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Gendered parenting and gender role attitude among children
Abstract
In a society rife with gender stereotypes and discrimination, children frequently learn to accept gender roles that are not necessarily equitable to all genders. Many factors during childhood and adolescence impact children’s beliefs and actions about gender roles. These attitudes and behaviors are typically acquired and reinforced at home. Most research on gender socialization place greater emphasis on typical growth and average patterns across children. The present study investigated how gendered ideas and actions of parents influence their children’s attitudes about gender roles. The study examined gender stereotypes held by children about different concepts like occupation, appearance, play, and responsibilities, and how family contributed to their development. Data was collected from ten participants (of age between 4 and 6 years) from Kozhikode district, Kerala, India, using a semi-structured interview. The data was transcribed, and thematic analysis was performed. The study found that children had a solid gender-stereotyped viewpoint on all of the factors examined and that children make gender-stereotyped decisions, attitudes, and perceptions from a very young age. Role modeling and promoting distinct gendered behaviors are found to be the two ways through which parents and families impact children’s gender development. The present study has demonstrated that certain types of exposures from the family influence children’s learning of conventional gender roles. Society must establish a more gender-equitable context that will preserve the future psychological, social, and professional development of children.
... From a young age, children observe and imitate their parents, caregivers, and other family members, learning the gendered expectations that are embedded in societal norms (McHale et al., 2003) [14] . Traditionally, family dynamics, such as parental conversations, reinforcement of gendered behavior, and modeling, have influenced children's understanding of gender (Krishna et al., 2024) [11] . However, with the proliferation of digital media in recent years, these family communication practices have become increasingly intertwined with the influence of the digital world. ...
... From a young age, children observe and imitate their parents, caregivers, and other family members, learning the gendered expectations that are embedded in societal norms (McHale et al., 2003) [14] . Traditionally, family dynamics, such as parental conversations, reinforcement of gendered behavior, and modeling, have influenced children's understanding of gender (Krishna et al., 2024) [11] . However, with the proliferation of digital media in recent years, these family communication practices have become increasingly intertwined with the influence of the digital world. ...
... This dual influence of social media necessitates a thoughtful and nuanced approach to family communication, where parents actively guide their children's understanding of gender while acknowledging the influence of digital media. Additionally, research by Krishna et al., 2024 [11] suggests that the role of gender neutral parenting has been influenced by digital media. The exposure of both boys and girls to a wide range of gender identities online has led to more families adopting gender neutral parenting approaches. ...
This research explores the critical role of family communication in shaping gender roles and socialization in children within the context of a digital world. The increasing prevalence of digital media has significantly transformed how children perceive and internalize gender norms, offering exposure to diverse representations of gender, including non-binary and fluid identities. This paper investigates the ways in which family communication spanning parent child interactions, sibling influences, and extended family dynamics shapes children's gender identity development and socialization. Drawing on key theoretical frameworks such as Social Learning Theory, Cognitive Development Theory, and Gender Schema Theory, the paper examines how children learn gender roles through family interactions and digital media. It also addresses the challenges families face in navigating the generational divide between parents raised in a pre digital age and children as digital natives, highlighting the tensions between traditional family values and progressive digital portrayals of gender. The implications for parenting, policy, and education are discussed, offering recommendations for parents to engage in open communication and media literacy, as well as for schools and policymakers to support families in fostering inclusive gender development. This review emphasizes the need for further empirical research, particularly longitudinal studies, to better understand the long term effects of digital media on children's gender socialization. Ultimately, this paper also underscores the importance of family communication as a foundational element in shaping children’s gender identity in the digital era.
... While parenting styles broadly shape children's development, specific parental gender attitudes and behaviors directly influence the formation of sexist beliefs and behaviors (John, 2017). Parental gender attitudes and gendered messages also play a significant role in shaping children's beliefs about gender roles and expectations (Halpern & Perry-Jekins, 2017;Krishna et al., 2024). Krishna et al (2024) further emphasize that parents and families influence children's gender development primarily through role modeling and reinforcing distinct gendered behaviors. ...
... Parental gender attitudes and gendered messages also play a significant role in shaping children's beliefs about gender roles and expectations (Halpern & Perry-Jekins, 2017;Krishna et al., 2024). Krishna et al (2024) further emphasize that parents and families influence children's gender development primarily through role modeling and reinforcing distinct gendered behaviors. Moreover, parents transmit and reinforce gendered messages through everyday interactions, such as the toys they provide, the activities they encourage, and the language they use to describe emotions and abilities (Hussain et al., 2015;Boe & Woods, 2020;Nair et al., 2023). ...
