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Cyclone vulnerability on coastal village housing and vegetation: a case study in Mongla sub-district, Khulna,
Bangladesh
Jasmine Aktera, Miraz Azadb, Mehedi Hasan Rakibb,*, Mohd Imran Hossain Chowdhuryb, Anas Hossain Chowdhuryc,
Mst. Sanzida Nasrin Mazumderd
a Department of Public Administration, University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh
b Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh
c Port City International University, Chittagong, Bangladesh
d Jagannath University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
ABSTRACT
This study examines the vulnerability of village households and trees to cyclonic events in the coastal region of
Mongla, Bangladesh, an area increasingly affected by severe tropical cyclones. We assessed the structural integrity
of residential buildings, the impact on tree cover, and the overall socio-economic effects of cyclones. Our analysis
reveals that a significant majority of homes are built with materials inadequate for cyclone resistance, with 66.3%
constructed from tin, leading to substantial damage during storms. Specifically, 58.8% of homes, 69.9% of kitchens,
and 74.5% of cattle sheds experienced cyclone-induced damage over the past decade. The presence of trees around
homes mitigates damage; houses surrounded by trees suffered 58.8% damage compared to 93.3% for those without.
Socio-economic impacts include loss of livelihood, with many households dependent on relief due to the destruction
of crops and fishing equipment. We recommend implementing hazard mapping, enhancing land use planning, and
constructing cyclone-resistant buildings. Additionally, retrofitting existing structures, expanding cyclone shelters,
and increasing mangrove and homestead tree plantations are crucial for improving resilience. The study highlights
the urgent need for increased public awareness and community engagement in cyclone preparedness and risk
reduction.
Keywords: Cyclone Vulnerability, Coastal Resilience, Structural Damage, Socio-Economic Impact, Tree
Plantation
1. Introduction
Bangladesh stands as one of the most climate-vulnerable countries globally, frequently subjected to natural
disasters that are intensifying due to climate change. The nation's coastal regions, particularly the districts of
Bagerhat, Barguna, Bhola, and Patuakhali, are highly susceptible to cyclones, floods, erosion, and rising sea levels.
These environmental challenges profoundly impact the 35 million people living along the coast, with approximately
7 million residing in high-risk areas where the threats are particularly acute (Haque et al., 2021a; M. S. Rahman,
2020; Azad et al., 2021). The unique funnel shape of Bangladesh’s coastline exacerbates its vulnerability,
channeling cyclones and storm surges directly toward these communities, particularly in the southern and
southeastern parts of the country (Haque et al., 2021b). This recurrent onslaught of severe weather events not only
destroys infrastructure and homes but also undermines the livelihoods of coastal populations, compounding the
already significant impacts of climate change (Jamal et al., 2022).
Mangrove forests, which line much of Bangladesh’s coastline, are crucial in mitigating the effects of these
climate-induced disasters. These ecosystems provide vital flood protection, reduce the impact of cyclones and storm
surges, store carbon, and support local livelihoods by offering resources like food, fuel, and timber. Furthermore,
mangroves serve as critical habitats for a wide array of species, contributing to the region's biodiversity. Globally,
the flood protection services offered by mangroves are valued at nearly US$65 billion annually, with their cyclone
protection benefits estimated at around US$1.8 million per square kilometer each year. Despite their importance,
mangroves are themselves vulnerable to tropical cyclones due to their coastal location, which exposes them to
severe weather, resulting in significant damage (Polas et al., 2024; Sahana et al., 2022; Siddique et al., 2024).
The homes of many coastal residents in Bangladesh are constructed from local materials such as mud, bamboo,
wood, and straw, with minimal financial investment and often without adequate structural resilience. These
traditional, vernacular houses are typically built by local artisans or family members who may lack formal training
in construction techniques. As a result, these structures are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events like
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cyclones and floods, leading to substantial damage and loss (Mehta et al., 2021). Although modern weather
forecasting systems and cyclone shelters are available in some coastal areas, the vulnerability of these traditional
houses remains a critical issue, contributing to significant property loss and posing challenges for disaster
management (Akter et al., 2020).
The impact of climate change on agriculture in coastal areas further complicates the lives of local communities.
