium compounds have been created, and in addition to
being antibacterial, they are also antiviral, antifungal, and anti-
matrix metalloproteinase Fig. 3. QACs are widely used as anti-
septics, disinfectants, preservatives, and sterilization agents in
a variety of settings, such as homes, medical facilities, and water
treatment facilities.
72
Because of differences brought about by
the QAC's nature, the biocidal activity of QACs varies. The R
group's characteristics, the presence of aromatic groups, the
branching of the C chain, and the number of N atoms all play
a role in the nature of QAC's distinctions.
Pathogens are known to be rendered inactive by quaternary
ammonium salts, which are frequently employed to disinfect
surfaces. The breakdown of the viral lipid membrane is
assumed to be their mode of action against enveloped viruses.
Based on shell disorder research, there is considerable worry
that SARS-CoV-2 could be more stable in the environment.
Combinations of antiviral agents, such as quaternary ammo-
nium salts and phenolics, may be more successful in combating
this virus.
QACs are membrane-active substances that interact with
yeast's plasma membrane and bacteria's cytoplasmic
membrane. They are also efficient against viruses that contain
lipids due to their hydrophobic properties. Additionally, QACs
engage in intracellular interactions and bind to DNA. Depend-
ing on the product composition, they are also effective against
viruses and spores that don't include lipids. For lipophilic
enveloped viruses, the virucidal mechanism of QACs appears to
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30695
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include breakdown or detachment of the viral envelope, fol-
lowed by the release of the nucleocapsid. The greater affinity of
encapsulated viruses for QAC through hydrophobic interactions
may be the cause of viral envelope disruption. The antiviral
activities of QACs against enveloped viruses have gained wide-
spread recognition.
73
One of the most promising methods to create antimicrobial
biomaterials is to include quaternary ammonium moieties into
polymers. Long chain alkyl substituent-containing silane-
anchored QAC coatings have been widely used to porous
surfaces to prevent pathogenic infections and manage bacterial
metabolite-induced smells. The goal of these initiatives is to
eradicate bacterial species efficiently before they have a chance
to form a microbial biolm and perhaps shield people from
dangerous microbes. Sports goods, medical drapes and textiles,
everyday apparel, and protective gear for odor and infection
control are a few items that are treated with these substances.
74
Si-QAC (silane quaternary ammonium compounds), according
to some research studies show less or no harmful impact as
compared to the single QACs that are more harmful. So QACs
derived from silane polymers are more preferred and are
commercially used as well.
75
A few scientists at the National Centre of Biological Sciences,
Bangalore, have developed a textile covering made of QACs that,
so far, appears to be producing positive test ndings. There are
two ways to use the coating, one way aer applying the solution
to the fabric, such as a mask or PPE kit, heat xing is used to
assist molecules adhere to the fabric's surface. Another is
fabrication of gloves, masks, PPE kits, etc., can be done with
textiles that have had the compound previously applied to
them. Since there hasn't been any research to evaluate how it
affects skin, it is now obvious that it cannot be administered as
an ointment and may have harmful effects that are not yet
recognized. Their research demonstrates that the solution
effectively maintains its biocidal capability even aer 25
washing cycles. Although the mask serves as a physical barrier,
it also renders the virus inactive aer contact.
5.2.4. N-Halamines. Considerable research has been done
on N-halamine antibacterial polymers throughout the past
years. The substance have demonstrated exceptional stability in
both wet and dry storage conditions. They are far less caustic
than sodium hypochlorite and work well against a variety of
microbes. N-Halamines are further distinguished by their low
toxicity, affordability, and other advantageous qualities. They
are especially well-known for their effectiveness, human safety,
and eco-friendliness.
