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Here be dragons: Charting harmful technology use in romantic relationships
Abstract
In today’s digital age, the pervasive presence of digital technology (e.g., mobile devices, social media platforms) has profoundly impacted our social lives. These technologies offer many opportunities for the initiation, maintenance, and even the dissolution of romantic relationships, but also introduce challenges. It has become increasingly complex to navigate the intricacies and vulnerabilities inherent to (building) romantic connections in online settings. As a consequence, hurtful experiences may lie in wait. This dissertation provides a thorough exploration of recent research findings, including my own, on various forms of harmful technology use that may occur in adults’ romantic relationships. Specifically, this dissertation focuses on six distinct phenomena: harmful sexting, catfishing, partner phubbing, electronic partner surveillance, online infidelity, and ghosting. Drawing from prior research findings as well as my own, each phenomenon is examined through the lens of (1) its conceptualization, (2) the characteristics of individuals involved in the behaviour, and (3) the underlying mechanisms and motivations driving these harmful technology practices.
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Background
Violent behaviors in romantic relationships among adolescents and young people are pressing social matter as they have an effect on both victims and aggressors. Moreover, in the last decades, new forms of harassment, control, and abuse through social networks and mobile phones have arisen. Therefore, now forms of online and offline dating violence coexist.
Objectives
The aim was to analyze the prevalence rates by sex and age and the co-occurrence of online and offline dating violence. Moreover, the roles of online and offline dating violence aggressors and victims for their self-esteem, hostility, general psychological state, and emotional intelligence were investigated.
Method
Three hundred forty-one university students from the Basque Country, Spain, participated in the study. They completed six validated instruments related to the mentioned variables.
Results
Results highlight the high prevalence of online and offline dating violence in the sample and the co-occurrence of both types. No gender nor sex differences were found for online and offline dating violence perpetration and victimization. The correlation between online and offline dating violence was confirmed, and the reciprocity of violence is greater for offline violence. In relation to the role, both types of victims (online and offline) showed higher levels of hostility and psychological symptomatology than non-victims, but differences in self-esteem and emotional regulation were found in these modalities. Online and offline perpetrators shared hostility and some psychological symptoms as characteristics compared to non-victims, but differed in other symptoms and emotional intelligence.
Conclusion
There is a continuum between offline and online victimization perpetration albeit differences in the characteristics such as self-esteem, emotional intelligence, and general functioning exist.
Close interpersonal conflicts between parents and children, marital or romantic partners, and between friends are common, and adjustment in youth and adults depends on how these conflicts are managed. While conflict management is important for relationships and adjustment, the structure of conflict management in adults or in youths has rarely been examined. Knowing how conflict management is structured, and whether this structure changes with age and relationships, is important to understanding what factors influence the development of conflict management skills, and how to intervene. In the current study, we explored the unidimensional vs. multidimensional structure of conflict management in family relationships, friendships and romantic relationships across adolescence and adulthood. The sample consisted of 497 Dutch adolescents (57% boys, Mage = 13.03, SD = 0.46, 11–15 years old) who were followed over 11 years in 9 measurement waves, and their parents, siblings, best friends (six waves), and romantic partner (three waves). First-order factor analyses (CFA) showed that the structure of conflict management is similar for adolescents and adults, across relationships. The results of second-order models, including the theoretical higher dimensions positive/negative conflict management and engagement/disengagement, showed no support for these higher dimensions. The results of bifactor models showed differences between adults and youths: while positive problem solving was part of the general factor of conflict management in adults, it was not part of this general factor in adolescents. The general factor was linked to increases in internalizing and externalizing problems, and with decreases in prosocial behavior. Overall, the bifactor models increased the interpretability and validity of the conflict management measure.
Social media has cultivated an environment online where women are routinely sexualized and frequently harassed. Building on evidence that when women are sexualized, they are seen as less than human, and that dehumanization can play a role in the willingness to harm others, we posit dehumanization may be a critical mechanism underlying women’s risk of harassment on social media. Across two studies (N = 369, N = 529, respectively), participants viewed an Instagram profile of the same woman depicted as more or less sexualized and then completed a measure of dehumanization. We examined participants’ tolerance for sexual harassment by assessing their reactions to an unsolicited nude photo purportedly sent from a man on social media and measured harassment behavior by asking participants to compose a direct message to the woman. Dehumanization mediated the effects of sexualization on tolerance for sexual harassment (in Study 1 only) and on harassment behavior (Studies 1 and 2). Overall, this work illuminates the role of dehumanization in the perception and treatment of women in online spaces, suggesting that it may sometimes underlie an acceptance of sexual harassment, and engagement in actual harassment, of sexualized women online.
