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Minor millets: Processing techniques and their nutritional and health benefits

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In recent years, there has been a surge in the popularity of minor millets, also called ancient grains. As a result, there has been a growing interest in the potential health benefits and unique dietary properties that these foods offer. Once considered a forgotten crop, millet has gained popularity as part of efforts to achieve sustainable development goals. With a growing population, there is a need to explore sustainable methods to provide food and nutritional security to people, and millets offer a promising solution to this objective. This literature review aims to provide a thorough and all-encompassing overview of the geographical distribution of minor millets, as well as the challenges and opportunities associated with their production. Additionally, this review will investigate the nutritional benefits of minor millets and their potential for use in the development of value-added products.
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Review Article
Puneet Kang, Anagha Karumanthra Krishnanand, Sawinder Kaur*, Prasad Rasane, Jyoti Singh,
Vikas Nanda, Amine Assouguem*, Rachid Lahlali, Riaz Ullah, Ali S. Alqahtani
Minor millets: Processing techniques and their
nutritional and health benets
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2022-0324
received January 23, 2024; accepted June 22, 2024
Abstract: In recent years, there has been a surge in the
popularity of minor millets, also called ancient grains. As a
result, there has been a growing interest in the potential
health benets and unique dietary properties that these
foods oer. Once considered a forgotten crop, millet has
gained popularity as part of eorts to achieve sustainable
development goals. With a growing population, there is a
need to explore sustainable methods to provide food and
nutritional security to people, and millets oer a promising
solution to this objective. This literature review aims to
provide a thorough and all-encompassing overview of
the geographical distribution of minor millets, as well as
the challenges and opportunities associated with their pro-
duction. Additionally, this review will investigate the nutri-
tional benets of minor millets and their potential for use
in the development of value-added products.
Keywords: minor millets, processing, nutritional impor-
tance, value-added products, utilization
1 Introduction
Belonging to the Poaceae family, millets are small, round-
seeded crops that exhibit exceptional drought-resistant quali-
ties. These crops are primarily cultivated in large quantities
within semi-arid regions throughout Africa and Asia [1]. These
grains represent a diverse range of cereals derived from var-
ious taxonomically distinct varieties of grass. Although consid-
ered an underutilized collection of cereal grains, millets are
consumed by over a third of the global population and rank
sixth in terms of global agricultural production [2]. Despite not
holding as much signicance as other crops in agriculture,
millets are crucial for ensuring food security at both the
farm and regional levels, making them indispensable. Addi-
tionally, millet production globally has reached the level of
30.792millionmetrictonnesin2023[3].Inthetwenty-rst
century, the world is facing several challenges that must be
addressed, such as the increasing global population, climate
change, rising food costs, limited water resources, pollution,
and other socioeconomic factors. These unfavourable factors
could have a detrimental eect on local agricultural advance-
ments and reduce cereal production, leading to higher food
costs and signicant global food scarcity issues [4].
Millet contains signicant proportions of various
nutrients (Table 1) essential to our diets, such as starch,
proteins, lipids, and dietary bre, as well as vitamins
and minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, manga-
nese, phosphorus, and potassium, which are higher in
comparison to other grains. Millet also has considerable
quantities of essential amino acids (Table 2), notably
those containing sulphur, such as methionine and cysteine
[5]. The presence of essential amino acids supports the quality
of protein in small millets. In addition to the presence of high
nutritional and nutraceutical components, millet is also con-
sidered a rich source of phytochemicals like phenolic acids,
avonoids, catechins, phytic acid, and phytosterols [6] that
are known to prevent various lifestyle-related ailments such
as cancer, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, and more
because of high antioxidant activity. Processing methods
such as dehulling and decortication, malting, fermentation,
Puneet Kang, Anagha Karumanthra Krishnanand, Prasad Rasane,
Jyoti Singh: Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

* Corresponding author: Sawinder Kaur, Department of Food
Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara,
Punjab, India, e-mail: sawi_raman@yahoo.co.in
Vikas Nanda: Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Sant
Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal, Sangrur,
Punjab, India
* Corresponding author: Amine Assouguem, Department of Plants
Protection and Environment, National School of Agriculture, Meknes,
Morocco; Laboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, Faculty of
Sciences and Technology, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University,
Imouzzer Street, P.O. Box 2202, Fez 30000, Morocco,
e-mail: assougam@gmail.com
Rachid Lahlali: Department of Plants Protection and Environment,
National School of Agriculture, Meknes, Morocco
Riaz Ullah, Ali S. Alqahtani: Medicinal Aromatic and Poisonous Plants
Research Center, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia
Open Agriculture 2024; 9: 20220324
Open Access. © 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
and thermal processing improve the availability of these
nutrients for health benets [7].
Minor millets include barnyard millet, foxtail millet,
Kodo millet, little millet, and Proso millet. These millets
may not be well-known as staple cereal crops such as wheat,
rice, and corn, but they oer distinct benets, including the
ability to withstand drought, high temperatures, and poor
soil conditions. The production and cultivation of minor
millets vary depending on the region and specic species [8].
Minor millets are a great option for individuals with gluten
intolerance as they are naturally gluten-free. Additionally,
research has linked the incorporation of minor millets into
ones diet with improved gut health, weight management,
and a reduced risk of chronic diseases. They are also a
valuable addition to plant-based diets [9]. A variety of pro-
ducts, including our, akes, porridge, and fermented foods,
can be made using minor millets. The our can be used to
make traditional foods like rotis, dosas, and idlis, while the
Table 1: Nutritional composition of dierent minor millets
Barnyard millet Foxtail millet Kodo millet Little millet Proso millet References
Energy (kcal) 398 331 353 329 341 [1013]
Carbohydrates (%) 65.570 60.0963.2 65.966.19 65.5567.0 70.480.1
Fat (%) 2.23.9 4.04.3 1.43.6 4.75.2 1.13.1
Protein (%) 6.810.5 11.212.3 8.38.92 9.710.13 11.513.4
Crude bre (%) 4.913.7 2.48.0 7.59.0 5.57.6 2.23.5
Ash (%) 2.14.5 2.103.3 3.6 1.345.4 2.73.6
Minerals (mg/100 g) 4.4 3.3 2.6 1.5 1.9
Calcium (mg/100 g) 2060 3140 15.2727 16.0617.0 14.015.5
Phosphorus (mg/100 g) 252280 270290 101188 130220 200206
Iron (mg/100 g) 9.018.6 2.83.7 1.72.34 1.269.3 0.60.8
Thiamine (mg/100 g) 0.250.33 0.59 0.150.29 0.260.30 0.20.41
Niacin (mg/100 g) 3.14.2 2.83.2 1.432.0 1.293.2 2.34.5
Riboavin (mg/100 g) 0.050.1 0.080.11 0.090.20 0.050.09 0.180.28
Table 2: Essential amino acids of dierent minor millets
Finger millet Proso
millet
Foxtail
millet
Kodo millet Little
millet
Barnyard millet References
Amino acids
(mg/100 g)
Arginine 2,7704,500 290 210220 270 250 270 [2,1416]
Histidine 2,200 110 130 120 120 1,8002,000
Lysine 2,200 189190 140 150 110 1,6001,800
Tryptophan 1,1001,500 4950 60 501,320 600 1,000
Phenylalanine 4,1005,200 307310 420 430 300 5,5006,300
Methionine 2,500 160 180 180 180 1,6001,800
Cystine 1,7002,600 190 110 90
Threonine 3,4004,200 147150 190 200 190 3,6003,700
Leucine 6,6009,500 760762 1,040 650 760 11,40011,700
Isoleucine 4,300 405410 480 360 370 4,5004,600
Valine 4,9006,600 407410 430 410 350 6,1006,200
Table 3: Anti-nutritional factors in minor millets
Finger millet Proso millet Foxtail millet Kodo millet Little millet Barnyard millet References
Tannins (mg/g) 3.5 7.2 2.80 1.01.2 3.3213.368 0.434.7 [2,17]
Phytic acid (mg/g) 5.545.58 7.2 0.341 mol/kg 1.21.4 14.4 to 15.3 3.373.70
Saponins (mg/g) 2.132.63 1.670.291 0.0567 8.3810.26
Oxalate (mg/g) 0.225 0.0859 0.112 0.521 0.262 0.202
2Puneet Kang et al.
