No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
I’m writing in Tunisian: Orthography and identity in written Tunisian Arabic
Abstract
In recent years the amount of written vernacular Arabic has increased dramatically. But encoding an unstandardized language in writing is not straightforward and mechanical; rather, it is a complex process that balances practical considerations with ideological stances such as autonomy from the standard language. This study examines how writers of Tunisian Arabic (or derja) are navigating this elaboration process. Using a quantitative analysis of a 279,000-word corpus of print literary works written in Tunisian Arabic (2014–2021) and a 5.8-million-word corpus of internet forum posts (2010–2021), this paper explores how Tunisians writing in derja make orthographic choices to collectively position themselves in relation to the larger Arab world. The study finds that forum writers who have advocated for an improved status for Tunisian Arabic use more phonemic spelling forms—more closely representing Tunisian pronunciation—while those who have advocated for Standard Arabic are more conservative in their spelling choices. The authors of Tunisian Arabic novels and translations—pulled between issues of elaboration and readability—are a bit more conservative than the pro- derja group. These results show how writers in unstandardized or not-yet-standardized languages like Tunisian Arabic use orthography to express national identity stances in relation to supranational languages and identities.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Social and technological changes over the past several decades have led to widespread writing of "spoken" Arabic dialects. In Tunisia, there has been a noticeable growth of vernacular prose literature, part of a larger development of Tunisian Arabic as a written language. Tunisia does not have a history of colloquial literature: previously even the use of "derja" in literary dialogue was rare. From this nearly non-existent base, a small "leak" of vernacular writing appeared in the latter part of the 20th century, followed by a flood – first online, and increasingly in print – in the first two decades of the 21st. This has culminated in over a dozen vernacular novels and literary translations.
The linguistic situation in the Arab world is in an important state of transition, with the “spoken” vernaculars increasingly functioning as written languages as well. While this fact is widely acknowledged and the subject of a growing body of qualitative literature, there is little quantitative research detailing the process in action. The current project examines this development as it is occurring in Tunisia: I present the findings from a corpus study comparing the frequency of Tunisian Arabic–Standard Arabic equivalent pairs in online forum posts from 2010 with those from 2021. The findings show that the proportion of Tunisian lexical items, compared to their Standard Arabic equivalents, increased from a minority (19.7%) to a majority (69.9%) over this period. At the same time, metalinguistic comments on the forum reveal that, although its status is still contentious, Tunisian has become unmarked as a written language. These changes can be attributed to major developments in Tunisian society over the period of study – including internet access and the 2011 revolution. These findings suggest destabilization of the diglossic language situation in Tunisia and a privileging of national identity vis-à-vis the rest of the Arab world.
The Politics of Written Language in the Arab World connects the fascinating field of contemporary written Arabic with the central sociolinguistic notions of language ideology and diglossia. Focusing on Egypt and Morocco, the authors combine large-scale survey data on language attitudes with in-depth analyses of actual language usage and explicit (and implicit) language ideology. They show that writing practices as well as language attitudes in Egypt and Morocco are far more receptive to vernacular forms than has been assumed.
The individual chapters cover a wide variety of media, from books and magazines to blogs and Tweets. A central theme running through the contributions is the social and political function of “doing informality” in a changing public sphere steadily more permeated by written Arabic in a number of media.
The e-book version of this publication is available in Open Access.
This chapter introduces the transliteration scheme used to represent Arabic characters in this book. The scheme is a one-to-one
transliteration of the Arabic script that is complete, easy to read, and consistent with Arabic computer encodings. We present
guidelines for Arabic pronunciation using this transliteration scheme and discuss various idiosyncrasies of Arabic orthography
Writing systems have attracted relatively little attention from sociolinguists, in spite of obvious connections with subjects of great sociolinguistic interest, such as ethnicity and identity. In fact, the literature contains a substantial amount of research on writing systems from a sociolinguistic perspective, but there is no recognised 'sociolinguistics of writing systems' within which different case studies can be researched and compared from a social and cultural point of view.This article will discuss and review research in the sociolinguistics of both writing systems and orthographies, taking a perspective drawn from literacy studies which treats writing systems as social practice. The paper will focus on stages of writing system development where social and cultural considerations typically play a role: the initial choice of script, the period when the orthography and/or script is developed, and once it is an established system in regular use. There is also a discussion of how social and cultural factors are involved in, and often stand in the way of, writing system reform.
Taking as its point of departure Michael Carter’s discussion of the problematic relationship between the Arabic grammatical tradition and modern linguistics (1987), this paper seeks to outline a set of pathways for dealing with this relationship from the perspective of language ideology in so far as it relates to the notion of social identity. The paper investigates this ideologically mediated link of language to society in the Arab(ic) context by problematizing the notions of language myths, the native speaker, mother tongue and native language, speech-community and native-language community, as well as the notion of universal and middle-range theory in ways that challenge some of the received “dogmas” in modern linguistics and privilege the native linguistic tradition. The paper does not deny that similarities do exist between these two approaches, but it eschews the debate that took place about the nature of these similarities in the 1990s in favor of a perspective that recognizes the embedding of knowledge about language in society and the importance of double hermeneutics in understanding this embedding.