Gender socialization begins early in childhood, with parents playing a crucial role in shaping children's gender-related beliefs and behaviors. This review examines how parenting styles, parental gender attitudes, and parental reinforcement practices contribute to the development of sexist beliefs and gender stereotypes in children. Following the PRISMA framework, a systematic search of Scopus, PubMed, and APA PsycNet databases was conducted for peer-reviewed articles published between 2013 and 2023. Studies were included if they empirically examined parental influences on children's gender socialization and were published in English. A total of 23 studies met the inclusion criteria and were thematically analyzed. Findings revealed that parenting styles significantly shape gender socialization, with strict and authoritarian parenting being associated with stronger adherence to traditional gender roles, while indulgent and egalitarian parenting approaches were linked to more gender-equitable attitudes in children. Regarding parental gender attitudes, parents who held traditional gender beliefs were more likely to reinforce gendered expectations in their children, leading to the internalization of sexist beliefs. In contrast, parents with egalitarian attitudes fostered more flexible gender norms and reduced gender bias in their children. Additionally, parental reinforcement practices played a crucial role, as parents who actively encouraged gender-conforming behaviors reinforced stereotypical gender roles, whereas those who provided diverse play opportunities and non-stereotypical role models supported a broader spectrum of gender expression. Despite the global relevance of gender socialization, most included studies were conducted in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) nations, underscoring the need for further research in non-WEIRD contexts. The review highlighted the critical role of parenting in shaping children's gender ideologies and calls for interventions that promote gender-equitable attitudes. Future research should explore diverse socio-cultural perspectives, including socioeconomic status, parental education, and dual-income households, to develop a more nuanced understanding of how parenting influences gender socialization among children.
... Societal norms and cultural expectations shape the gendered nature of the interaction between parents and children as part of the intergenerational transmission of gender role models. Existing studies reveal that fathers more often use authoritative parenting style for girls, featured by warmth and nurturing relationships, and more authoritarian parenting style for sons, featured by stronger rule enforcement and discipline [38,39]. Findings from country-focused studies also demonstrated similar features of family culture and the intergenerational gender role transmission for boys and girls [40,41]. ...
Objective: This study aimed to explore the association between adolescents’ health risk behaviours (excessive use of alcohol, (e)cigarette smoking, cannabis use) and familial factors. A special objective of this study was to compare findings between Bulgarian and Lithuanian adolescents aged 15 years. Material and Methods: National samples from the WHO Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey in 2021/2022 were analysed. The focus was on adolescents aged 15 (n = 64,349), including those from Bulgaria (n = 793) and Lithuania (n = 1137). The set of outcome variables included drunkenness, smoked cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and used cannabis (all variables were measured during the last 30 days); their indicators were child’s talking separately to their father and separately to their mother, as well as the four-item family support scale. All variables were dichotomised and their associations were analysed using Structural Equation Modelling with a WLSMV estimator. Results: In the total sample, the prevalence of drunkenness was 14.9%, cigarette smoking at 12.6%, e-cigarette smoking at 18.4%, and cannabis use at 5.9%; while in Bulgaria, in contrast to Lithuania, these behaviours were much more prevalent, at 27.0%, 29.9%, 29.8%, and 11.1%, respectively. The use of substances was significantly associated with selected familial factors, which were more pronounced among girls than boys in most subsamples. Low family support showed the strongest association with increased substance use (in the total sample, regression weight B varied from 0.231 to 0.382). Adolescents’ difficulty in talking to mother was more pronounced (B = 0.123 to 0.204) than difficulty in talking to their father (B = 0.058 to 0.140). Comparison of data samples from Bulgaria and Lithuania showed stronger relationships in Bulgarian adolescents compared to other countries, which are more pronounced among boys. In addition, among Bulgarian adolescents, easy communication with their father had an inverse association (increasing prevalence) with cannabis use. Conclusions: Adolescent health risk behaviours, such as use of substances, are associated with familial factors, including parent–teen communication and family support. Generally, these associations are more pronounced among girls than boys, and more evident among Bulgarian adolescents than their Lithuanian counterparts. Identifying environmental factors in families helps to plan interventions to prevent development of multiple health risk behaviours in adolescents.