Table 4: Eect of dierent processing methods on the nutritional and anti-nutritional content of minor millets
Processing methods Millet Nutritional/anti-nutritional content changes References
Soaking Little millet Fat content increases by 25.95%
At 24 h soaking, antioxidants increased from 34.123 to 56.17%
Tannin content reduced from 1.22 to 0.37 mg/g
[18,19]
Finger millet At 24 h soaking, antioxidants increased with respect to time from 28.07
to 55.50%
Tannin content reduced from 2.07 to 0.55 mg/g
Total polyphenolic reduced from 161.64 to 128.97 mg gallic acid equivalent
(GAE)/100 g
Kodo millet Antioxidants increased from 56.71 to 78.34%
Tannin content reduced from 1.42 to 0.53 mg/g
Germination Finger millet Protein, fat, bre, and ash increased after 96 h germination: 8.579.80%,
1.671.87%, 2.302.65%, and 3.473.73%, respectively; however, carbohydrates
slightly decreased 7271.40%
Vitamin C increased from 0.04 to 0.06 mg/100 g
Phytic acid, trypsin, and tannin content decreased after germination for 96 h
from 51.67 to 21.67 (mg/100 g), 0.47 to 0.00 (mg/100 g), and 53.33 to 23.33 (mg/
100 g), respectively
[10,2024]
Kodo millet Increase in the total phenolic content (TPC), total avonoid content (TFC), and
antioxidant activity in terms of radical scavenging activity was found to be
83.01 mg GAE/100 g, 87.53 mg RUE/g, and 91.34%, respectively
Protein increased from 6.7 to 7.9%
Minerals from 232.82 to 251.73 mg/100 g
Dietary bre from 35.30 to 38.34 g/100 g
Phytate content and tannin content reduced from 1.34 to 0.99 mol/kg and 1.60
to 0.23 mg/100 g, respectively
Browntop millet Ash content increased from 1.79 to 5.80%
Highest crude bre value was recorded at 12.15%
Little millet Increased TPC, TFC, antioxidants, and tannins increased from 429.9 to 453.3 mg
GAE/100 g, 334.9 to 350.2 mg catechin equivalent/100, 90.2 to 91.7% and 283.4
to 332.1 mg catechin equivalent/100
Barnyard millet Fibre was increased from 10 to 11.21%, whereas protein, fat, carbohydrates, and
energy decreased from 10.19 to 10.9%, 4.89 to 4.54%, 61.42 to 60.55%, and 331
to 327 kcal, respectively
TPC and TFC increased from 66.78 to 105.83 mg GAE/100 g and 699.76 to
859.44 mg rutin equivalent/100 g
Tannins increased from 4.72 to 5.78%
Phytates decreased from 0.125 to 0.09 mol/kg
Minerals increased from 29.9 to 34.79 mg/kg
Dietary bre increased from 21.65 to 23.74%
γ-Aminobutyric acid increased from 6.36 to 35.70 mg/100 g
Fermentation Kodo millet Improved the availability of Ca by 20%, Fe by 27%, and P and Zn by 26% [10,25]
Finger millet pH, acetic acid, starch, total soluble sugars, and fat reduced from 6.4 to 4.3%,
0.14 to 0.50%, 59.4 to 52.0%, 1.4 to 0.5%, and 2.1 to 1.2%, whereas lactic acid,
titratable acidity, reducing sugars, total protein, protein extractability, and total
free amino acids increased from 0.15 to 0.98%, 0.4 to 1.9%, 0.43 to 0.95%, 8.1 to
8.3%, 59.9 to 76.2% and 0.5 to 1.8% respectively
D-xylose increased from 1.12 to 1.30% and D-glucose from 0.09 to 0.12%
Browntop millet Highest total phenolic content increased from 27.16 to 73.50% w/w
Iron content increased from 52.54 to 68 μmol on fermentation for 12 and 48 h
Fat increased from 4.16 to 7.08%
Decortication Finger millet Protein, fat, total dietary bre, minerals, calcium and phosphorous,
polyphenols, and phytates reduced from 8.1 to 6.3%, 1.5 to 0.9%, 22.0 to 14.7%,
1.9 to 1.0%, 317 to 180 mg/100 g, 211 to 109 mg/100 g, 265 to 67 mg catechin
equivalent (CAE)/100 g and 236 to 142 mg/100 g, respectively
Starch, solubility, and swelling increased from 68.1 to 74.0%, 3.9 to 8.9%, and 70
to 190%
[26]
(Continued)
Minor millets as sustainable and nutritious foods 3
akes are a perfect breakfast cereal or an ingredient in
baking. Porridge made from minor millet is a common
dish in many rural areas, providing a good source of energy
and nutrition. These can also be used in innovative products
like pasta, noodles, and extruded snacks while retaining
their authenticity when used with typical cuisine. In addi-
tion, it is a traditional ingredient used in some parts of the
world to make beer, a fermented beverage [27]. Minor millet
is also a signicant ingredient in animal feed due to its high
protein content. The straw can be used as biofuel, and the
husk can be repurposed for making paper. These various
applications highlight the versatility and nutritional benets
of minor millets, making them a valuable crop with a wide
range of potential uses [28].