Introduction
The literature highlighted that problematic internet use can have detrimental consequences on individuals’ well-being. Social media addiction, escapism and coping skills are closely related to problematic internet use. However, no study has currently examined the relationship between problematic internet use and social media use, escapism and coping skills.
Method
This multicenter cross-sectional designed study evaluated the relationships between problematic internet use and social media addiction, escapism, and coping skills in 508 adolescents (319 female) aged 14-18 years. In order to collect data, sociodemographic data form, Internet Addiction Scale, Social Media Addiction Scale, Escapism Scale and Kidcope Adolescent Version have been used. First, adolescents who scored ≥50 on the Internet Addiction Test were classified as the problematic internet use group; adolescents who scored <50 were classified as the control group. Then, the relationships between problematic internet use and social media addiction, escapism and coping skills were evaluated.
Results
The results showed that problematic internet use was associated with duration of social media use, impairment in social media-related functionality, preferring virtual life, and virtual pleasure, escapism, avoidant and negative coping strategies.
Conclusion
These findings may provide an empirical basis for problematic internet use prevention and intervention in adolescence.
Cyber dating abuse (CDA) concerns the use of digital technology to control, monitor, and hurt one’s intimate partner. CDA can have profound detrimental outcomes, such as mental health problems. As such, it is important to identify intrapersonal factors that may explain these behaviors. Previous research suggests that one such factor is the personality cluster of Dark Triad traits (DTT), comprising Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. Additionally, DTT and CDA perpetration have both been linked to poor self-control ability, but these relationships have not yet been tested together in one model. As such, the present study examines if individuals’ poor self-control ability mediates the relationship between the DTT and CDA perpetration. To test these associations, we conducted a survey study among a representative sample of Belgian adults (n = 1,144; Mage = 47.66 years; 51.3% female). Findings from correlation analyses revealed that all three DTT were individually associated with CDA perpetration, such that higher scores on these traits corresponded with more CDA perpetration. Additionally, pathway analyses from structural equation modeling revealed that individuals’ poor self-control ability fully explained the relationship between Machiavellianism and narcissism and CDA perpetration, and partially explained the relationship between psychopathy and CDA perpetration. As our findings suggest that self-control plays an instrumental role in explaining why individuals control and monitor their partner via digital technology, prevention and intervention efforts should seek ways to improve individuals’ self-control ability in situations that may trigger such harmful interpersonal behaviors, particularly among individuals who exhibit Dark Triad personality traits.
Recent years have seen a widespread integration of technology into the daily lives of families. Psychological science has recently started to focus on the use of smartphones by parents while they are engaged in parenting activities, a behavior known under the terms “phubbing,” “technoference,” “parental screen distraction,” and various other terms. We argue that understanding the real impact of co‐present smartphone use by parents is inhibited by problems related to the conceptualization and methodology employed in empirical studies. In the present commentary, we identify the features of current research that may contribute to the theory crisis and hamper the progress of psychological research. Specifically, we discuss the implications of (a) inconsistent conceptualization of the phenomenon and (b) suboptimal operationalizations that may prevent us from understanding what is being studied and call for greater consideration of definitional clarity and valid operationalization in future research.