This research work draws attention towards heated debate on transfer of gender biased ideology to generations embedding from gendered parenting. Gendered parenting has the potential to be a breeding ground for fueling the belief of gender stereotyping in the minds of their offsprings. This notion of gender stereotyping has created a picture in the heads of the descendants regarding the fixed gender roles which develops gendered socialization in governing the social world from the lens of gender biasness. The objective of the study is to examine empirically the impact of gendered parenting on gendered socialization in their children’s marital life. The study adopts thirty-two-items scale devised by Brogan & Kutner (1976) and eight- items scale under Gender Role Stereotype Scale (2012) by taking into consideration a sample size of eight hundred respondents comprising of highly educated married professionals and their parents. The findings revealed that children have rightly perceived their parent’s act of gender stereotype in their childhood. Consequently, despite being highly educated, the act of gender stereotyping continues in their married life as they burgeoned under the reflection of gendered parenting. Furthermore, it is also interpreted in the analysis that the female respondents are adversely affected by the pervasive bias and prejudices of gender stereotype in professional life in comparison to the male respondents. The study makes efforts to enhance the understanding of the community of parents to limit the transmission of gendered ideology to their next generations, thereby, progressing towards egalitarian society.
Social aspects, including parents, are likely to influence the development of gender identity. As parents' actions and behaviours convey meaning to their children, they contribute to the formation of the children's gender identity development. The present study aims to investigate the parental influence on the gender identity development of a child character named Claude in Laurie Frankel's This Is How It Always Is. This study is a literary criticism concerning the issue of gender identity development in a literary work viewed from a psychological approach. The data were collected from a novel entitled This Is How It Always Is by Laurie Frankel and analyzed using the social cognitive theory of gender development by Bussey Bandura (1999). The results of the study revealed that his parents influence Claude's gender identity development through the process of modelling as a part of observational learning, which is also supported by parents' evaluative reactions such as rewards or punishments. The process of modelling reveals egalitarian gender roles and sexual orientation modelled and Claude's attention to his mother as an ideal female model, alongside with how parents convey affective reactions such as acceptance and approval on Claude's gender orientation.
It is generally recognized that there are gender-related differences in children’s toy preferences. However, the magnitude of these differences has not been firmly established. Furthermore, not all studies of gender-related toy preferences find significant gender differences. These inconsistent findings could result from using different toys or methods to measure toy preferences or from studying children of different ages. Our systematic review and meta-analysis combined 113 effect sizes from 75 studies to estimate the magnitude of gender-related differences in toy preferences. We also assessed the impact of using different toys or methods to assess these differences, as well as the effect of age on gender-related toy preferences. Boys preferred boy-related toys more than girls did, and girls preferred girl-related toys more than boys did. These differences were large (d ≥ 1.60). Girls also preferred toys that researchers classified as neutral more than boys did (d = 0.29). Preferences for gender-typical over gender-atypical toys were also large and significant (d ≥ 1.20), and girls and boys showed gender-related differences of similar magnitude. When only dolls and vehicles were considered, within-sex differences were even larger and of comparable size for boys and girls. Researchers sometimes misclassified toys, perhaps contributing to an apparent gender difference in preference for neutral toys. Forced choice methods produced larger gender-related differences than other methods, and gender-related differences increased with age.
The aim of the study was to know the factors that influence boys and girls’ perceptions for performing physical activity during playground recess from their own perspective. Ninety-eight schoolchildren aged 8–11 years from five schools from Cuenca (Spain) participated in 22 focus groups and carried out 98 drawings following the socioecological model as a theoretical framework. A content analysis of the transcripts from the focus groups and drawings was carried out by three researchers. Results showed that, in spite of boys and girls identified same barriers, there were gender differences in their perceptions. Gender socialization was the key as central category and helped to understand these differences. Boys preferred play football and this sport had a monopoly on the recess space. Weather was a barrier for boys. Girls and boys, who did not play football, were relegated to peripheral areas and lack of materials was a barrier for them. Teachers were a barrier for all children who did not play football. Thus, in order to promote recess physical activity, researchers, teachers and educational policy makers should take into account gender socialization and promote inclusive non-curricular physical activity in schools.
Conducted conversationally with one respondent at a time, the semi-structured interview (SSI) employs a blend of closed- and open-ended questions, often accompanied by follow-up why or how questions. About one hour is considered a reasonable maximum length for SSIs in order to minimize fatigue for both interviewer and respondent. This chapter begins with a discussion on the disadvantages and advantages of SSIs. Despite the disadvantages and costs of SSIs, they offer some extraordinary benefits as well. Semi-structured interviews are superbly suited for a number of valuable tasks, particularly when more than a few of the open-ended questions require follow-up queries. The chapter presents some recommendations that can be considered when constructing an SSI guide. All in all, effectively conducted semi-structured interviews, even though labor intensive, should be worth the effort in terms of the insights and information gained. © 2015 by Kathryn E. Newcomer and Harry P. Hatry, and Joseph S. Wholey.