Many coastal farmers cultivate a variety of fruit and timber species in their homesteads, which have traditionally
met household needs and contributed to environmental sustainability (M. S. Rahman, 2020). However, increasing
soil salinity, which affects approximately 8,142 square kilometers (about 5.5% of Bangladesh’s land area), severely
hampers plant growth and productivity. Salinity leads to unfavorable environmental and hydrological conditions,
causing reduced vegetation cover and lower crop yields. To address these challenges, there is a pressing need for
improved planning and scientific approaches to agroforestry, which could enhance the resilience of coastal
agriculture (M. S. Khan et al., 2021; Mallick et al., 2021; Mondal et al., 2021).
Beyond environmental impacts, the socio-economic consequences of climate change and natural disasters are
profound. Coastal communities, heavily reliant on the mangrove ecosystems for their livelihoods, face significant
disruptions when these ecosystems are damaged. The destruction of homes, infrastructure, and agricultural
productivity due to extreme weather and soil salinity diminishes the quality of life and destabilizes local economies
(Azad et al., 2021). Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach, including strengthening the
resilience of housing structures, improving disaster preparedness and response systems, and adopting sustainable
agricultural practices (Mallick et al., 2021). Developing climate-resilient infrastructure, coupled with effective
management of natural resources and community awareness programs, is essential for mitigating the impacts of
climate change and supporting the livelihoods of coastal populations.
Efforts to build resilience and adapt to climate change must be rooted in a deep understanding of the local context
and the specific vulnerabilities of different communities. By prioritizing these areas and investing in adaptive
strategies, Bangladesh can better prepare for and manage the challenges posed by climate change and natural
disasters, ensuring a more secure and sustainable future for its coastal populations (Mallick et al., 2021; Sahana et
al., 2022; Shaikh et al., 2021). The primary objective of this study is to assess the livelihoods of coastal communities,
focusing on the impact of cyclones on their homes and agricultural practices, and to explore the underlying causes
of these damages (Siddique et al., 2024). Specifically, the study aims to evaluate community dependence on the
natural resources of the Sundarbans, identify tree species and households most vulnerable to cyclone damage, and
assess the level of awareness and knowledge about natural climate phenomena among local populations. The study
will also address challenges such as navigating the severely damaged road and communication infrastructure in the
Sundarbans buffer zone and the lack of cooperation from respondents, which may impact data collection and
analysis.
2. Methodology
2.1. Research Design and Site Selection
The research design focused on systematically investigating the selected problem, outlining the procedures for
data collection, and the timing of each step to generate empirical evidence that answers the research questions. The
Bagerhat district, consisting of nine Upazilas, was chosen as the study area, with Mongla Upazila randomly selected
for detailed investigation (Siddique et al., 2024). Within Mongla, six Unions—Chandpai, Burirdanga, Chila,
Mithakhali, Sonailtola, and Sundarban—were considered, and Chila and Sundarban Unions were randomly
selected. Chila Union has 15 villages, and Sundarban Union comprises 19 villages (Sahana et al., 2022; Shaikh et
al., 2021). From each Union, two villages were chosen, with 20 respondents selected randomly from each, covering
both males and females. Data collection methods included questionnaires and semi-structured interviews (M. Roy
et al., 2015). Additionally, a homestead survey employing random sampling was conducted, providing a
comprehensive view of the area by covering 80 sample homestead forests.
2.2. Field Data Collection
Before the primary data collection, a reconnaissance survey was conducted to gain a preliminary understanding
of the study area, focusing on homestead floral diversity, local livelihoods, and the impact of cyclones (Azad et al.,
2021; Polas et al., 2024). This preliminary survey included personal interviews with residents, which facilitated
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4934182
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communication of the study's objectives and helped establish rapport with the community. This initial engagement
was crucial for identifying key aspects of the study area that could influence research outcomes (Alam et al., 2023).
Subsequently, an interview schedule was meticulously prepared to collect relevant information, guided by the
study's objectives. The questionnaire development process was iterative, starting with an initial draft that was tested
and refined to ensure it effectively captured the necessary data (Kessler et al., 2009; S. Roy & Bhattacharya, 2023;
Smith et al., 2020; Uddin et al., 2020a). The final questionnaire combined open-ended and closed-ended questions,
allowing for both qualitative insights and structured data collection (B. Chowdhury et al., 2018; Uddin et al., 2020a).