Table 4: Continued
Processing methods Millet Nutritional/anti-nutritional content changes References
Polyphenols were reduced by 74.7% and phytate phosphorus reduced by 39.8%
Little millet Tocopherol decreased from 2.42 to 1.47 mg/100 g
Phytic acid decreased from 2.67 to 1.49 mg/100 g
Polyphenol decreased from 136.53 to 67.90 mg/100 g
Zinc increased from 0.26 to 0.27 mg/100 g
Copper decreased from 0.44 to 0.24 mg/100 g
Manganese decreased from 0.08 to 0.03 mg/100 g
Iron increased from 2.28 to 1.02 mg/100g
Milling Finger millet Reduction in Fe (6.52 to 3.29 mg), Zn (2.50 to 1.98 mg), and Ca (404.3 to
294.8 mg)
Reduction in thiamine (0.552 to 0.342 mg/100 g) and riboavin (0.243 to
0.196 mg/100 g)
[10,17]
Little millet Protein, fat, ash, calcium and phosphorous reduced from 11.4 to 9.4%, 5.4 to
3.1%, 1.6 to 0.9%, 13.1 to 4.4 mg/100 g, and 412.4 to 262.7 mg/100 g, respectively
Moisture and carbohydrates increased from 6.8 to 7.6% and 74.8 to 78.9%
Browntop millet Protein increased from 4.16 to 17.31%
Parboiling Proso millet Total starch reduced from 5 to 10%
Lower glycaemic index from 1.6 to 3.9%
Proteins increased in porridge and couscous from 8.9 to 9.6% and 8.8 to 9.5%,
respectively
Improved gallic acid from 0.6 to 1.4 µg/g
Protocatechuic acid improved from 3.9 to 7.3 µg/g
[29,30]
Kodo millet Mineral content increased from 232.82 to 251.73 mg/100 g
Browntop millet Crude bre increased from 2.42 to 19.44%
Roasting Finger millet Decreased the crude fat content by 0.71%
Increased calcium from 337.31 to 341.24 mg/100g and Fe from 3.45 to
3.91 mg/100 g
[9,10,21,30]
Little millet Increased TPC, TFC, antioxidants, and tannins from 429.9 to 521.0 mg GAE/
100 g, 334.9 to 420.2 mg CAE/100, 90.2 to 95.5%, and 283.4 to 336.8 mg CAE/100
Browntop millet Carbohydrates increased from 58.00 to 79.68%
Pung Kodo millet When heated at 230°C for 3 min, carbohydrate content increased from 68.35
to 74.38%
Increased protein content from 7.92 to 8.12%
Calcium level reduced from 27 to 18 mg/100 g
Calcium level reduced from 27 to 18 mg/100 g
[4,10,25,31]
Finger millet Decreased the fat content 0.06%
Total dietary bre increased from 17.10 to 18.20 g/100 g and phytic acid content
decreased from 200 to 22.30 mg/100 g
Polyphenols decreased from 1.800 to 1.400 g/100 g
Increase in protein, carbohydrate, and iron content from 6.3 to 7.1 g/100 g, 71.9
to 75.73 g/100 g and 3.7 to 5.1 mg/100 g, respectively
Decrease in calcium, crude bre, moisture, and fat content from 342 to 338 mg/
100 g, 18.9 to 15.8 g/100 g, 13.1 to 12.2 g/100 g, and 1.30.63 g/100 g,
respectively
4Puneet Kang et al.
2 Impact of millet processing:
Reducing anti-nutrients and
enhancing nutritional
accessibility
Millet grains usually need to undergo processing before they
can be consumed, and they are not directly consumable
after being harvested. Although the renement process
that removes the bran and germ reduces the nutrient con-
tent, milling can improve the quality of desirable grain com-
ponents and eliminate indigestible substances (Table 4)and
impurities while preserving their nutritional value [32]. Pro-
cessing techniques are employed to produce value-added
products that improve the nutritional content and sensory
characteristics, while also increasing the accessibility of
micronutrients. Various methods like soaking, germination,
fermentation, thermal, and mechanical processing are
applied to reduce the content of anti-nutrients like tannin,
oxalate, and phytates present in minor millets [33] (Table 3).
Processing millet is critical to making it an edible form,
extending its shelf life, enhancing its avour, texture, and
taste, and diversifying the diet. By using various techniques
to process food, it is possible to alter its physical, nutritional,
and functional characteristics, which can be benecial in
promoting food security within a particular area [14,34].
2.1 Soaking, germination, and fermentation
Wet processes like germination, fermentation, and soaking
are commonly used to improve the nutritional quality of
grains. The eect of dierent processing techniques on
dierent constituents of millet grains is summarized in
Table 4. Soaking, which is a common household technical
procedure, is essential to allow the grains to absorb water
and initiate the process of nutrient activation. Soaking is
an eective method for improving the bioavailability of
micronutrients like zinc by reducing the levels of anti-
nutritional substances such as phytic acid, tannic acid,
and phenols [14,15,35]. Soaking, along with gemination,
has been reported to enhance the avour of the grains.
There is a reduction in iron and zinc after being soaked
in water, which could be due to the leaching of these
minerals into the soaking water [18]. However, the germi-
nation process can lead to an increase in nutraceuticals,
such as total phenolic content, antioxidants, total avonoid
content, dietary bre, protein, and minerals, including mag-
nesium, calcium, sodium, and iron, as well as γ-aminobu-
tyric acid (GABA). It is important to note that extended
soaking and high germination temperatures may result in
the loss of nutrients [20,36,37].
Germination of millet grainshasbeenshowntoincrease
free amino acids and total sugars while decreasing starch
content, making protein and starch easier to digest [21,22].
Thenutritionalvalueofgerminated millets is directly propor-
tional to the germination time, as it increases the bioavailab ility
of minerals. Germination also enhances enzyme activity
and utilization of fat as an energy source, which may
result in a decrease in fat content [38,39].
With germination new cells are formed, and existing cells
expand. This leads to an increase in the synthesis of cell wall
components such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins,
which are major constituents of dietary ber. Moreover, the
activity of phytase during germination also contributes to the
increase in mineral content. Germination encourages the
activity of the endogenous amylase enzyme and releases the
protein and bre matrix. This makes granules of starch readily
available to hydrolysing enzymes, leading to the fragmentation
of starch chains and making them easily digestible. Hence,
germination makes protein and starch more digestible with
little eort [23,38,40]. Technology oers a fast and cost-eective
way of converting grains into food through fermentation,
whichisaprocessthatpartiallyresemblesgerminationand
involves the use of microorganisms. In various countries,
millets are fermented to produce dierent types of meals,
including alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, thin and thick
porridges, and bakery products [4143]. During fermentation,
the breakdown of cellulose and hemicellulose leads to the
formation of polysaccharides with a more porous and loose
structure, which may explain the changes in dietary bre.
Fermentationcanalsoleadtoanincreaseinthebioavailability
of micronutrients and a decrease in anti-nutrients [44,45].