76
N-Halamine has been shown to be
a benecial addition to wound dressings, providing antibacte-
rial qualities via easy and affordable procedures. Antimicrobial
activity is obtained by coating or impregnating conventional
non-antimicrobial wound dressings with N-halamine
compounds that contain oxidative chlorine. These dressings
become antibacterial by a simple chlorination procedure using
diluted sodium hypochlorite solution. Dressings coated with N-
halamine efficiently deactivate large quantities of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus germs during short
contact times. When kept in opaque packaging, they exhibit
stability under uorescent lights for up to two months,
extending their shelf life. These dressings outperform
commercially available silver alginate dressings in terms of
quick bacterial inactivation against both Gram-positive (S.
aureus) and Gram-negative (P. aeruginosa) bacteria in 15 to 60
minutes. By eradicating unwanted bacterial development, N-
Fig. 3 Mechanism of action of organic materials as antimicrobial agents for textiles. QACs inactivate bacteria or yeast by interacting with their
cell membranes. PHMB damages membrane proteins. N-Halamines disrupt electron transport functioning. Triclosan damages intracellular
proteins and stops lipid synthesis.
30696 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
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halamine wound dressings have the potential to improve
healing and avoid infections. In comparison to wound dressing
materials, they are easily applied, affordable, stable when
maintained correctly, effective against pathogenic germs during
limited contact durations, and have little skin sensitivity.
77
5.3. Carbon quantum dots (CQDs)
Carbon quantum dots are one of the nanomaterials that are
used to prepare antimicrobial textiles. Carbon quantum dots
can be made from nanotubes of carbon, graphite or graphene.
One important metric for assessing the photoluminescence
efficiency of carbon dots is their quantum yield, which is the
ratio of photons emitted to photons absorbed. This character-
istic is essential for guring out how well CDs work in a variety
of applications, such as optoelectronics, bioimaging, and
sensing. A high quantum yield is preferred because it signies
effective light emission, which is crucial for applications that
rely on uorescence. Several variables, including surface
passivation, the kind of precursors utilized, and the synthetic
techniques used, can affect the quantum yield of CDs.
78
Carbon
quantum dots were prepared and immobilized on cotton fabrics
for UV protection properties along with antimicrobial proper-
ties. In this approach, the microbicide ability of the prepared
CQDs with different concentrations was evaluated against three
different pathogenic species by using the inhibition zone
technique. The MICs of the prepared CQDs were also evaluated.
The estimated data signicantly revealed that against all the
tested bacterial and fungal species, CQDs (100 mg mL
−1
)
showed the highest antimicrobial effect with MIC% of 100%
against all the tested species.
79
Another study offers a cutting-
edge method for using carbon dots to industrialize uores-
cent cotton textiles that are safely antimicrobial. For the rst
time, an infrared-assisted method for creating carbon dots from
carboxymethyl cellulose was studied. The cotton fabrics that
have been synthesized by this method can be used without risk
in the industrialization of military and medical textiles. The
current work is far superior to traditional methods for
producing functional and medical textiles using metallic-based
composites and is safer because carbon dots are biocompat-
ible.
80
Another study developed an inventive method for
improving cotton bers with integrated antibacterial and self-
cleaning capabilities. The potential of silver-carbon quantum
dot nanoparticles to ght bacterial infections was demonstrated
by the elucidation of their antimicrobial properties. These
nanoparticles demonstrated antimicrobial effects against both
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that were
concentration-dependent, indicating their considerable poten-
tial for a variety of applications, especially in textiles and
healthcare.
81
Carbon quantum dots can also be derived from
polysaccharides such as cellulose or starch that can be used in
the textile industry for biomedical applications. These
polysaccharide-derived carbon quantum dots exhibit cytotoxic
properties enabling their use for antimicrobial textiles along
with this approach these carbon dots also enhance soil fertil-
ization when released in the environment.
82
Conclusively the
carbon dots that are derived from polysaccharides are more
productive and less harmful as compared to the synthetic ones
because they utilize a green synthesis approach safer for health
and environment.