The current study utilized longitudinal, self-report data from a sample of 109 dual-earner, working-class couples and their 6-year-old children living in the northeastern United States. Research questions addressed the roles of parents’ gender ideology and gendered behaviors in predicting children’s development of gender-role attitudes. It was hypothesized that parents’ behavior would be more influential than their ideology in the development of their children’s attitudes about gender roles. Parents responded to questionnaires assessing their global beliefs about women’s and men’s “rightful” roles in society, work preferences for mothers, division of household and childcare tasks, division of paid work hours, and job traditionality. These data were collected at multiple time points across the first year of parenthood, and during a 6-year follow-up. At the final time point, children completed the Sex Roles Learning Inventory (SERLI), an interactive measure that assesses gender-role attitudes. Overall, mothers’ and fathers’ behaviors were better predictors of children’s gender-role attitudes than parents’ ideology. In addition, mothers and fathers played unique roles in their sons’ and daughters’ acquisition of knowledge about gender stereotypes. Findings from the current study fill gaps in the literature on children’s gender development in the family context—particularly by examining the understudied role of fathers in children’s acquisition of knowledge regarding gender stereotypes and through its longitudinal exploration of the relationship between parents’ gender ideologies, parents’ gendered behaviors, and children’s gender-role attitudes.
Gender stereotyping and gender role development is one of the debatable concerns to sociologists especially those who are interested in sociology of gender. This study attempts to investigate the role of family inculcating gender stereotyping in Pakhtun culture and its impact on gender role development conducted in public-sector universities of Malakand Division, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The data were collected through in-depth interview method using interview guide as a tool of data collection. A sample size of 24 respondents consisting male and female students and teachers (8 samples from each university through purposive sampling technique) was selected from three universities in the region, that is, University of Malakand, University of Swat, and Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Sharingal (main campus). The collected information has been analyzed qualitatively where primary information has been linked with secondary data for further elaboration and attainment of grounded facts. The study reveals that gender stereotyping and gender role formation are sociocultural and relational constructs, which are developed and inculcated in the institutional network, social interaction, and social relationships especially in family. The study indicated that in family sphere, gender stereotyping and gender role formation are the outcome of gender socialization, differential familial environment, and parents’ differential role with children. The study recommends that gender-balanced familial environment, adopting the strategy of gender mainstreaming and positive role of media, can overcome gender stereotyping and reduce its impacts on gender and social role formation.
The research is intended to address the presence of gender representations in the life of preschool children, using a comparative analysis of Romanian and French children's gender stereotypes, as well as the degree to which these stereotypes are taken on by the girls and boys of the two countries and the implications they imply to the future development of children in general. The analysis illustrates that gender attributions are simultaneously dependent on the evaluator's gender, the country and the type of city they came from.
Guidelines for determining nonprobabilistic sample sizes are virtually nonexistent. Purposive samples are the most commonly used form of nonprobabilistic sampling, and their size typically relies on the concept of “saturation,” or the point at which no new information or themes are observed in the data. Although the idea of saturation is helpful at the conceptual level, it provides little practical guidance for estimating sample sizes, prior to data collection, necessary for conducting quality research. Using data from a study involving sixty in-depth interviews with women in two West African countries, the authors systematically document the degree of data saturation and variability over the course of thematic analysis. They operationalize saturation and make evidence-based recommendations regarding nonprobabilistic sample sizes for interviews. Based on the data set, they found that saturation occurred within the first twelve interviews, although basic elements for metathemes were present as early as six interviews. Variability within the data followed similar patterns.
The present study was designed to investigate gender patterns in early adolescents’ and their parents’ verbal expression of
three gender-stereotyped emotions: anger, sadness, and frustration. Parents and their early adolescent children discussed
four interpersonal dilemmas and answered questions regarding those dilemmas in mother–child and father–child dyads. Consistent
with previous literature regarding gender stereotypes in emotion expression, daughters used a higher frequency of emotion
words than sons did during conversations with their mothers and fathers. Additional analyses regarding the three specific
emotions under investigation, however, revealed findings that were inconsistent with conventional gender stereotypes. Contrary
to expectations, in conversations with fathers, sons used a higher proportion of references to sadness than did daughters.