This comprehensive approach ensured that the data collected would be rich and varied, covering a broad spectrum
of information necessary for addressing the research questions (Hossain et al., 2020; M. Rahman et al., 2018). A
well-structured questionnaire was designed to cover all relevant aspects of the study. The interview method ensured
randomness and unbiased results, with data collection focusing on factors such as age, education, occupation,
income, housing types, floral diversity, and cyclone impact (Hossain et al., 2020). For the homestead survey,
random sampling was employed to cover 80 sample homestead forests. Tree data was collected using a 19-meter
radius circular plot, recording the diameter at breast height (DBH) for all trees with a DBH of at least 10 cm. Species
were identified and recorded by both local and scientific names, ensuring accurate documentation of floral diversity
(Hossain et al., 2020; Islam et al., 2022; Reza & Kamrul, 2012; Ukpatu et al., 2015). Conducted in four villages
around Mongla Upazila, personal interviews involved face-to-face interactions using a semi-structured guide. The
goal was to identify vulnerable tree species, assess cyclone impacts, and evaluate local awareness of natural climatic
conditions (Abdollahi et al., 2012; Afrianto et al., 2021; Byomkesh et al., 2012; Gillespie et al., 2017). Direct
observation provided firsthand insight into the field conditions, while secondary data, including statistical
information, reports, and maps, were gathered from various sources to complement primary data (Abdollahi et al.,
2012; Sarwar et al., 2016).
2.3. Data Processing and Analysis
Data were meticulously recorded, organized, and analyzed using simple mathematical methods, with results
presented in tabular and graphical formats. The final report was prepared using software tools such as MS Word,
MS Excel, and R version 4.1.0 (Hossain et al., 2020; M. Rahman et al., 2018).
3. Results
3.1. Basic socio-economic profile of the respondents
In the area, poverty drives early employment and marriage, leading to larger families, often living separately
post-marriage. Among respondents, 66.23% have more than two children, while 33.7% have two or fewer. Joint
families are common, with many households consisting of a husband, wife, elderly parents, and children. Families
typically have 5 to 6 members (41.9%), with 26.2% having four or fewer members. Education levels are notably
low, with a significant portion of the population unaware of the importance of education. The majority of people
have education levels below the Primary School Certificate (PSC) level, with 48% below PSC, 25% at the Junior
School Certificate (JSC) level, and 7.1% illiterate. Among the respondents, 17.5% are illiterate, and 58.8% have
completed the PSC level (Mondal et al., 2021). Proximity to the Sundarbans and rivers influences employment,
with many earning their livelihoods through fishing and forest resource collection. Despite the presence of a port
and industries in Mongla Upazila, these opportunities are inaccessible to those in remote areas. Around 28.8% of
people are involved in fishing, 36.3% in farming, and others in occupations like boatmen (7.5%), day laborers
(11.3%), and small business activities (11.3%). The average annual per capita income is 178,318 BDT, with most
(48.8%) earning between 100,000 and 200,000 BDT annually, while only 8.8% earn more than 300,000 BDT
(Kanan et al., 2024). Housing primarily consists of tin-walled and tin-roofed structures (66.3%), with only 2.5%
living in brick buildings. Additionally, 8.8% of families lack a separate kitchen and cook on balconies or in open
spaces during winter. Most kitchens are made of tin walls and roofs (Jamal et al., 2022). Livestock rearing is
widespread, with 87% of respondents involved. Among them, are 60.8% rear chickens, 38.3% ducks, 18.1% cows,
17% goats, and 11% pigeons. However, 13% do not keep livestock, and 31.2% lack separate cattle sheds, often
using wooden structures with tin roofs. (Fig. 1e).
3.2. Forest dependency
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A significant portion of respondents in these areas depend on forest resources, with their level of dependence
varying based on the type of resource extracted. The intensity of collection is categorized as follows: low, indicating
very low dependency and spending two or fewer days per month collecting resources; medium, involving three to
five days per month; and high, referring to six or more days per month(Abdullah et al., 2018; M. M. Khan & Aziz,
2012; Masum et al., 2021). Among the respondents, 78.75% collect fish or crabs from rivers, and 67.9% gather
firewood from the forest. Notably, 66.7% of those who collect fish do so with high intensity.
3.3. Challenges for Bhawali, Mawali, and Fishermen
Obtaining permission to engage in these professions is challenging and limited. Long-term permits last for only
three months, and Boat License Certificates (BLCs) are also restricted. The professions of Bhawali and Mawali are
particularly dangerous in the Sundarbans, as many honey collectors and Bawali have been attacked and killed by
tigers. Additionally, during fish breeding seasons, fishermen face restrictions as fishing zones are reduced due to
the government's declaration of fish sanctuaries (Abdullah et al., 2018; Brockerhoff et al., 2017; Chowdhury et al.,
2018; Khan & Aziz, 2012; Masum et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2016).