5.4. Disadvantages of synthetic antimicrobial agents used
on textiles
Aer the COVID-19 pandemic, awareness about the use of
antimicrobial textiles has increased which ultimately increased
the demand for more safe and eco-friendly antimicrobial
textiles. The pathogen protective textiles are not only used in
medical wear but they are also used in everyday life, so these
textiles must not be toxic to humans, should have a broad
spectrum of antimicrobial potency, should not cause damage to
the inherent fabric properties, should be able to withstand
fabric manufacturing procedures, and its antimicrobial dura-
bility should be stable throughout the fabric's use life.
83
Synthetic antimicrobial agents show excellent antibacterial
and antiviral properties but there are also some adverse effects
associated with these chemicals. Adverse effects are not only
associated with human bodies but they also cause several
environmental problems. Chemical agents from textiles can
detach from the textiles during washing and may enter the
water bodies thus causing death of aquatic life and may also
cause deterioration of crops using contaminated water. Fig. 4
shows some results from the literature showing the release of
harmful antimicrobials in water bodies during washing cycles
that can pollute the environment and also cause health risks.
Along with results of the leaching of antimicrobials some effects
of chemical-based textiles are given in Table 2.
6. Natural antimicrobial agents for
textiles
There are some naturally occurring agents which are used in the
textile industry due to their efficiency against a variety of
viruses. The natural antiviral agents are safe, non-toxic and
inexpensive as compared to the synthetic antiviral agents. The
natural antiviral agents include animal extracts, plant extracts
and some essential oils (Fig. 5). There are different mechanisms
of action of the antiviral agents through which they either stop
the growth of the virus or kill the virus. The different natural
antiviral agents work through different mechanisms of action.
The common mechanism of action include the inhibition of
virus replication by inhibiting the synthesis of DNA and inhi-
bition of attachment of the virus to the target cell.
In the past, antimicrobial nishing treatments for textiles
included triclosan, quaternary ammonium compounds, and
nanosilver. However, because they are synthetic, the majority of
them are pricey and cause environmental issues. Natural textile
nishes with additional value, especially for medical apparel,
are highly valued because modern textile processes prefer eco-
friendly chemicals for antimicrobial textile nishing. When
treated with natural chemicals, cotton and other natural bers
have strong antibacterial properties. Although silk is thought to
possess inherent antibacterial properties, a broad spectrum of
microorganisms may not be affected. However, use of natural
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30697
Review RSC Advances
colors such as curcumin, or derived from plants such as Ter-
minalia catappa,Morinda citrifolia,Tectona grandis,Artocarpus
heterophyllus,etc., has effectively induced a notable degree of
antibacterial action against microbes.
95
Green synthesis is used
for producing antimicrobial textiles which has a safe potential
towards disease protection without damaging health.
6.1. Plant extracts
6.1.1. Acemannan from aloe vera. Anthraquinones are the
active agents found in aloe vera which are responsible for
antibacterial as well as antiviral activity.
108
Aloe vera is a well
known antibacterial and antifungal agent that has been used
since very long times to treat infections. Aloe vera is referred to
as a “healing plant”because of its advantages in the treatment
of wounds, sun protection, anti-oxidant properties and anti-
microbial properties.
109
Aloe vera is frequently utilized to
create various textile composites for the elds of tissue engi-
neering, medical textiles, and wound healing. Aloe vera treated
fabric show signicant decline in microbial growth as
compared to the untreated fabric. According to Jothi bacterial
growth reduction is directly proportional to the increase in
concentration of aloe vera solution applied to the fabric. Aloe
vera gel solutions with different solution concentrations, 1, 2, 3,
4 and 5 g l
−1
, were applied to the cloth. Aloe vera treatment
applied to fabric at a rate of 5 g per liter resulted in strong anti-
microbial activity against S. aureus.
96
The active ingredients in
the aloe vera gel function as a powerful bactericidal agent on the
fabric, preventing the growth of the Gram-positive bacteria. The
active antibacterial component in aloe vera is acemannan which
is a long chain polymer which shows antibacterial as well as
antiviral properties Table 3.