Cette étude se situe dans le prolongement des travaux se rattachant à l’examen des idéologies langagières en général et de ceux se rapportant à ces idéologies dans les espaces arabophones en particulier. Ma thèse principale consiste à montrer que si le tunisien a existé dans la littérature, la littérature tunisienne, elle, ne s’est exprimée en tunisien que récemment. Sur la base d’un riche travail de documentation portant sur les écritures en tunisien, associé à un travail de terrain anthropologique attentif aux acteurs impliqués dans ces écrits, la question de recherche consistera à interroger deux moments d’écriture en tunisien pour savoir si les écritures correspondant à ces deux moments sont portées par les mêmes idéologies langagières. En filigrane, c’est une lecture critique du concept de diglossie qui me permettra, tout au long de l’article, de soutenir mon argumentation. A la double condition de le considérer comme un concept sociologique plutôt que linguistique d’une part, et de le traverser et non pas de s’y installer pour analyser les pratiques langagières contemporaines d’autre part, il devient possible d’éclairer sous un angle différent les enjeux liés à ces pratiques.
Yasir Suleiman's 2004 book considers national identity in relation to language, the way in which language can be manipulated to signal political, cultural or even historical difference. As a language with a long-recorded heritage and one spoken by the majority of those in the Middle East in a variety of dialects, Arabic is a particularly appropriate vehicle for such an investigation. It is also a penetrating device for exploring the conflicts of the Middle East, the diversity of its peoples and the diversity of their viewpoints. Suleiman's book offers a wealth of empirical material, and intriguing, often poignant illustrations of antagonisms articulated through pun or double entendre.
Spelling matters to people. In America and Britain every day, members of the public write to the media on spelling issues, and take part in spelling contests. In Germany, a reform of the spelling system has provoked a constitutional crisis; in Galicia, a 'war of orthographies' parallels an intense public debate on national identity; on walls, bridges and trains globally, PUNX and ANARKISTS proclaim their identities orthographically. The way we spell often represents an attempt to associate with, or dissociate from, other languages. In Spelling and Society, Mark Sebba explores why matters of orthography are of real concern to so many groups, as a reflection of culture, history and social practices, and as a powerful symbol of national or local identity. This 2007 book will be welcomed by students and researchers in English language, orthography and sociolinguistics, and by anyone interested in the importance of spelling in contemporary society.
How does writing relate to speech? What impact does it have on social organisation and development? How do unwritten languages differ from those that have a written form and tradition? This book is a general account of the place of writing in society. Drawing on contemporary and historical examples, from clay tablets to touchscreen displays, the book explores the functions of writing and written language, analysing its consequences for language, society, economy and politics. It examines the social causes of illiteracy, demonstrating that institutions of central importance to modern society are built upon writing and written texts, and are characterised by specific forms of communication. It explores the social dimensions of spelling and writing reform, as well as of digital literacy, a new mode of expression and communication posing novel challenges to the student of language in society.
This volume provides a detailed analysis of language contact in North Africa and explores the historical presence of the languages used in the region, including the different varieties of Arabic and Berber as well as European languages. Using a wide range of data sets, it provides a comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms of language contact under classical diglossia and societal bilingualism, examining multiple cases of oral and written code-switching. it also describes contact-induced lexical and structural change in such situations and discusses the possible appearance of new varieties within the context of diglossia. Examples from past diglossic situations are examined, including the situation in Muslim Spain and the Maltese Islands. An analysis of the current situation of Arabic vernaculars, not only in the Maghreb but also in other Arabic-speaking areas, is also presented. This book will appeal to anyone interested in language contact, the Arabic language, and North Africa.
Language choices on Mosaic FM. Constructing social invisibility and normalization.
The emergence of private radio stations has considerably changed the mediascape in Tunisia, a country which has had public radio for some considerable time. Mosaic FM was the first, and despite the arrival of a plethora of new private stations, it still has the largest audience. Within media studies it is possible to adopt various types of observation. I am particularly interested in looking at media production using anthropology of language. In this article, I set out my fieldwork observations and show how one editorial line, which favors a relaxed styled in terms of language use, comes into conflict with another editorial line, implicit and non-consensual, which criticizes such relaxation by limiting and « correcting » the use of regional varieties other than that of Tunis. I conclude by showing how these positions bring sociolinguistic invisibility to certain actors, as well as making the use of certain varieties normal, and others abnormal.
Body and sexuality in Tunisian literature
Based on about thirty semi-directive interviews of the contemporary Tunisian writers and the analysis of books published by female writers, the article shows how the exclusion of women from the field of literature cannot be explained only by their difficulties in conciling domestic work and creative activity. While the literary expression of the body and of sexuality is expected from critics and fellow writers and is an important criteria of the evaluation of a “good” book, female writers must face a disseminated social censorship that is particularly acute in the family and the couple. Access of some female writers to literary recognition is thus conditioned by the various strategies that recognition is thus conditioned by the various strategies that they were able to set up, whether in their ordinary interactions with close ones or in their literary productions.