3.4. Tree species around houses
To study the types of trees surrounding houses and assess potential threats from cyclones, circular plots with a
15-meter radius were considered, centered on each house. Within a 19-meter radius, trees with a diameter of ≥10
cm were surveyed. Among the respondents, mahogany was the most common tree species, found in around 83.8%
of houses with 67 families, followed by raintree and raj koroi at 80% and 73.8%, respectively. The majority of trees
within the 15-meter plots were either fruit trees or shade trees. Despite the proximity to the Sundarbans, there were
only a few mangrove trees, such as keora and geoa, observed (Scherer et al., 2021; Uddin et al., 2020a).
Fig. 1: (a) Percentage distribution of families by size, (b) Educational levels of respondents’ family members, (c)
Distribution of households by occupation, (d) Percentage of families within various income brackets, (e) Types
of houses categorized by type.
3.5. Cyclone and its impact
3.5.1. Knowledge and precautionary preparation for cyclone
A significant 97.5% of respondents lack awareness of cyclone signals and categories, with only 3.7% knowing
appropriate actions to take during a cyclone. Despite this, 66% purchase cyclone kits, 16% secure their homes, and
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18% trim risky tree branches. The community’s limited knowledge and preparedness highlight a critical need for
better education and awareness programs (Abdullah et al., 2018; Khan & Aziz, 2012; Scherer et al., 2021).
Government efforts are mixed: 52.5% of respondents acknowledge cyclone preparedness activities, primarily
motivating shelter use (69%). However, only 10% report government-led public seminars on cyclone preparedness.
Many feel the government doesn’t do enough, partly due to poor communication and infrastructure, with the average
distance from the main road to homes at 1.2 km (Hasan et al., 2023; Majumdar et al., 2014). To improve cyclone
resilience, strategies include enhancing communication networks, increasing public seminars, improving shelter
accessibility, and actively involving the community in preparedness efforts. These measures will better protect
residents and build a more resilient community (Kanan et al., 2024).
3.5.2. Cyclone and Taking Shelter
A significant portion of the respondents display a reluctance to evacuate to cyclone centers during storms.
Specifically, 28.8% chose to stay in their homes during the last five cyclones, while 32.5% sought refuge in a
neighbor's house, depending on the cyclone's intensity(Haque et al., 2021a; M. S. Khan et al., 2021). However, a
larger group, 53.8%, opted to take shelter in designated cyclone centers, such as schools, mosques, or specially
constructed cyclone shelters (Fig. 2d). The varying choices highlight the diverse coping strategies and levels of risk
perception among the population(Polas et al., 2024).
3.5.3. Reason Behind Staying at Home
Several factors contribute to the decision to remain at home during cyclones. One notable reason is the
unavailability of cyclone centers, cited by 26.1% of respondents. In some cases (Fig. 2e), there are no official
cyclone centers nearby, and local primary schools, which are not structurally adequate for such purposes, are often
used instead. These buildings are frequently poorly constructed and may not provide sufficient protection during
severe weather events. Furthermore, 17% of respondents attributed their decision to a lack of awareness. This group
tends to underestimate the severity of the impending cyclone and chooses to stay home, sometimes influenced by
religious beliefs or superstitions that discourage them from seeking refuge in shelters. Additionally, 48% of
respondents avoid cyclone centers due to the distance involved, with the average distance being 1.78 kilometers
from their homes. This distance can be a significant barrier, especially for vulnerable populations such as the elderly,
disabled, or those without reliable transportation (Jamal et al., 2022; Shaikh et al., 2021).
3.5.4. Damages to Houses by Cyclone
The coastal nature of the region makes it highly susceptible to cyclone damage. Over the past decade, 58.8% of
respondents reported damage to their homes due to cyclones. This figure includes 69.9% of those with kitchens and
74.5% with cattle sheds experiencing damage (Fig. 2f). Respondents noted that these auxiliary structures, such as
kitchens and cattle sheds, often suffer more damage because they are not as robustly constructed as living quarters
(Kanan et al., 2024; Mallick et al., 2021). This disparity in structural integrity leaves them particularly vulnerable
to the effects of high winds and debris.