Aloe vera also shows excellent healing properties which
make it suitable to be used as wound dressings. Mannose, an
Fig. 4 (a and b) Reproduced with permission from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/(a) Ag ions concentration measured by
ICP-MS in washing liquids of the PAEMA-co-Ag fabric in accelerated laundering test; (b) the cytotoxicity of washing liquid on human HaCaT cells.
The cells were exposed to different concentrations of PAEMA-co-Ag washing liquid at 5th. Accelerated laundering cycle and WOB detergent for
48 h ref. 84 copyright (2014) https://nature.com. (c) Reproduced with permission from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/quantity
of silver released from the seven textiles at the time of washing as well as rinsing. The inset presents an expanded outlook of the lower
concentration range ref. 85 copyright (2020) MDPI. (d)“TEM”image of colloidal material from sock wash water. Inset: EDX confirmation that
the dark particles within the circle are predominantly silver. Reproduced with permission from “Reprinted with permission from {ref. 86}.
Copyright {2008} American Chemical Society”.
30698 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
RSC Advances Review
ingredient in aloe vera, promotes faster wound healing and
enhanced macrophage activity. Rapid broblast proliferation is
produced by macrophages, which accelerates tissue growth and
reduces the healing time.
110
6.1.2. Azadirachtin from neem. Azadirachtin is the active
antibacterial agent found in neem, it is a complex
tetranortriterpenoid limonoid which causes bactericidal action
due to cell wall breakdown.
111
Neem is an evergreen plant native
to India and has amazing medicinal, antibacterial, and insect-
repelling qualities. As a result, it has been utilized as a tradi-
tional medicine since ancient times to treat a variety of human
diseases. The study's ndings indicate that fabrics treated with
Table 2 Harmful effects of different synthetic antimicrobial agents used for textiles
Indications Synthetic antimicrobial agent Effects Ref.
Irritation Triclosan Triclosan-embedded textiles can
cause skin irritation
87
Silver NPs Eye irritation and allergic contact
dermatitis
88
Cu and Zn NPs Release of Cu and Zn ions from
textiles causes skin irritation and
inammation
89
Water toxicity Triclosan Triclosan may detach from the
textile during washing and cause its
bioaccumulation in sh
90
QACs QACs are toxic to aquatic life when
released in water bodies
91
Bacterial resistance Triclosan Due to excessive use in textiles and
health care products, micro-
organisms are developing
resistance against triclosan
75
QACs The presence of QACs in polluted
environments develops resistance
in bacteria
92
Ag, Cu, Ti NPs Bacteria develop resistance against
metal NPs by developing special
structures
93
Photochemical deterioration Triclosan When released in water bodies
triclosan converts to 2,8-
dichlorodibenzo-p-dioxin which is
highly toxic
94
Fig. 5 Mechanism of action of natural antimicrobial agents showing different natural antimicrobials target different cell functions.
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30699
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plant combinations; Terminalia chebula (Myrobalan) along with
Aloe barbadensis (Aloe vera) and Azadirachta indica (Neem) had
bacterial reduction values that ranged from 59% to 69% against
Gram-negative bacteria and from 58% to 64% against Gram-
positive bacteria.
112
Since neem extracts have both pest-
repelling and the potential to support bacterial growth, they
are frequently utilized in the production of antimicrobial
textiles. Numerous bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus,
Escherichia coli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans,
have been demonstrated to be inhibited by neem extract-treated
textiles. Textiles treated with neem extract retain their anti-
bacterial properties for a number of washings.
6.1.3. Curcumin from turmeric. Curcumin is the bioactive
agent that is extracted from turmeric that is used for synthesis
of antimicrobial textiles.