Millets can be subjected to fermentation and malting
to enhance their nutritional composition by reducing the
levels of anti-nutrients and increasing the bioavailability of
minerals and vitamins [46]. Fermentation and malting pro-
cesses can signicantly reduce the levels of anti-nutrients,
such as amylase inhibitors, trypsin, and phytic acid [2], by
creating an ideal pH range for the enzymatic breakdown of
phytate, which is found in millets in complexes with poly-
valent cations such as iron, zinc, calcium, and magnesium,
and proteins. The endogenous phytases in fermented millets
can reduce phytic acid and polyphenols, and the polyphenol
oxidase content is increased [38]. Additionally, fermented
nger millet has been found to contain higher levels of
some vitamins, such as niacin and riboavin, and amino
acids, including cysteine and methionine [47].
2.2 Decortication and milling
Decortication is the process of removing the outer layer of
the millet seed. Millet species and other cereals have seed
Minor millets as sustainable and nutritious foods 5
coats that need to be removed before further processing.
Removing the seed coat can lead to increased solubility of
the seed while decreasing the cellulose component, which
provides several physiological advantages to the decorti-
cated millet. Decortication results in decreased levels of pro-
tein, fat, and polyphenols, as well as anti-nutrients, while
increasing the bioaccessibility of minerals and improving
the digestibility, assimilation, and sensory qualities of millet
during cooking [48]. Additionally, the starch content, swel-
ling index, and solubility of decorticated millet are increased
(Table 4).
Dehulling or milling involves removing the seed coat
(husk) and separating the bran. However, it is important to
note that the husk and seed coat contain higher concentra-
tions of phenolic compounds than the whole and de-
husked grains. Excessive dehulling may lead to a loss of
dietary bre, bioactive compounds, and up to 80% of phe-
nolic content [49,50]. Although milling retains a signicant
amount of dietary bre, it removes approximately 66% of
calcium and 36% of phosphorus [10].
2.3 Parboiling
Parboiling is a widely used technique for improving the
milling yield and biochemical properties of grains, including
millets. Parboiling has been shown to have positive eects
on the phenolic and antioxidant properties of grains. This
method helps to retain the nutrient-rich components of
grains by preserving the bran and outer covering during
the soaking and boiling process [50]. In addition, parboiling
can lower the glycaemic index and decrease the amount of
readily digestible starch in the grain during soaking and
boiling, which can benet people with diabetes or other
metabolic disorders [10,29].
2.4 Extrusion
Extrusion is a widely used method for semi-dry cooking of
grains and foods, such as baby meals, snack foods, break-
fast cereals, and pasta [51]. The extrusion technology has
been reported to aect many technological properties of
extruded products made from millets. According to Lohani
and Muthukumarappan [52], extrusion increased starch
digestibility, dietary bre content, water solubility index,
total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and crispness.
The biochemical properties are aected by alterations in
lipids, protein matrix, and starch granules, which are
inuenced by processing conditions. Minor changes in
the content of protein, soluble and insoluble bre, phos-
phorus, and calcium may also occur during processing [53].
2.5 Roasting
Roasting is a common and traditional method used in
households and rural areas to enhance the avour of
food by browning its outer layer using an open ame, an
oven, or another heat source. Roasting can signicantly
impact the taste and aroma of millet, adding a distinct
avour prole and aroma [54]. Roasting also has benecial
eects on millets nutritional quality as it eliminates anti-
nutritional or harmful compounds such as alkaloids, sapo-
nins, goitrogenic compounds, glycosides, hemagglutinin,
and trypsin inhibitors, making millets safer for consump-
tion [15]. Furthermore, roasting can also enhance the anti-
oxidant activity of millets by liberating bound phenolic
chemicals due to the heat treatment. Studies have shown
that roasting can increase the total phenolic content of
minor millet grains by 17%, demonstrating the potential
use of roasted millet food items as functional foods [55].
However, it should be noted that the benecial antioxi-
dants present in millets may be adversely impacted by
roasting. Singh et al. [56] found that roasting nger millet
resulted in a decrease in moisture, protein, and fat con-
tents by 2.67, 1.4, and 0.12%, respectively. However, the
mineral content such as calcium and iron increased from
337.31 to 341.24 mg/100 g and 3.45 to 3.91 mg/100 g, respec-
tively. Ash and crude bre content also increased by 0.9
and 0.3%, respectively. This increase in mineral content
could be due to the decrease in phytic acid content.
According to studies conducted by Yousaf et al. [41], the
total phenolic content of proso millet signicantly increased
from 295 to 670 mg/100 g (FAE) after being roasted for 10 min
at 110°C. The roasting process was suggested to promote the
hydrolysis of C-glycosyl avones, which in turn, could result
in the release of phenolic compounds. However, it is impor-
tant to note that while roasting can enhance the phenolic
content of millets, it may also have adverse eects on other
benecial chemicals and antioxidants present in millets.
2.6 Pung
Pung is an ancient technique that results in crispy,
porous food with an extended shelf life. Pued snack foods
are desirable due to their texture, colour, avour, and
6Puneet Kang et al.
unique shapes, making them popular among consumers.
Dharshini and Meera [57] found that popping nger millet
resulted in the removal of impurities, enhancing the grains
avour, aroma, and quality.
The process of pung involves the gelatinization of
starch, making it more soluble and easily digestible. In
addition, pung has been found to decrease the levels of
anti-nutritional factors and increase the amount of dietary
bre in the nal product [15]. Pued grains have also been
reported to be a rich source of minerals and phenolic
compounds, making them a valuable addition to various
culinary preparations. The nutritional prole of grains is
signicantly inuenced by the pung process. Studies
evaluating dierent types of kodo millet have shown that
pung increases the carbohydrate content due to starch
addition by the endosperm. Moreover, the increase in pro-
tein content is attributed to the hydrolysis of protein into
lower-molecular-weight protein. The heat generated during
the pung process also leads to a decrease in moisture
content, whereas a reduction in fat content may be attrib-
uted to the thermal processing of denatured lipolytic enzymes
[31]. The pung process has a signicant impact on the ben-
ecial properties of grains, such as their digestibility.
3 Health benets across various
disorders
3.1 Promoting heart health and reducing the
risk of cardiovascular disease with a
minor millet diet
Millets are a rich source of magnesium, which can lower
blood pressure and reduce the risk of strokes and heart
attacks, especially in individuals with atherosclerosis. The
potassium content of millets acts as a vasodilator, helping
to regulate blood pressure and decrease the chances of
developing cardiovascular diseases. These compounds have
protective eects against heart disease and cancer [58].