Phubbing affects an individual’s social life and well-being. It has been found to affect romantic relationships, communication and social skills, and emotional and behavioral problems. Some relationships that phubbing has with, for example, smartphone addiction, Internet addiction, social media addiction, FoMO, and neuroticism are well known and established in the literature. However, phubbing is not exclusively reducible to addiction or personality-driven dynamics. For this reason, this study is aimed at exploring the motivations behind phubbing behavior. Firstly, the research is aimed at confirming the relationships between phubbing and technology-related addictions (e.g., social media addiction and mobile phone addiction) and personality traits (e.g., neuroticism and conscientiousness). In addition, the study is aimed at examining the relationship between phubbing and three potential individual-level factors for possible phubbing modeling: intrinsic motivation, boredom state, and online vigilance. A total of 551 participants took part in the study (mean age = 32 years; SD = 14.15 ). After confirming the relationships that phubbing has with the abovementioned variables, a hierarchical regression model was produced in order to model the phubbing phenomenon as comprehensively as possible. The final model explained approximately 72% of the variance in phubbing. The primary contributors to the explained variance were variables related to the dependent use of new technologies, dimensions of online vigilance, boredom, and intrinsic motivation for using new technologies. Sociodemographic factors and personality traits accounted for a smaller portion of the variance (3.4% and 9.1%, respectively). These findings suggest that the individual-level factors driving phubbing behavior are related to intrinsic motivation, online vigilance, and boredom, rather than sociodemographic factors or personality traits. The study encourages further research to explore and expand upon the range of motivations underlying phubbing behavior, while considering factors related to dysfunctional or addictive technology use.
As romantic relationships in young adulthood (18-25 years) are frequently characterized by experimentation and risk-taking, this could make young adults particularly vulnerable to experience sexual harassment by a dating or committed partner. This study examines young adults' victimization and perpetration experiences of online and in-person sexual harassment with their dating or committed partner, and explores the role of the Dark Triad personality traits. We conducted a cross-sectional survey among 458 young adults, 371 of whom were in a romantic relationship (Mage = 20.80, SDage = 1.51, 25.6% men). Our findings revealed that all measured sexual harassment experiences were significantly more prevalent among young adults in dating relationships compared to those in committed relationships. Furthermore, in both relationship types, all online and in-person experiences of sexual harassment were significantly linked, indicating that these harmful experiences occur across contexts. Additionally, all victimization and perpetration experiences were significantly linked in both relationship types, meaning that some young adults were both victim and perpetrator of these behaviours. Lastly, we found that sexual harassment was linked to narcissism in dating relationships, but to Machiavellianism in committed relationships, indicating that different strategies may explain these behaviours.
Romance scams involve cybercriminals engineering a romantic relationship on online dating platforms for monetary gain. It is a cruel form of cybercrime whereby victims are left heartbroken, often facing financial ruin. We characterize the literary landscape on romance scams, advancing the understanding of researchers and practitioners by systematically reviewing and synthesizing contemporary qualitative and quantitative evidence. The systematic review establishes influencing factors of victimhood and explores countermeasures for mitigating romance scams. We searched 10 scholarly databases and websites using terms related to romance scams. The methodology followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines: a total of 279 papers were screened. One hundred seven papers were assessed for eligibility, and 53 were included in the final analysis. Three main contributions were identified: common profile features and techniques used by romance scammers, countermeasures for mitigating romance scams and factors predisposing an individual to become a scammer or a victim. Despite a growing corpus of literature, the total number of empirical or experimental examinations remained limited. The paper concludes with avenues for future research and victimhood intervention strategies for practitioners, law enforcement and the industry.
Background
Breadcrumbing, defined as the act of sending out flirtatious, but non-committal text messages to lure a sexual/romantic partner without expending much effort, has gained attention in popular culture and the media due to its relevance to contemporary dating dynamics. However, there is lack of evidence of the association between attachment insecurity and breadcrumbing This study aims to uncover the potential relationship between breadcrumbing engagement and attachment insecurity among Indian and Spanish young adults.
Methods
Data were collected through an anonymous online survey answered by 334 adults in India and by 348 adults in Spain aged between 18 and 40 years old. A linear regression model in both countries was run to examine breadcrumbing engagement and its relationship with the set of sociodemographic variables included in the study (participants’ age and sex, sexual orientation, relationship status and educational level) and the two dimensions of attachment insecurity (anxious and avoidant).
Results
The results showed that insecure attachment, both anxious and avoidant, were associated with engaging in breadcrumbing in both the countries. However, there was a stronger association between anxious attachment and breadcrumbing in India compared to Spain, where the association was stronger between avoidant attachment and breadcrumbing.
Conclusions
Findings from this study offer insight into an under-studied practice in the context of interpersonal relationships (i.e., breadcrumbing behaviour) and show the importance of attachment theoretical framework to hypothesize and analyse expectations regarding strategies to negotiate intimate relationships and the breadcrumbing experience particularly.