To date, most scholarship on Arabic language ideologies has focused on the contentious relationship between Standard Arabic and the spoken vernaculars. This paper, in contrast, draws attention to the hierarchies among the regional varieties of vernacular Arabic. Specifically, it makes visible the workings of what it calls the ‘Maghreb‐Mashreq language ideology’: the hierarchical relationship between Mashreqi (Middle Eastern) and Maghrebi (North African) vernacular Arabic varieties. The paper explores, in particular, the de/authentication of linguistic Arabness through a detailed analysis of a transnational pan‐Arab reality/talent TV show. Drawing on clips of situated interactions from this series, which have been uploaded to YouTube and commented upon by viewers, the paper argues that the new media is a critical site for reworking longstanding language ideologies and the politics of identity in the Arabic‐speaking world.[Arabic]
This case study explores the motivations for code switching (CS) in the interactions of Tunisian students at the faculty of Economics and Management in Sfax, Tunisia. The study focuses on students' (EMSs) classroom conversations and out-of-classroom peer interactions. The analysis of the social motivations of EMSs' CS behaviour shows that classroom conversations are teacher controlled and that CS instances are mostly uttered for clarification or to enhance participation. The switches are motivated by the students' low abilities in French enhanced by the unstable linguistic situation of Tunisia after the Arabisation process. However, out-of-classroom conversations are mostly uncontrolled, unless in the presence of out-group members. All types of CS encountered explain the motivations for the emergence of an unconscious monolect as a means of interaction among in-group members. This monolect is set to achieve communicative goals where more importance is given to the message and less significance to the code.
Mauritian Creole (Kreol) is a French-lexified creole spoken on post-colonial and multilingual Mauritius. Although it is extensively used, it has not been officially standardised. The choice of a given orthography reflects language beliefs and is therefore ideologically loaded. More specifically, the way creoles are standardised can reflect the bias towards these languages which are seen as inferior to, and dependent on, their lexifiers. In the Mauritian case, this issue is especially significant because there are now efforts to devise an official standard for the language. In 2004, the Government set up a committee to develop a standard orthography for MC. This paper considers use of, and attitudes to, written Kreol. The material presented is based on interviews conducted in Mauritius and participant observation. Although interviewees do not make extensive use of Kreol in written interactions, they tend to support the promotion of literacy in the language. Responses highlight the tension between Kreol and the colonial languages — English and French — and also the role of Kreol as an index of national identity. Our findings confirm that the choice of an orthographic system reflects linguistic and social hierarchies. I conclude that this study has practical social implications for the standardisation of Kreol.
This chapter surveys recent work on the linguistic construction of national identity in the Middle East, against the backdrop of political conflicts of different intensities. It does so by discussing the language situation in Lebanon, Israel/Palestine, and Jordan in so far as these situations involve conflict between Arabic and other languages (French and Hebrew), Arabic and one of its dialectal variants, or different Arabic dialects. The chapter shows the dynamic nature of linguistic identity construction and the variety of modes this construction takes. It highlights the significance of linguistic subtraction as a marker of identity, the relevance of power differentials to language maintenance, and language shift as tropes of identity construction and shows that linguistic boundary setting is as much related to structural forces in society as it is to specific political conflicts that speed up the progress of these forces and their inevitable outcomes. 1
In sociolinguistics, Urdu and Hindi are considered to be textbook examples of digraphia—a linguistic situation in which varieties of the same language are written in different scripts. Urdu has traditionally been written in the Arabic script, whereas Hindi is written in Devanagari. Analyzing the recent orthographic practice of writing Urdu in Devanagari, this article challenges the traditional ideology that the choice of script is crucial in differentiating Urdu and Hindi. Based on written data, interviews, and ethnographic observations, I show that Muslims no longer view the Arabic script as a necessary element of Urdu, nor do they see Devanagari as completely antithetical to their identity. I demonstrate that using the strategies of phonetic and orthographic transliteration, Muslims are making Urdu-in-Devanagari different from Hindi, although the difference is much more subtle. My data further shows that the very structure of a writing system is in part socially constituted. (Script-change, Urdu, Urdu-in-Devanagari, Hindi, Arabic script, Devanagari, orthography, transliteration)
This Introduction provides a framework of the key issues surrounding the non-standard orthographic representation of non-standard language varieties. Orthographic choices and their interpretation are framed as metalinguistic, socially conditioned phenomena which shed light on people's attitudes towards both specific language varieties and social identities and on the relationship between linguistic form and the social world in general. From this perspective, the introduction addresses the following specific topics: 1) the selective nature of orthographic choice; 2) the relational and contrastive meaning of orthographic conventions; 3) the interplay of sameness and difference in the use of orthography to make claims on linguistic and cultural identity; 4) orthography and representational control: writing the self vs. representing others and 5) orthographic esthetics: the role of the visual in the interpretation of the oral.