Furthermore, the high bre content in millets plays a critical
role in reducing cholesterol levels by eliminating LDL and
enhancing the eects of HDL. By incorporating millets into
the diet, individuals can potentially promote heart health and
reduce the risk of developing chronic diseases [59]. Various
factors such as an unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity,
smoking, and obesity increase the risk of heart attacks and
strokes. Cardiovascular disease is currently prevalent and
increasing in numerous countries worldwide. Research has
revealed that rats fed with barnyard milletsnativeand
treated starch exhibited the lowest levels of blood glucose,
serum cholesterol, and triglycerides in comparison to those
given rice and other millet types. Furthermore, when geneti-
cally obese type-2 diabetic mice were on a high-fat diet, their
plasma levels of adiponectin and HDL cholesterol improved
upon consuming proso millet protein [34]. Millets are an
excellent source of magnesium, which has been proven to
alleviate migraines and reduce the risk of heart attack. Addi-
tionally,they contain various phytochemicals, such as phytic
acid, which can decrease cholesterol levels. In rats with
hyperlipidaemia, nger millet has been found to reduce
plasma triglycerides, potentially helping to prevent cardio-
vascular disease [60].
3.2 Minor millets as a nutritious and low-
glycaemic food choice for managing
diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic illness that impacts the way
the body metabolizes carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. It
is the most widespread hormonal disorder and is a result
of inadequate insulin production (type 1) or resistance to
insulin and the insulin-producing response (type 2). The
ingestion of foods abundant in magnesium, like nger
millet, can enhance the ecacy of insulin and glucose
receptors, thus avoiding diabetes. This is because nger
millets elicit a lower glycaemic response, thanks to their
rich bre content (Figure 1) and capacity to hinder alpha-
amylase, which curtails starch digestion and absorption.
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic ailment marked by increased
glucose levels in the bloodstream resulting from modica-
tions in the metabolism of lipids, proteins, and carbohy-
drates. It is the most prevalent endocrine anomaly and
may arise from inadequate insulin production (type 1) or
a blend of reduced insulin secretion and insulin resistance
(type 2), thereby reducing glucose regulation [61]. Ingesting
diets rich in magnesium, such as those that include barn-
yard millet, can decrease the likelihood of developing
diabetes by enhancing the function of glucose and insulin
receptors. Barnyard millet contains high levels of bre and
alpha-amylase inhibitors, which minimize starch absorption
and digestion, resulting in a reduced glycaemic response. The
magnesium content of millet is advantageous in preventing
type 2 diabetes as it regulates insulin activity by producing
additional digestive enzymes for carbohydrates [62].
While synthetic α-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase
inhibitors are critical in managing postprandial hyper-gly-
cemia, natural inhibitors may provide a safer alternative.
Incorporating whole grain foods into the diet has been
recommended to prevent and manage diabetes. This is sup-
ported by the observation of lower diabetes rates among
Minor millets as sustainable and nutritious foods 7
populations that consume these foods. The antidiabetic
eects of millet varietiesbioactive compounds are attrib-
uted to their capacity to hinder clinically relevant digestive
enzymes such as α-amylase and α-glucosidase [27]. The bioac-
tive compounds present in millet grains exhibit antidiabetic
properties by regulating glucose-induced oxidative stress and
suppressing the activity of enzymes that digest starch. Protein
concentrate extracted from Korean foxtail millet and proso
millet has been shown to enhance glycaemic responses by
reducing insulin levels and increasing plasma adiponectin
and HDL cholesterol levels [63]. Populations that consume
millet have reported fewer instances of diabetes. The phenolic
compounds found in millet can hinder the action of enzymes
such as alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase, leading to a
decrease in post-meal high blood sugar levels by impeding the
breakdown of complex carbohydrates. Furthermore, com-
pounds like aldose reductase function as inhibitors to prevent
the build-up of sorbitol, which reduces the risk of cataracts
associated with diabetes. According to the study, the consump-
tion of nger millet by rats with diabetes can assist in mana-
ging blood sugar levels, enhancing the antioxidant status, and
accelerating the recovery of skin wounds [63].
Extruded products that include pseudocereals, such as
amaranth, buckwheat, and millet, have been discovered to
exhibit a considerable reduction in both quickly and slowly
digestible carbohydrates compared to control products. This is
based on predictive in vitro glycaemic proling. Consumption
of millet has been linked to lower rates of diabetes in popula-
tions. This is due to the presence of phenolics in millet, which
can hinder alpha-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase, leading to
a decrease in post-meal hyper-glycemia by partly obstructing the
breakdown of complex carbohydrates. Moreover, substances
like aldose reductase can prevent the accumulation of sorbitol
and reduce the risk of diabetes-related cataracts. According to
research, nger millet intake can regulate blood sugar levels,
enhance antioxidant capacity, and accelerate wound healing in
diabetic rats [32].
3.3 Minor millets as a functional food for the
prevention and management of
gastrointestinal disorders
Studies have indicated that the consumption of minor
millets can have a positive impact on digestive health, spe-
cically in decreasing the chances of gastrointestinal dis-
orders. The bre content present in minor millets aids in
regulating the digestive system, which can help prevent
Protein
Free from Gluten
Good source of
essential amino
acids
Dietary
Fibre
Reduces GI of the
food
Act as prebiotics
Produces short
chain fatty acids
Reduces
inflammation
Lipids
Good source of
unsaturated fatty
acids
Vitamins
&
Minerals
Useful in
combating Ca, Fe
and Zn deficiency
Good source of
Vitamin B complex
and Vitamin E
Phenolic
Compoun
ds
Antioxidant, antiviral
and antiinflammatory
Reduces chances of
cancer, diabetes,
cardiovascular,
diseases
Useful in
gastrointestinal
disorders and has
antiobesity property
Figure 1: Millet components and their role in health and well-being (source: previous studies [1013]).
8Puneet Kang et al.
unpleasant symptoms like constipation, bloating, and cramps.
Additionally, as minor millets are gluten-free, they can serve
as a suitable alternative for individuals with celiac disease. By
integrating minor millets into ones diet, they can boost their
overall gut health and lower the risk of developing severe
gastrointestinal ailments, including colon cancer or gastric
ulcers. Managing the digestive process can enhance nutrient
absorption and minimize the possibility of severe gastroin-
testinal problems like colon cancer or gastric ulcers. The bre
content present in millets can mitigate digestive issues like
bloating, cramping, constipation, and excess gas. Those who
have celiac disease, a gluten-triggered enteropathy condition
related to the immune system, must stick to a gluten-free diet,
which considerably limits their grain-based food options.
Although wheat, barley, and rye are rich in gluten, swapping
them with gluten-free substitutes like quinoa, buckwheat,
amaranth, sorghum, corn, and wild rice can be helpful for
individuals who need to follow a gluten-free diet. Millet, being
naturally gluten-free, has enormous potential in the food
industry to meet the rising demand for gluten-free alterna-
tives. This makes it an excellent choice for individuals who
have celiac disease [62].