Sexting concerns the act of sending, receiving, or forwarding sexually explicit messages or photos (i.e., ‘sexts’) through electronic means. When sexts are received or forwarded without the consent of the original sender, this is called non-consensual sexting. Our study set out to increase our understanding as to why individuals engage in non-consensual sext forwarding, by examining the role of sexting intentions, attitudes, and experience with non-consensual sext receiving. Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey among a sample of 218 Belgian adults. Of this total sample, 169 (Mage = 25.85 years, 73.4% women) respondents had at least once received a sext from someone, resulting in a subsample of 169 respondents for the present study. Correlation analyses showed that non-consensual forwarding of sexts was significantly positively linked to stronger attitudes towards the risks of sexting and to experiences of non-consensual sext receiving. Hierarchical regression analysis revealed that non-consensual sext forwarding was significantly linked to negative attitudes about sexting, but that this significant link disappeared when non-consensual sext receiving was included as a predictor in the model. Thus, our findings show that non-consensual sext forwarding is primarily linked to non-consensual sext receiving, suggesting that individuals who experience non-consensual sexting as a recipient are inclined to non-consensually forward a sext themselves regardless of their attitudes about (the risks of) sexting. This suggests that non-consensual sexting behaviours may be driven by social learning and/or impulsive decision-making processes, indicating an important avenue for future research.
Studies have used different terms interchangeably to refer to a wide range of phenomena
revolving around more-or-less severe forms of online dating deception. In this systematic
literature review, we first examine what terms and definitions are commonly used to refer to
online dating deception. Results demonstrate the use of heterogeneous terms and definitions. The
terminology from the literature was structured within the Typological Model of Deception in
Online Dating (TOMDOD), describing the characteristics of various layers of deception in
online dating, ranging from impression management to catfishing. Our second goal was to
provide a TCCM analysis (theories, contexts, characteristics, and methodology) of research into
online dating deception. Findings showed little variation in research methods (i.e., surveys), the
online dating phase under study (i.e., profile), and the operationalization (i.e., outcome variable),
while theoretical frameworks and the nature of deception strongly varied. Theoretical and practical implications and future research avenues are discussed.
In this study, a systematic review was carried out with the aim of analyzing the terms, definitions, dimensions and prevalence rates of cyber dating abuse (CDA). After the analysis, the term cyber dating abuse is considered as the most appropriate and a complete definition of the construct is provided, along with the related dimensions. In order to synthesize the victimization prevalence rates of CDA, a meta-analysis of 16 studies was also carried out, including 14,235 participants, based on most suitable and most commonly used instrument for CDA measurement. This meta-analysis indicated an estimated global prevalence of CDA victimization of 47%, for the control dimension the prevalence was 63% while for direct psychological aggression was 24%. The results hardly showed differences between male and female victimization, which would support gender symmetry. Despite some limitations, this bibliographic and meta-analytic review sheds light on the field of CDA.
Ghosting (i.e., terminating communication with another person on social media without explanation) has become an all-too-common occurrence. Prior scholarship has predominantly focused on adverse effects of being ghosted on individuals’ well-being and mainly investigated the phenomenon within romantic relationships. By contrast, its occurrence within friendships as well as psychological predictors and effects of ghosting others over time with regard to well-being are not comprehensively understood yet. The present study aims to fill these research gaps using data from a two-wave panel survey among emerging adults between 16 and 21 years. Analyses show that ghosting romantic partners and ghosting friends are different phenomena: While communication overload (i.e., the feeling of receiving more messages than one can handle) positively predicts ghosting romantic partners, ghosting friends is predicted by one's self-esteem. Most notably, ghosting others within romantic relationships did not yield any effects on well-being, whereas ghosting friends increased depressive tendencies over time, demonstrating that ghosting is not only harmful to those who are ghosted, but can also negatively impact those who ghost others.