113
Turmeric also known as (curcuma
longa) is an antimicrobial plant that has been used for ages as
a food colourant and to dye fabrics due to the presence of
a pigment called curcumin. It is also known as food coloring
agent. Turmeric shows antibacterial activity due to the presence
of active phenolic and hydroxyl groups.
114
It has been demon-
strated that curcumin interacts with peptidoglycan to break
down the cell membrane and cause cell lysis. Curcumin may
also interact with the cell wall to compromise its integrity and
provide bacteriostatic effects. A study in 2005 showed antibac-
terial activity of turmeric in dyed wool fabrics. Antibacterial
properties of treated bers against S. aureus,S. sonnei,E. coli
were observed.
115
Another study conducted in 2010 employed
the pad-dry cure method to apply microcapsules containing
turmeric plant extract to silk and cotton fabrics. Results
revealed that fabrics treated with turmeric extract have anti-
bacterial properties against all types of bacteria that had been
researched.
99
Another study conducted in 2010 used silver
nanoparticles along with turmeric extract and immobilized the
ions on cotton fabric. The results showed enhanced antimi-
crobial activity as compared to the bare silver nanoparticles.
This procedure makes the silver nanoparticles more eco-
friendly.
116
6.1.4. Punicalagin from pomegranate. Punicalagin is the
bioactive agent found in pomegranate peels responsible for
antimicrobial activity.
117
Pomegranate shows antimicrobial
activity when applied to textiles. It has been used for a very long
time to dye fabrics. The antimicrobial activity is also due to the
presence of active compounds such as tannins and ellagic acid.
A study conducted in 2009 used pomegranate-dyed fabric to test
the bactericidal activity, the results showed that the test bacteria
in solution were inhibited by using a natural extract combina-
tion P. granatum (pomegranate, A. cepa (onion) and R. tinctorum
(rose madder)). On a sample of wool coloured with pome-
granate, there is a 4–80% reduction in bacterial growth.
118
Another study tested the antibacterial efficacy of cotton, wool,
and silk bers dyed with pomegranate extract against Staphy-
lococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumonia bacteria for 60 minutes
at 80 °C. The effectiveness of pomegranate extract against
Staphylococcus aureus is 99.9–96.8%, while it is 95.7–99.9%
effective against Klebsiella pneumonia. Pomegranate-dyed
cotton bers had bacteriostatic decrease rates against Staphy-
lococcus aureus of 99.9% and Klebsiella pneumonia of 95.8%.
100
6.1.5. Methanolic extracts from walnut. The walnut plant is
also used as a colouring agent to dye clothes since ancient
times. Walnut shows bactericidal activity due to the presence of
methanolic extracts, phenols and avonoids, these compounds
are also responsible for anti-inammatory and anti-oxidant
activity. Its bacterial activity was studied in 2013 where walnut
shells were utilized to naturally color cotton while chitosan was
present. Results revealed that the bers had been given an
antimicrobial treatment.
101
In another study wool bers were
given an antimicrobial nish by creating in situ Ag/Cu
2
O/ZnO
nanoparticles on their surface, which were then dyed with two
natural dyes derived from pomegranate peel and walnut green
husk. The natural colors that were isolated showed antibacterial
Table 3 Different natural antimicrobials used for textile applications
Antimicrobial agents Textile material Application
Active
against Ref.
Plants
Acemannan Wound dressings, cotton and
silk fabrics
Corona virus, S. aureus,E. col,Inuenza virus Virus and
bacteria
96 and
97
Azadirachtin Cotton fabrics S.aureus,E. coli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Candida albicans Bacteria 98
Curcumin Fibers S.aureus,S.sonnei,E. coli Bacteria 99
Punicalagin PPE S.aureus,Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacteria 100
Methanolic extracts
from walnut
Cotton fabrics S. aureus,E. coli Bacteria 101
Essential oils Medical and sports wear Corona virus, S. aureus,E. coli,S. sonnei,Klebsiella pneumoniae Bacteria and
virus
102
Animal extracts
Chitosan Cotton and wool fabrics Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and fungi Fungi and
bacteria
103 and
104
Alginate Surgical masks, wound
dressings and gloves
Gram-positive and negative bacteria, Herpes simplex virus Bacteria and
virus
105 and
106
Collagen hydrolysate Cotton Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and antifungal activity
against Candida albicans
Bacteria and
fungi
107
30700 |RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
RSC Advances Review
properties as well. The samples treated only with punicalagin
from pomegranate peels and methanolic contents from walnut
green husks had antibacterial activity of 65% and 35%,
respectively. Aer being dyed, treated wool yarns with inorganic
salts showed excellent (nearly 100%) antibacterial activity.