3.4 Minor millets as an anti-cancer food
choice
Millets contain benecial compounds, such as phytate, tan-
nins, and phenolic acids, that have been linked to a
decreased risk of colon and breast cancer in animal stu-
dies. Studies have suggested that the consumption of millet
and sorghum, which are rich in bre and phenolic com-
pounds, may lead to a lower occurrence of oesophageal cancer
compared to consuming wheat or maize. Furthermore, research
has indicated that consuming over 30 g of bre per day can
signicantly reduce the risk of breast cancer in women by more
than half [27]. Although commonly referred to as anti-nutri-
ents,the existence of phenolic acids, tannins, and phytate in
millets has demonstrated their ability to guard against cancer in
vitro. A few studies have indicated that the components present
in millets, namely phenolic acids, tannins, and phytate, can
potentially lower the probability of specic cancers, including
colon and breast cancer [62,64]. According to research, millets
contain high amounts of phenolic acids, phytates, and tannins,
which are considered anti-nutrients. These anti-nutrients have
been found to decrease the risk of colon and breast cancer. The
phenolics present in millets have also been found to be eective
in preventing cancer initiation and progression in vitro [50].
Millets contain antioxidants that have multiple benets. Besides
counteracting cancer-causing free radicals, these grains can
eliminate various toxins found in the liver and kidneys. Quer-
cetin, curcumin, ellagic acid, and other catechins found in these
grains help remove foreign substances and toxins from the
body. This is achieved by promoting the appropriate elimination
of toxins and neutralizing enzyme activity present in these
organs.
3.5 Detoxifying the body with minor millets
Millets have a variety of antioxidants, such as curcumin,
quercetin, ellagic acid, and catechins, which can help elim-
inate free radicals and toxins from the liver and kidneys.
The signicance of polyphenols in human health has gained
more attention, and studies have demonstrated that both
soluble and insoluble phenolic extracts from dierent millet
types possess antioxidant, metal-chelating, and reducing
abilities. The hydrolysates of protein obtained from foxtail
millet that has been defatted were discovered to possess
signicant antioxidant capabilities. These results imply
that millets have the potential to act as a natural antioxidant
source in food products and can also be used as a nutraceu-
tical and functional food component to enhance health and
lower the probability of developing diseases [2]. Millets pos-
sess a variety of nutraceutical properties that can enhance
human health, including decreasing blood pressure, low-
ering the chance of heart disease, preventing cancer and
cardiovascular conditions, managing diabetes, and reducing
the incidence of tumours. These benets can be attributed to
the presence of antioxidants like phenolics and avonoids,
which can function as chelators of metal ions and safeguard
against cellular damage caused by free radicals. Studies
have revealed that phenolic extracts from diverse millet
strains possess antioxidant features and exhibit anti-cancer
eects by eliminating peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals. These
ndings underline the potential of millet as a valuable
source of antioxidants that promote good health [65].
3.6 Minor millets as prebiotics
Millets possess prebiotic features which encourage the
growth of benecial gut microorganisms. These characteris-
tics, combined with their abundant bre content, also aid in
preventing digestive diculties like constipation. Research
has shown that millet foods have the potential to act as pre-
biotics, boosting the eectiveness of probiotics and leading to
signicant health benets. The combination of millets and
probiotics can create a synergistic or synbiotic eect.
Minor millets as sustainable and nutritious foods 9
Several millets bran and seed coats contain constituents such
as arabinoxylans, inulin, and xylo-oligosaccharides having
prebiotic potential. These prebiotics stimulate probiotic
strains and increase their antibacterial and antioxidant activ-
ities. By producing short-chain fatty acids, the xylo-oligosac-
charides isolated from millet of Lactobacillus planatarum
were discovered to have considerable prebiotic activity and
to inhibit four pathogenic microorganisms. By enhancing the
intestinal microbiota, prebiotics improve the health of their
hosts by boosting their immune systems and preventing the
spread of harmful microbes [66]. It has been suggested that
the novel malignant phenotype where tumours start is
chronic inammation. There have been reports of millet-
derived substances having anti-inammatory eects in both
in vitro and in vivo experimental settings. Prebiotics are sub-
stances in food that cannot be broken down and absorbed in
the digestive system. They work by promoting the growth and
activity of certain benecial bacteria in the colon. Whole grain
millet has been shown to have prebiotic eects, as the malting
process leads to positive changes in its composition that sup-
port the growth of digestive-aiding bacteria [32].
The increase in the desire for gluten-free grains has led
to growth in the popularity of millets. Millets are not only
gluten-free but also one of the least allergenic grains,
which can alkalize the body. This makes them an excellent
choice for individuals who have food sensitivities or aller-
gies. Traditional gluten-free millet products include pasta,
injera, sourdough bread, non-sourdough bread, cookies,
extruded foods, fat substitutes, and other eating foods [67].
Vegetarians have greatly appreciated millets for their rich
protein content. These grains possess a lower glycaemic
index and also comprise lignans that can potentially reduce
the chances of breast cancer and heart disease. Millets are
also a source of niacin (vitamin B3), which helps regulate
cholesterol levels. Additionally, they are alkaline-forming
foods, which are recommended for maintaining optimal
health and preventing illness by balancing digestive enzymes.
Vegetarians have greatly appreciated millets for their rich
protein content. These grains possess a lower glycaemic index
and also comprise lignans that can potentially reduce the
chances of breast cancer and heart disease [68].
3.7 Minor millets in promoting healthy
weight and preventing obesity
There is no direct correlation between millets and obesity.
In fact, millets have been promoted as a nutritious alterna-
tive to wheat-based foods, especially for those with gluten
sensitivity or food allergies. Millets are abundant in protein,
bre, and micronutrients, making them an excellent addi-
tion to a well-balanced diet. However, overeating calories
can lead to weight gain, regardless of the origin of the cal-
ories. Ingesting a diet with an elevated number of calories,
whether it originates from millets or any other food source,
can potentially lead to weight gain and the onset of obesity.
To uphold a healthy weight, it is imperative to have a well-
balanced diet that comprises diverse types of food in appropriate
amounts and participate in consistent physical exercise [12].
Including millets in a nutritious diet is benecial, but it is crucial
to bear in mind that excessive consumption, even of healthy
foods, should be avoided by practicing moderation. In India,
obesity is a signicant concern that is linked to several chronic
illnesses like diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Studies have
demonstrated that a diet rich in bre can help reduce the risk of
obesity. Consuming diets that are high in bre can enhance the
performance of the colon and decrease the occurrence of chronic
ailments by improving digestion and absorption. Millet, a grain
with abundant dietary bre and distinct chemical and physical
characteristics, including food content, consistency, hydration,
and absorption capacity, has a signicant impact on bodily func-
tions. It aids in the suppression of appetite, promotes feelings of
fullness, and, as a result, lowers the likelihood of becoming over-
weight [24]. In India, obesity is a signicant new challenge and is
linkedtovariouslong-termillnessessuchasdiabetesandCVD.