3.5.5. Reasons Behind Damage
The primary causes of damage during cyclones were heavy winds and fallen tree branches. Among the damaged
properties, 51.1% of houses, 62.7% of kitchens, and 13.8% of cattle sheds were compromised primarily due to
heavy winds. The force of these winds can easily dislodge poorly secured roofing materials, shatter windows, and
cause structural instability. On the other hand, 23.4% of houses, 19.6% of kitchens, and a significant 57% of cattle
sheds were damaged by fallen branches from surrounding trees. The prevalence of large trees near residential areas
increases the risk of such incidents, particularly when high winds cause branches to break off and crash into
buildings (Azad et al., 2021).
Table 2: Percentages of different types of damages in different douses by cyclone in the last 10 years.
Parameter of damage
Different types of damages in (%)
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House (%)
Kitchen (%)
Cattleshed (%)
Damage
17.5
23.3
59.2
Medium damage
23.8
32.9
43.3
low damage
17.5
13.7
68.8
Total damage
58.8
69.9
28.7
Reasons
Fallen branches of the tree
23.4
19.6
57.0
Uprooted tree and fell on the house
14.9
15.7
69.4
Heavy wind
51.1
62.7
13.8
Flood
10.6
2.0
87.4
Note: Damage is classified based on the repaired cost of more than 10000 BDT, medium damages are
classified into 5000 BDT to 9999 BDT and low damages from 0 to 4999 BDT.
3.5.6. Tree damaged by cyclone
A total of 92.5% of respondents reported experiencing various types of tree damage during cyclones. Among
these, 97.5% (Table 3) believe that the type of canopy is the primary cause of damage from large trees. In the case
of small trees, 18.7% of respondents attribute damage to the quality of timber or physical properties, along with
other natural factors. For large trees, 96.2% of respondents think that wind is the main cause of damage, while for
small trees, 3.8% believe that both wind and rainfall are significant factors (M. S. Rahman, 2020; Siddique et al.,
2024; Tesfaye, 2011).
Table 3: Reasons behind large and small tree damage and its percentages based on respondent perceptions.
The reason behind tree damaged
Percentages of damage
Tree quality
Large tree
Small tree
Canopy coverage
97.5
2.5
Poor rooted system
83.7
16.3
Quality of timber or physical properties
18.7
81.3
Natural agent
Wind
96.2
3.8
Flood
80.0
20.0
Rainfall
96.2
3.8
Flood and rainfall
82.5
17.5
Soil quality
76.2
23.8
Wind and rainfall
68.7
31.3
Note: Large trees are defined as 15 meters and small trees are marked as lower than 15 meters.
3.5.7. Saline water enters the locality
During cyclones, 88.8% of respondents reported water ingress into their homes, while 11.2% did not.
Additionally, during the full moon periods of July and September, 26.25% of respondents experienced water
entering their homesteads, with the average distance from their houses to the nearest river or canal being 0.9 km.
Among those affected, 22% attributed the intrusion of saline water into their homes as the cause of tree death, while
54% linked it to decreased crop production (Mallick et al., 2021).
3.6. Vulnerabilities
3.6.1. Vulnerable tree species
To assess the cyclone-damaged trees within a 19-meter radius around the houses, it was observed that in addition
to natural tree species, most respondents planted various types of trees at home to meet different needs. Some of
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these trees are particularly vulnerable to damage from strong cyclone winds, which can result in broken branches
or trees breaking or falling. Among the respondents, 83.8% of households have raintree trees(Goyal & Sen, 2016;
Mehta et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2019), with 87.5% of these households experiencing damage to this species from
strong winds over the last 10 years (Table 4). Additionally, 83.3% of households with betel nut trees reported
damage, and 59.3% of the 59 households with Raj koroi trees suffered similar damage due to cyclonic winds (M.
S. Khan et al., 2021; Mallick et al., 2021).
Table 4: List of vulnerable tree species that were damaged by cyclones in the last 10 years.
SN.
Local name
Scientific name
Household (%)
Damage (%)
1.
Rain tree
Samanea Saman
83.8
87.5
2.
Battle Nut
Areca catechu
80
83.3
3.
Banana
Musa acuminata
73.8
81.8
4.
Shojna
Moringa oleifera
61.3
78.6
5.
Aamra
Spondias mombin
53.8
61.5
6.
Raj Koroi
Albizia richardiana
52.5
59.3
7.
Coconut
Cocos nucifera
46.3
55.8
8.
Mahagoni
Swietenia mahagoni
42.5
41.8
9.
Jam
Syzygium cumini
42.5
38.2
10.
Aam
Mangifera indica
33.8
27.3
11.
Akashmoni
Acacia auriculiformis
30
25.9
12.
Mandar
Erythrina variegata
28.8
25.0
13.