Additionally, the treated samples' wash and light fastness
qualities ranged from very good to exceptional
119
Table 3.
6.1.6. Essential oils. Essential oils are made from the
extract of different parts of plants such as roots, bard and
leaves. These are concentrated solutions of aromatic compo-
nents in the plants. They can be taken from plants with owers
like jasmine, rose, and lavender as well as leaves like eucalyptus
and thyme. The process by which textiles are incorporated with
essential oils is also known as aromatherapy. Essential oils are
mostly combinations of terpenes, sesquiterpenes, oxygenated
derivatives, aldehydes, oxides, phenols, ethers, acids, and
ketones are extremely complicated and are responsible for
imparting fragrance.
120
The essential oils are efficient against
a variety of diseases due to the presence of various aldehydes,
phenolics, terpenes, and other antibacterial components.
Terpenoids and hydrocarbon terpenes are the primary active
ingredients in essential oils. Because of their antibacterial,
antimalarial, antineoplastic, and other pharmacological quali-
ties to treat human ailments, they have been frequently utilized
in conventional herbal remedies. They have found usage as
disinfectants for medical equipment and surfaces or are used to
prevent nosocomial infection due to their bactericidal and
fungicidal effects.
121
Essential oils are difficult to handle which
restricts their use in the textile sector, however, microencap-
sulation is a technology which uses capsulated essential oils for
impregnation on textiles thus controlling their release rate
which extends their antimicrobial effect. Various essential oils
are used for antimicrobial textiles some compounds along with
their encapsulated materials are listed in the Table 4.
6.2. Animal extracts
6.2.1. Chitosan. Chitin is a polymer obtained from micro-
organisms, sea animals and insects. Chitosan is an eco-
friendly polymer obtained from the diacylation of chitin and
is widely used in the textile industry in nishing processes.
Chitosan is incorporated into the fabric and the fabric becomes
antimicrobial. The incorporated chitosan works as an antimi-
crobial by two approaches. Firstly, the chitosan inhibits the
entry of the virus by lowering the surface energy. Secondly, the
virus can be restricted to the textile surface by destroying the
DNA. The chitosan destroys the DNA by entering in the virus
through chitosan oxidation and dissolving the lipid structure of
viral cells. The cationic nature of chitosan shows antibacterial
action involving attachment to the negatively charged bacterial
cell wall and disrupting the cell, changing the permeability of
the membrane. This is followed by attachment to DNA, which
inhibits DNA replication and ultimately results in cell death.
128
Chitosan can be applied to the fabric by using different appli-
cation techniques such as layer by layer technique, coating,
impregnation, press-rolling process, wet spinning. ChSN/
carboxymethylcellulose composite is a type of chitosan which
is applied on the fabric by using layer by layer technique and
shows antiviral activity against coronavirus with an efficiency of
99.99%.
129
6.2.2. Alginate. Alginate present in brown seaweed as
a bioactive compound is used in the textile industry for
medicinal products. Alginate is not typically used in the textile
rather it is used in the broader strategy to create antiviral
textiles.