However, consuming a diet high in dietary bre can lower the
occurrence of obesity. Consuming foods that are rich in dietary
bre can improve the function of the digestive system and slow
down the process of digestion and absorption. This can help to
reduce the risk of developing chronic illnesses [29].
3.8 Millets and celiac disease
Celiac disease is a common genetic condition where people
with a genetic predisposition react to the gluten proteins
found in wheat and other cereals. This results in a harmful
immune response to gluten, causing severe abdominal
pain. For those with celiac disease, millet can be a healthy
option as it is gluten-free. Research indicates that pro-
longed consumption of millet-based food items does not
have an impact on the levels of anti-transglutaminase anti-
bodies. People who have celiac disease experience an
immune reaction when they ingest gluten, which results
in the assault of the small intestine, causing harm to the
nger-shaped structures called villi that are accountable
for soaking up nutrients. If villi are damaged, the body is
unable to absorb the necessary nutrients [24]. With the
increasing desire for unique, delicious, and healthy food
options, combined with the growing number of individuals
10 Puneet Kang et al.
with celiac disease, a new market has emerged for cereal
products that are produced using grains besides wheat and
rye. The competition in this market has led to the rise in
popularity of oats, sorghum, and millet. A prevalent life-
long condition known as celiac disease, caused by the con-
sumption of gluten in vulnerable individuals, is widespread
globally. Previously, it was thought to be a rare condition
primarily aecting European children [34]. Celiac disease is
a hereditary condition that is activated by ingesting gluten.
Being devoid of gluten, millets can alleviate celiac disease
symptoms by decreasing the inammation caused by con-
ventional cereal grains containing gluten [34]. Regulating
the digestive system can improve nutrient absorption and
reduce the chances of developing serious gastrointestinal
conditions like gastric ulcers and colon cancer. Millets sig-
nicant bre content can assist in the relief of constipation,
bloating, excessive gas, and cramps. Celiac disease, an immune-
triggered intestinal condition, is often set oby the consump-
tion of gluten in susceptible individuals, serving as another
illustration [1].
3.9 Millets and aging
The process known as nonenzymatic glycosylation, which
involves the chemical reaction between the amino group of
proteins and the aldehyde group of reducing sugars, is a
signicant contributor to the complications associated with
diabetes and aging. Millet grains are abundant in phenolics
and antioxidants, and although they contain substances such
as phytates, tannins, and phenols that may play a role in
promoting healthy aging and combating metabolic syndrome,
they also have potential antioxidant properties. According to
research, extracts derived from nger millet and kodo millet
in methanol can hinder the glycation and cross-linking of
collagen, which suggests that these millets can safeguard
against aging [69]. Non-enzymatic glycosylation, a chemical
reaction between protein amino groups and reducing sugars
aldehyde groups, is involved in this process. This process is a
signicant contributor to the complications associated with
diabetes and aging. Millets contain high amounts of antiox-
idants and phenolic compounds such as phytates, phenols,
and tannins that may have a benecial eect on health, aging,
and metabolic syndrome by contributing to their antioxidant
activity. The process known as non-enzymatic glycosylation is
a chemical reaction that occurs between the amino groups
found in proteins and the aldehyde reduction group present
in sugars. This reaction is a major contributor to both the
aging process and the development of diabetes. Kodo millet
and other types of millets contain antioxidants and phenolics,
including tannins, phytates, and phenols, that can provide
benecial antioxidant properties for health, metabolic syn-
drome, and the aging process [70].
3.10 Antimicrobial activity of millets
Millet seeds contain diverse secondary metabolites that
display a broad range of biological characteristics. These
bioactive secondary metabolites, including phenolic and
avonoid compounds found in dierent varieties of millet,
demonstrate antibacterial and antifungal eects [27]. The
phenolic compounds present in nger millet grains possess
strong antimicrobial properties, which make them a pro-
mising alternative to conventional pharmaceuticals for
treating a range of bacterial and fungal infections. When
compared to the extract from the entire our, the extract
derived from the seed coat demonstrated stronger antimi-
crobial eects against Bacillus cereus and Aspergillus avus
[71]. Hence, natural alternatives like phenolic acid extracts
and other bioactive components can potentially be utilized
for food preservation and therapeutic purposes. It has been
proven that millet fractions and extracts possess antimicro-
bial properties. In a controlled experiment, researchers
tested seed protein extracts from dierent types of millets
(such as sorghum, Japanese barnyard millet, foxtail millet,
samai millet, and pearl millet) to see if they could inhibit the
growth of three types of harmful fungi: Rhizoctonia solani,
Macrophomina phaseolina,andFusarium oxysporum.The
results showed that the protein extracts from pearl millet
were the most successful at preventing the growth of all
three types of fungi [72].
4 Utilization of minor millets
Minor millets are a classication of tiny-seeded grasses
that have been conventionally cultivated as cereal crops
in specic parts of the globe. This category encompasses
barnyard millet, foxtail millet, kodo millet, little millet, and
proso millet. In terms of utilization, minor millets are pri-
marily consumed as a primary source of sustenance in the
form of grains, our, or porridge. Minor millets have the
potential to be utilized in nutritional products as nutraceu-
ticals for the management of chronic conditions. Minor
millet can also be used as a food ingredient in the form
of our in various edibles such as roti, dosa, idli, upma, and
many more (Figure 2). In addition, they are also used as
food for animals, as well as for brewing beer [16]. Incor-
porating millets into bakery goods can enhance their
Minor millets as sustainable and nutritious foods 11
nutritional value by increasing their bre content, micro-
nutrients, and other essential nutrients. This could create a
valuable opportunity for millets to be utilized in the bakery
industry and produce value-added products. Owing to
their high protein and bre content, as well as their abun-
dance of minerals and antioxidants, minor millets are
becoming increasingly popular as a health food. Millet
seeds are a signicant source of sustenance and income
for underprivileged households, aiding in the ght against
malnourishment. Native knowledge is vital in traditional
practices for diagnosing illnesses and providing health-
care. Celiac disease is a form of immune-related entero-
pathy that results from consuming food containing gluten.
The reason why millet is not widely used as food in urban
areas is that there are no advanced processing techniques
to create safe and instant products in large quantities.