Shimul
Bombax ceiba
28.8
25.0
14.
kodom
Neolamarckia cadamba
28.8
23.5
15.
kath badam
Terminalia catappa
27.5
14.7
Note: Household (%) for having tree species and damages for those tree species responsible for household
damages. Damage classified based on repaired cost more than 10000 BDT.
3.6.2. Purpose of plantation
Despite the susceptibility of certain tree species to being uprooted or damaged during cyclones, 49% of
respondents chose to plant these trees because they are well-suited to the area's conditions. These trees often meet
specific local needs, making them a practical choice for many households. Additionally, 29% of respondents planted
these trees to provide firewood and shade for their homes (Fig. 2c). This utility, combined with the trees' adaptability
to the local environment, underscores their importance to the community (Kalanzi & Mwanja, 2023; Mehta et al.,
2021; Sood et al., 2002).
However, 81% of respondents do not consider the usual direction of storms when planting trees. This oversight
can increase the risk of damage, as trees planted in vulnerable positions may be more likely to fall or cause other
damage during cyclones. The lack of awareness or disregard for storm patterns when planting trees highlights a
potential area for community education and intervention. Encouraging more strategic tree planting practices could
help mitigate the risks associated with cyclones, protecting both property and the trees themselves. Moreover,
promoting the use of more resilient tree species could further reduce the likelihood of damage and enhance the
safety and sustainability of the local environment (Acharya et al., 2023; Byomkesh et al., 2012; Sarwar et al., 2016).
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Fig. 2. (a) Actions taken by respondents prior to a cyclone, (b) Measures implemented by the government before
a cyclone, (c) Objectives of planting vulnerable tree species, (d) Use of shelters during a cyclone, (e) Reasons for
staying at home during a cyclone, (f) Comparison of different types of houses with and without surrounding trees.
3.6.3. Vulnerable houses
A study of 30 thatched houses, either surrounded by trees or in treeless areas, assessed cyclone damage over 10
years. Houses with tree cover sustained lower damage: 58.8% of houses, 69.9% of kitchens, and 74.5% of cattle
sheds were affected, compared to 93.3% of treeless houses. The findings suggest that vegetation around houses
reduces cyclone damage (Afrianto et al., 2021; Gillespie et al., 2017). Respondents noted that the Sundarbans'
vegetation acts as a natural barrier, slowing cyclone winds. However, 86.3% emphasized that vulnerable groups,
particularly women, children, the elderly, and disabled individuals, face heightened risks during climate-induced
disasters due to restricted mobility, poverty, and gender inequality. The disruption of sanitation systems further
exacerbates these challenges.
3.6.4. Awareness level about the key environmental issues
The knowledge level of respondents regarding environmental issues is classified into four categories: 'No idea,'
'Poor,' 'Medium,' and 'Good.' Most respondents lack a thorough understanding of these issues, with a significant
73.3% not knowing climate change. Only 3.3% of respondents have a good understanding of river and tidal floods.
Awareness is also limited for other topics, such as biodiversity conservation and native vs. exotic plant species,
with only 2% and 1.5% demonstrating a good level of understanding, respectively. The majority of respondents
have only a basic or minimal grasp of these critical environmental matters, highlighting a need for increased
education and awareness (Mukul, 2019; Warton et al., 2013).
Table 5: Awareness level of respondents about the key environmental issues on different scales.
Parameter
Good
(%)
Medium (%)
Poor
(%)
No idea
(%)
Knowledge about river tidal flood
3.4
17.5
53.3
25.8
Knowledge of climate change
3.8
4.2
18.5
73.3
Knowledge about biodiversity conservation
2
28.8
44.2
25.0
Knowledge about native and exotic plant species
1.5
11.0
34.2
53.3
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Note: ‘Good’ means the respondent has a clear idea about the issue, ‘Medium’ means the respondent has
heard about the matter and has some idea about it, ‘Poor’ means the respondent has very little idea about
it but does not have a clear, ‘No idea’ means respondents do not know about the issue.
3.6.5. Problems and threats
Due to their remote locations, residents are often deprived of fundamental rights such as education, healthcare,
and security. The lack of awareness among locals and the considerable distance to cyclone shelters result in a general
reluctance to seek safety Fig. 3, often leading to severe consequences. Additionally, infrastructure and roads are
frequently constructed with low-quality materials and inadequate planning, making them vulnerable to cyclones
and river erosion. This vulnerability leads to significant economic losses for the local population. As a result of
these economic hardships and limited awareness, many local children are forced into child labor instead of pursuing
education. Furthermore, the absence of proper supervision and awareness has led to fishermen using unauthorized
nets with small mesh sizes to catch fish fry, posing a serious threat to local biodiversity (Hossen et al., 2019; Nazrul
et al., 2021; Profile, 2014; Shome, 2022).