130
The hybrid of alginate copper sulphate coatings on
the different types of textiles such as bers, yarn and fabrics are
used to deactivate the coronavirus. The purpose of alginate is to
enhance the biocompatibility. The alginate also adjusts the
availability of the metal ion. This coating proves to be effective
against coronavirus if it is applied in multilayers and its effi-
ciency against coronavirus is 99.99%. Alginate bers are used in
wound dressings as they have the ability to absorb liquid in the
wound which promotes healing also sodium and calcium
exchangeability at wound surface makes alginate suitable to be
used on wounds.
131
6.2.3. Collagen hydrolysate. Collagen is a ber found in
bones and tissues. It has antibacterial properties which make it
suitable to be used in medical textiles for coating fabrics, wound
dressings, hydrogel dressings and implantable medical devices.
Hydrolyzed collagen derived from bovine leather by-products
was loaded with ginger essential oil and electrospun to
produce bioactive nanobers. Antibacterial activity against
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was also evaluated, as
was antifungal activity against Candida albicans. Data demon-
strate that hydrolyzed collagen nanobers infused with ginger
essential oil can be employed in medical, pharmaceutical,
cosmetic, and specialized applications.
132
Collagen hydrolysates
from rabbit skins and cow tendons were combined with chito-
san via the coaxial electrospinning method in order to be used
as possible wound dressings. The electrospun bioactive
composites' antibacterial activity demonstrated the effective-
ness of the chitosan-based bovine collagen hydrolysate-based
nanobers against various bacterial species.
133
Table 4 Essential oils used for antimicrobial textiles
Essential oil/core material Capsule material/shell material Antimicrobial effect Ref.
Pomegranate rind Chitosan/Gum Arabic Medical textiles 122
Jojoba oil Ethylcellulose Knits for burnt skin 123
Clove thyme and cinnamon Alginate Medical textiles 124
Cologne essential oil Methyl methacrylate polymer Cotton fabrics 125
Peppermint oil Alginate Cotton fabrics 126
Moxa oil Gelatin Arabic gum Cotton fabrics 127
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry RSC Adv.,2024,14,30688–30706 | 30701
Review RSC Advances
7. Conclusion
Chemically modied functional textiles are a good addition to
controlling infections and various pathogens that cause
diseases. A large number of synthetic and natural chemicals are
being used with proven efficiency in controlling germs. Textiles
treated with synthetic chemicals when washed or discarded
aer use can emit chemicals, thus posing harmful effects to the
environment. Natural products play a pivotal role in developing
a sustainable and environment-friendly approach to meet the
sustainable development goals. Together, these plant extracts
provide a sustainable and effective approach to the production
of antimicrobial fabrics, promoting medical textiles, wound
care, and protective fabrics. Their natural background and
multi-layered benets make their continued quest for innova-
tive, eco-friendly solutions in the textile industry invaluable.
Animal polymers such as chitosan, alginate and collagen
hydrogen, have shown considerable potential in the textile
industry, especially in the preparation of antimicrobial and
antiviral fabrics. A versatile approach to blocking viral access,
destroying viral DNA, and disrupting the walls of bacterial cells.
It is very effective in the production of antiviral textiles. These
animal extracts contribute to advancing the development of
textiles that can play a critical role in healthcare and protective
applications. Research must be directed towards investigating
the effect of natural antimicrobials on microbes, their antimi-
crobial efficiency, their safe disposal and shelf life. Future
investigations required to explore ways for the disposal of
chemically modied textiles to prevent the leaching of chem-
icals into the environment.
Author contributions
Conceptualization: Muhammad Zubair,: writing-original dra:
Muhammad 650 Zubair; Gulafza; data curation; Sajjad Hussain
Sumrra, Muhammad Asif Hanif, visualization: Aqsa BiBi, 651
Zoya Afzal; review & editing: Aqsa BiBi Zoya Afzal, Mujahid
Farid, Bedigama Kankanamge Kolita 652 Kama Jinadasa.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conict of interest.
Acknowledgements
Authors acknowledge the Department of Chemistry, University
of Gujrat, Pakistan for providing space and facilities.
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