Mobile dating applications (MDAs) are popular relationship-seeking tools among emerging adults. As offline relationship dynamics are increasingly mirrored in the context of mobile dating, MDA users are also known to experience online romantic rejection, including ghosting. The consequences of such online romantic rejection and its underlying mechanisms are still unclear. As such, the present study explored the associations between being ghosted on an MDA and emerging adults’ self-esteem, by drawing on the Disillusionment model and the Expectancy Violations Theory. Cross-sectional data were gathered through the dissemination of an online survey during April 2021 in Belgium. The analytical sample consisted of 268 Belgian respondents (Mage = 23.17, female = 68.7%). Hypotheses were tested through multivariate linear regression analyses using Hayes’ PROCESS Macro. Results indicated that being ghosted on an MDA was indirectly related to decreased self-esteem, through disillusionment with one’s own romantic appeal, if the ghosting was experienced as a highly unexpected, negative and impactful event. Given that ghosting seems to become increasingly prevalent, one can wonder what the cumulative impact of being ghosted on an MDA may be on users’ self-esteem if they remain active MDA users for a longer period of time. Hence, future research should examine these associations longitudinally. Moreover, future research is encouraged to explore potential interacting individual differences (e.g., self-perceived dating app success) and specific interpersonal communication dynamics (e.g., frequency of communicating).
Background: Breadcrumbing is an unexplored dating trend disguised in the form of subtle manipulation in relationships. With the increase in online dating apps, people have started to initiate, maintain and end relationships, and the use of manipulative tactics have increased on such platforms. The present study explores the meaning of breadcrumbing and its effects on the breadcrumbie's mental health and wellbeing. Method: The research design was qualitative in nature through the use of focus group discussions. Two focus group discussions were conducted including nine participants in total (one male, eight females). Results: After the data analysis, five major themes emerged defining breadcrumbing-charm, leading on, incongruence, avoiding emotional investment and commitment uncertainty. Conversational fragments also revealed that breadcrumbing had an impact on the breadcrumbie's future relationships, emotional disturbance, self-concept, and signs of depression. The red flags and effective coping strategies were also discovered with the help of a thematic analysis. Further research on personality correlates of breadcrumbing perpetration and victimization is recommended.
This study explored late adolescents’ and young adults’ willingness to engage in non-consensual forwarding of sexts (NCFS) and its relation to victim blaming beliefs toward female and male victims. The study further examined important determinants in the development of victim blaming beliefs (e.g., perceived victim blaming of peers). An online survey was conducted among 1343 Belgian respondents of which 78.4% were female (Mage = 21.62 years, SD = 3.57 years). Structural equation modeling showed that victim blaming beliefs (i.e., responsibility-based and characteristic-based) were related to willingness to engage in NCFS, which was related to NCFS, regardless of the victim’s sex. Further, victim blaming beliefs in the context of NCFS were shaped by parents’ and peers’ perceived victim blaming, and respondents’ high levels of narcissism and low levels of empathy. Surprisingly, pornography use was negatively correlated with characteristic-based victim blaming beliefs. Additionally, males and late adolescents appeared to hold more victim blaming beliefs toward female and male victims in comparison with females and young adults. Lastly, the willingness to engage in NCFS was more strongly related to responsibility-based victim blaming (not characteristic-based victim blaming) if the victim was male. The findings demonstrate how victim blaming encourages NCFS and emphasize that educational programs should avoid victim-focused strategies.
Lately, increasing concern has focused on the incessant and intrusive use of smartphones across a wide range of interpersonal and relational contexts. Of concern is that many people appear to snub someone during face-to-face interactions by focusing more on their smartphone than on their relational partner, namely, phubbing. Individuals with insecure attachment styles may phub their intimate others more often. However, such relationships have not been examined. This study used a cross-sectional design to examine key relationships between insecure attachment styles on phubbing. An online survey was conducted to examine the relationships between the variables of this study ( N = 444 , 72% female: mean age 20). The analyses revealed both anxious-preoccupied and dismissive-avoidant attachment styles to be positively associated with phubbing. Moreover, both insecure attachment styles indirectly predicted phubbing through problematic smartphone use (PSU). Insecure attachment styles appear to impact how often people phub others within intimate relationships, and further, PSU may function as a mechanism linking these insecure attachment styles with phubbing.