4. Discussion
Livelihood strategies encompass the diverse activities people engage in to achieve their economic goals. In the
coastal areas surrounding the Sundarbans, four primary strategies have been identified. According to Hossen et al.,
(2019), these strategies can be classified as natural resource-based, non-natural resource-based, and migration, while
Mukul, (2019) distinguishes between natural resource-based activities and non-natural resource-based activities
such as remittances. Barik et al., (2018), however, identify agricultural intensification or extensification as a key
strategy, a viewpoint that contrasts with other classifications. Similar mixed livelihood approaches have been
observed in rural areas, such as the West Coast District of South Africa (Jaman, 2018) and the Bale Highlands of
Southern Ethiopia, highlighting significant variations among households.
Vulnerability often intersects with poverty, as highlighted by (Nazrul et al., 2021). Individuals frequently
transition between states of poverty and vulnerability due to a lack of resources(South et al., 2013), linking closely
with household asset status. The study reveals that households in Mongla, Bagerhat, near the Sundarbans, face
significant socio-economic challenges Fig. 3. The majority of these households live below the poverty line, with
large family sizes averaging 5 to 6 members. Educational levels are low, with 48% of the population having
education below the PSC level and 25% having JSC qualifications. Employment is diverse, with 28.8% engaged in
fishing, 36.3% in farming, and others in various occupations such as boatman, day laborer, and business, with an
average annual income of 178,318 BDT(Siddique et al., 2024).
The Sundarbans Reserved Forest and its buffer zone are rich in natural resources, but local dependence on these
resources presents numerous challenges(Tesfaye, 2011). The process of obtaining necessary permits for resource
extraction is cumbersome, and the high risk of encounters with wildlife, such as tigers, further complicates matters.
Furthermore, 97.5% of respondents are unaware of cyclone signals and categories, and 96.3% lack proper
knowledge about cyclone preparedness. Despite purchasing cyclone kits, 47.5% believe that pre-cyclone measures
by the government are inadequate or fail to reach them due to communication barriers, with an average distance of
1.2 km from the main road(M. S. Rahman, 2020).
During recent cyclones, 28.8% of respondents remained in their homes, 32.5% sought refuge in neighbors'
houses, and 47.8% avoided cyclone centers due to their distance, averaging 1.78 km. Water ingress during cyclones
and full moons has led to crop and tree loss, with 88.8% of respondents experiencing such issues(Sahana et al.,
2022). The average distance to river canals is 0.9 km. Additionally, 86.3% of respondents believe that women,
children, the elderly, and disabled individuals are particularly vulnerable to climate change.
Most coastal residents construct their homes with minimal resources, relying on traditional building methods
and local artisans who lack expertise in resilient construction(Shaikh et al., 2021). These non-engineered houses
often lack the structural strength needed to withstand environmental hazards such as cyclones, floods, and
earthquakes(Jamal et al., 2022). Despite the potential for improved structural integrity with proper planning, many
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4934182
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households remain exposed to severe damage. Recent advancements in weather forecasting and the availability of
cyclone shelters have improved safety, but significant vulnerabilities remain (Haque et al., 2021a).
Fig. 3. Photographs of the surviving area representing the vulnerability of disaster.
Most residences in the study area are constructed with tin walls and roofs (66.3%), only 2.5% of homes are built
from brick, and 8.8% of families lack separate kitchens. A significant 87% of respondents keep livestock, but 31.2%
do not have separate cattle sheds (Azad et al., 2021), with most of the existing sheds made from wood walls and tin
roofs. As a coastal region, this area is highly susceptible to cyclone damage. Over the past decade, 58.8% of
respondents reported damage to their homes, 69.9% reported damage to their kitchens, and 74.5% reported damage
to their livestock shelters (Polas et al., 2024). Of the damaged properties, 51.1% of houses, 62.7% of kitchens, and
34.1% of cattle sheds were affected by strong winds Fig. 3.