Daughters used a higher proportion of references to frustration than did sons in their conversations with both mothers and
fathers. Mothers and fathers used a higher proportion of references to frustration with daughters than with sons. No gender
differences were found in parents’ or children’s references to anger. The results call into question culturally accepted gender
stereotypes about sadness, anger, and frustration.
Thematic analysis is a widely used, yet often misunderstood, method of qualitative data analysis. It is a useful and accessible tool for qualitative researchers, but confusion regarding the method’s philosophical underpinnings and imprecision in how it has been described have complicated its use and acceptance among researchers. In this Guide, we outline what thematic analysis is, positioning it in relation to other methods of qualitative analysis, and describe when it is appropriate to use the method under a variety of epistemological frameworks. We also provide a detailed definition of a theme, as this term is often misapplied. Next, we describe the most commonly used six-step framework for conducting thematic analysis, illustrating each step using examples from our own research. Finally, we discuss advantages and disadvantages of this method and alert researchers to pitfalls to avoid when using thematic analysis. We aim to highlight thematic analysis as a powerful and flexible method of qualitative analysis and to empower researchers at all levels of experience to conduct thematic analysis in rigorous and thoughtful way.
This article focuses on two sites in late 20th to early 21st century Malayali society to examine the transformative effects of global flows on the gender dynamics of each—labour and feminist interventions—to reflect on the shape of, and resistance to, post-liberalisation patriarchy in Kerala. As is well known, labour migration to the Persian Gulf from Kerala from the 1970s has been a decisive flow that has impacted all aspects of life in the state. Its impact on the family as a procreative unit has, however, been only probed superficially. I argue that the opening of the global job market, combined with other features of contemporary Malayali society, has transformed the very functioning of the nuclear family unit. In feminist politics, global flows have led to the surfacing of several ‘regulative universals’, and these flows take place through a variety of channels. The clash now is no longer between the indigenous and the foreign, but between ‘glocally generated’ hybrids.
Gendered parenting refers to parental messages and behaviors that convey information about how girls and boys are supposed to behave. In this article, we show that although gendered socialization is rarely found in broad parenting styles or explicit parenting practices, it is present in implicit parenting practices. Such implicit practices can be directed to the child (direct messages) and take the form of exposing children to different products and responding to children's behaviors differently depending on gender. Implicit gendered parenting practices can also be directed to others or reflect general gendered expressions that are conveyed to the child (indirect messages); these can take the form of gendered evaluations of others’ behaviors in the child's presence and modeling gendered roles. We argue that studying these subtle forms of gendered parenting is important to understand gendered child development in light of the changing societal backdrop of gender roles and values.
Young children search for cues about gender—who should or should not do a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. From a vast array of gendered cues in their social worlds, children quickly form an impressive constellation of gender cognitions, including gender self-conceptions (gender identity) and gender stereotypes. Cognitive perspectives on gender development (i.e., cognitive developmental theory and gender-schema theory) assume that children actively search for ways to make sense of the social world that surrounds them. Gender identity develops as children realize that they belong to one gender group, and the consequences include increased motivation to be similar to other members of their group, preferences for members of their own group, selective attention to and memory for information relevant to their own sex, and increased interest in activities relevant to their own sex. Cognitive perspectives have been influential in increasing understanding of how children develop and apply gender stereotypes, and in their focus on children's active role in gender socialization.
Iowa students and parents completed related attitude and belief questionnaires about school subjects. Grade K–3 students received simpler questionnaires than did Grade 4–6 students or parents. Among Grade 4–6 children, girls perceived higher competence in reading than did boys, but boys perceived higher competence in physical science. All children perceived physical science competence lower than reading or math competence. Parents perceived boys as more competent in science. Girls like reading more than boys did; boys and girls did not differ in liking of science. Grade 4–6 children also expected lower grades in and attached lower importance to physical science than to reading. Parents perceived science as more important for boys and expected higher performance of boys. Jobs related to math or science were seen as more male dominated. These results provided a more comprehensive picture of attitudes and beliefs about science in the elementary school than had existed and suggested that attitudinal gender differences related to physical science begin to develop by the earliest elementary school years. Policy implications are that intervention programs designed to promote gender equity should be extended to the early elementary school years and also should address parental attitudes. Additional implications for policy and research are discussed. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 36: 719–747, 1999