Encouraging the consumption of whole-grain and multi-
grain options that are healthier and more traditional
than rened carbohydrates could be an important part
of promoting the use of minor-grain foods and modifying
dietary habits in urban areas [62]. Millets are a type of food
that is free of gluten and can serve as a replacement for
individuals who have celiac disease or are sensitive to
gluten. The popularity of minor millets as a health food
is also on the rise. As individuals become increasingly con-
scious of the advantages related to the good health of these
grains, they start to include them in their diets. In addition
to their potential use in food and feed industries, minor
millets are also considered a good alternative crop for
farmers. This makes them a valuable crop for farmers in
regions that are prone to drought and have poor soil
quality [73]. Kodo millets and little millets are valuable
sources of dietary bre, making them suitable for devel-
oping prebiotic drinks that aid digestion. Furthermore, there
is potential to investigate less time-consuming methods for
removing anti-nutrients to incorporate these millets into the
food industry [2]. The addition of borage seed oil to barn-
yard millet starch improves its properties for use in biolm
production. Specically, the inclusion of the oil expands the
range of the starch while decreasing its strength and making
it less susceptible to water penetration and changes in
moisture content. These biolms created with this modied
starch are resistant to various microorganisms and prevent
the passage of light and the formation of free radicals, which
makes them useful in the food industry. Over the past few
years, there has been a growing fascination with minor
millets in many countries, and research is being conducted
to nd new ways to utilize them. They are being researched
to extract bioactive compounds and for their use in food and
feed industries [50].
5 Future perspective/directions
The growing population and dependency on food, feed,
and fuel are leading to the need for increased agricultural
production. To meet these demands, diversifying food pro-
duction is necessary, and minor millets can play a role as a
nutritious and sustainable crop option, but their use is
limited to rural areas. Innovations in processing technolo-
gies are required to make these grains more accessible to
urban consumers, and better cleaning, grading, and drying
methods are needed to address storage problems and
Millet
Debranning
Condioning
Soaking
Roasng/Puffing
Germinaon
Drying
Milling
Grinding
Fermentaon
Ready to Eat
Milling
Semolina/Flour
Bakery Products
Breakfast cereal Extruded snacks Composite flour
Figure 2: Utilization of millets in dierent food forms (Source: Kumar et al. [14]).
12 Puneet Kang et al.
increase the crops value to farmers [27]. The future chal-
lenge for minor millets is the growing demand for these
grains as a source of nutritious food, particularly in areas
where they are traditionally grown and consumed, due to
increasing awareness of their health benets, such as high
protein, minerals, and antioxidants. They are also being
recognized as a sustainable crop option due to their ability
to grow in marginal lands and tolerance to environmental
challenges, making them a suitable option for farmers in
regions impacted by climate change [63]. Millets are ideal
for cultivation in harsh climates and have the potential to be
a stable food source because of climate change. They hold
cultural signicance in developing countries, are gluten-
free, and potentially protective against diseases [73]. There
is a need for more clinical research on validating the eect
of millet consumption in combating dierent non-commu-
nicable diseases. Further studies are required to examine
various processing techniques and potential uses in dif-
ferent sectors. To increase the utilization and acceptance
of millets, more education on their nutritional and environ-
mental benets is necessary, along with a survey and endor-
sement of this alternative crop as a nourishing dietary option
[13]. Research and development are also being conducted to
improve the yield and nutritional value of these grains, as well
as to develop new products and processing methods. This will
make it easier to produce and market minor millets on a
larger scale. Also, to fully explore the potential of millets in
context with the circular economy, the bran generated during
milling can be used to extract oil, starch, proteins, dietary
bre, and polyphenols, which can be useful ingredients for
dierent industries. Recent technologies like high hydrostatic
pressure, pulsed electric eld, ultrasound-assisted extraction,
microwave-assisted extraction, and enzyme-assisted extrac-
tions can be employed to improve the yield and quality of
the ingredients. However, some of the challenges include
low consumer and producer awareness, limited research
and development, and high cost. Eorts are underway to
improve yield and nutrition and develop new products and
processing methods. However, these grains remain expensive
and hard to access, making it dicult for farmers to grow and
for consumers to buy [25].
6 Conclusions
This article highlights the critical role of minor millets in
ensuring sustainable agriculture, improving human nutrition,
and promoting health and well-being. It covers various
aspects of these grains, including their production, proces-
sing, nutritional signicance, health benets, and diverse
applications in the industry. Minor millets have been a
staple part of traditional diets in many communities world-
wide, providing a rich source of nutrients such as dietary
bre, protein, vitamins, and minerals. They have also been
shown to aid in managing blood sugar levels, reducing the
risk of chronic illnesses, and promoting gut health. Minor
millets have a wide range of applications in the food, feed,
and other industries, thanks to their versatility in various
forms such as our, akes, and popped millet. However,
despite their potential benets, minor millets face chal-
lenges such as insucient research, lack of awareness,
and limited market incentives, which hinder their produc-
tion and consumption. To realize their full potential and
promote sustainable development goals such as poverty reduc-
tion, food security, and environmental conservation, policy-
makers, farmers, researchers, and the industry must work
together to encourage the cultivation, transformation, and uti-
lization of lesser-known varieties of grains.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the support
and facilities provided by Lovely Professional University
for carrying out the work.
Funding information: This work was supported by the
Research Center College of Pharmacy and Deanship of
Scientic Research at King Saud University Riyadh Saudi
Arabia.
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsi-
bility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented
to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and
approved the nal version of the manuscript. PK: draft manu-
script preparation. AKK: draftmanuscriptpreparation.SK:
supervision, conceptualization, reviewing, and editing. PR:
proof reading of the nal draft. JS: proof reading of the nal
draft. VN: conceptualization and nal editing of the manu-
script. AA: reviewing and editing. RL: reviewing and editing.
RU: reviewing and editing. ASA: reviewing and editing.
Conict of interest: Authors state no conict of interest.
Data availability statement: Data sharing is not applicable
to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed
during the current study.
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Minor millets as sustainable and nutritious foods 15
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Globally, billions of people are experiencing food insecurity and malnutrition. The United Nations has set a global target to end hunger by 2030, but we are far from reaching it. Over the decade, climate change, population growth and economic slowdown have impacted food security. Many countries are facing the challenge of both undernutrition and over nutrition. Thus, there is a need to transform the food system to achieve food and nutrition security. One of the ways to reach closer to our goal is to provide an affordable healthy and nutritious diet to all. Millets, the nutri-cereals, have the potential to play a crucial role in the fight against food insecurity and malnutrition. Nutri-cereals are an abundant source of essential macro- and micronutrients, carbohydrates, protein, dietary fiber, lipids, and phytochemicals. The nutrient content and digestibility of millets are significantly influenced by the processing techniques. This review article highlights the nutritional characteristics and processing of Indian millets, viz. foxtail, kodo, proso, little, and pearl millets. It also envisages the effect of traditional and modern processing techniques on millet’s nutritional properties. An extensive literature review was conducted using the research and review articles related to processing techniques of millets such as fermentation, germination, dehulling, extrusion, cooking, puffing, popping, malting, milling, etc. Germination and fermentation showed a positive improvement in the overall nutritional characteristics of millets, whereas excessive dehulling, polishing, and milling resulted in reduction of the dietary fiber and micronutrients. Understanding the changes happening in the nutrient value of millets due to processing can help the food industry, researchers, and consumers select a suitable processing technique to optimize the nutrient value, increase the bioavailability of nutrients, and help combat food and nutrition security.