Damage comparisons show that homes surrounded by trees experienced 58.8% damage, whereas those without
trees suffered 93.3% damage. Tropical cyclones, which influence ecosystem dynamics, forest structure, and carbon
storage, can have varied impacts based on wind speed, cyclone proximity, and storm surge height. Tropical forests
experiencing high cyclone frequency often show different damage patterns compared to less frequently affected
regions. Understanding these impacts is crucial as cyclone frequency and intensity increase due to climate change
(Mallick et al., 2021).
In the study area, within a 19-meter radius of each house, trees with a DBH ≥10 cm include mahogany (83.8%),
raintree (80%), and raj koroi (73.8%). A substantial 92.5% of respondents have experienced tree damage from
cyclones. Among them, 38.8% believe canopy type is the main cause of damage to large trees, while 81.3% attribute
damage to the quality of timber or physical properties in small trees. Among 56 households with raintree trees,
87.5% experienced damage, followed by 59.3% of households with raj koroi (Kanan et al., 2024). Despite the
vulnerability of these trees, 48.8% of respondents planted them because they are well-suited to the area, and 28.8%
planted them for firewood and shade (Kanan et al., 2024).
5. Recommendation
As global tropical cyclone wind speeds and rainfall are expected to increase, with the most intense cyclones
potentially becoming more frequent in some ocean regions, the long-term hazard levels in affected areas may rise
(M. S. Khan et al., 2021; Mallick et al., 2021; Mondal et al., 2021). To improve and secure the livelihoods of coastal
communities, several strategies are recommended. Hazard mapping should be utilized to predict vulnerable areas
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4934182
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based on historical cyclone data, including wind speeds and flooding frequencies. Effective land use planning is
essential to prevent key activities and settlements in high-risk zones, such as floodplains. Constructing engineered
structures that can withstand cyclone forces and retrofitting non-engineered buildings to improve their resilience
are crucial steps (M. S. Rahman, 2020). Cyclone shelters should be built at various levels, taking into account
population density, transportation, and topography. Flood management systems must be well-designed to handle
heavy rainfall and reduce flooding, with active participation from both the government and local communities.
Enhancing vegetation cover, including coastal and mangrove plantations, can help mitigate wind impact and soil
erosion. Increasing mangrove plantations is particularly important due to their ecological benefits. For homesteads,
planting native, saline-tolerant, and wind-resistant tree species around homes, while ensuring they are not too close
to structures(Polas et al., 2024), is recommended. Additionally, constructing saline embankments can protect
habitation and agriculture from saline intrusion. Lastly, raising public awareness through community engagement
and education on natural disasters is vital for effective disaster preparedness and mitigation. Implementing these
measures can significantly enhance the resilience of coastal communities to cyclonic events.
6. Conclusion
Climate change is having a severe impact on impoverished communities in Bangladesh's coastal and floodplain
regions. The consequences of climate change-induced disasters are increasingly evident in these areas. Our study
highlights that each year, cyclones cause significant loss of property and lives in the coastal belt, exacerbating both
social and economic conditions. In Mongla upazila, like many other coastal regions of Bangladesh, the local
economy heavily relies on agriculture and fishing. Cyclones disrupt these livelihoods by destroying crops and
fishing equipment, leaving many jobless and reliant on relief aid.
Our field data analysis reveals that most houses in Bangladesh's coastal areas are non-engineered and structurally
inadequate to withstand high-speed winds or damage from fallen trees during cyclones. Many people construct
these unstable structures with the same amount of money that could be used to build more durable houses, due to a
lack of knowledge in engineering and technology.
Tropical cyclones pose significant threats to life and property even in their early stages. They bring various
hazards that can cause substantial damage. Coastal forests and mangroves play a crucial role in mitigating these
impacts by reducing wind and storm wave forces and protecting against coastal erosion. However, all trees have
some potential to fall under strong winds, with certain species being more vulnerable. The stability of trees is heavily
influenced by their root systems; shallow roots increase the risk of uprooting compared to those growing at
appropriate depths.
Data statement
Data will be made available on a formal request to the corresponding author.
CrediT authorship contribution statement
Jasmine Akter: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision. Miraz Azad: Supervision,
Conceptualization, Project administration. Mehedi Hasan Rakib: Writing – review & editing & Data curation,
Methodology. Mohd Imran Hossain Chowdhury: Review & editing, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation.
Anas Hossain Chowdhury: Review & editing, Formal analysis. Mst. Sanzida Nasrin Mazumder: Review &
editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We are thankful to all those unknown households who cordially participated in this study and made this study
possible. All the authors are also thankful to all the anonymous reviewers who enriched this article's quality via
their critical analysis.
This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4934182
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