Sexting is considered a practice of sending, receiving, and forwarding sexually explicit content through electronic devices. Given a lack of research distinguishing the characteristics of different forms of sexting, this systematic review aimed to analyze studies of the characteristics that might influence individuals’ engagement in consensual and non-consensual sexting behavior. This systematic review was conducted using three online databases (EBSCOhost, PubMed, and Web of Science). The search resulted in the extraction of 709 articles, of which 39 were considered eligible for inclusion. One study also was identified by a manual search, which resulted in a final sample of 40 articles published between 2012 and 2021. The results show that male adolescents are more likely to engage in both forms of sexting. Adolescents with some Big Five Personality traits (i.e., who score higher on conscientiousness, extroversion, and openness), spend more time online and are in a stable relationship were positively associated with consensual sexting. Adolescents who lack control and are more aggressive were more likely to engage in non-consensual sexting. This systematic review also revealed that there is insufficient research on the subject, mainly regarding non-consensual sexting and characteristics of who perpetrates this behavior.
Ghosting is a slang term associated with ceasing mediated communication to dissolve a romantic relationship. The phenomenon is discussed in popular culture and scientific inquiry in relation to digital communication technologies and mobile dating, but little is known about ghosting in other relationship types and the role of specific affordances. This study investigated personal experiences of ghosting with an abductive approach to consider alternative frameworks which may enhance our understanding of ghosting. We collected 23 episodic interviews with Italians aged 21 to 34 and analyzed data with a qualitative abductive approach. Findings suggest that ghosting takes place in different relationship types, though its detection and effects may differ, and that digital affordances of visibility like awareness cues, informing about others’ availability, play a central role in detection of ghosting. We propose that theories of ostracism provide a useful framework to understand the dynamic of ghosting across relational contexts, complementing existing literature.
Synthetic media—so-called deep fakes—have captured the imagination of some and struck fear in others. Although they vary in their form and creation, deep fakes refer to text, image, audio, or video that has been automatically synthesized by a machine-learning system. Deep fakes are the latest in a long line of techniques used to manipulate reality, yet their introduction poses new opportunities and risks due to the democratized access to what would have historically been the purview of Hollywood-style studios. This review describes how synthetic media is created, how it is being used and misused, and if (and how) it can be perceptually and forensically distinguished from reality.
Recent years have seen considerable interest in consensual non-monogamy from both public and academic perspectives. At least 5% of the North American population is currently in a consensually non-monogamous relationship of some form and there is little difference in measures of relationship quality compared to monogamous relationships. Despite increasing levels of understanding and engagement many practitioners of consensual non-monogamy still experience stigma (and minority stress) which is exacerbated by context (e.g. parenting, healthcare settings), type of consensual non-monogamy (e.g. polyamory vs swinging) and intersects with other identities (e.g. race, sexuality). This review outlines what is currently understood about consensual non-monogamy and argues that relationship diversity has a place alongside gender and sexuality when studying sexual behaviours, romantic relationships, and well-being.
Catfish refer to people who use a false online persona to engage in one or more romantic relationships. The present study was guided by the Couple and Family Technology Framework to conduct a triangulation mixed-methods design. Data were collected from catfish perpetrators (n = 156) and targets (n = 826) via a web-based survey. Perpetration was positively associated with being a man, having a high education level, high religiosity, and negatively with being heterosexual and Hispanic/Latin American. Perpetration was predicted by impression management and narcissism and negatively by mate value and conscientiousness. Compared to face-to-face relationships, catfish unions were characterized by low levels of satisfaction and passionate love. The most common communication methods used in these relationships included text and instant messaging, and targets reported significantly greater self-disclosure than perpetrators. The top reasons for perpetrators’ identity selection included emulating an ideal self and enhancing mate value. Among perpetrators, a majority (55%) did not feel guilty about their identity misrepresentation but those who did primarily reported guilt resulting from the betrayal and keeping the relationship secret from other people. Clinical implications are provided for therapists working with clients who experience catfishing as a target and/or perpetrator.
Psychotherapist ghosting is a type of inappropriate, therapist-initiated termination of treatment in which the therapist ceases communication with their patient without prior notice. A total of 77 patients (M age = 34) who reported being ghosted by their therapist completed a web-based therapist ghosting survey (TGS) that assessed their perceptions of multiple aspects of this event. Results indicated that these patients, on average, unsuccessfully attempted to contact their therapist four times following being ghosted but that the great majority never again communicated with this therapist; they attributed being ghosted to several possibilities, including their therapist’s finding them too difficult, their therapist’s own problems, and/or a major event in their therapist’s personal life. They experienced shock, frustration, anxiety, resentment, and sadness as a result of this action, emotions that tended to dissipate over time. Given its emotional toll on patients and the ethical violation inherent in the act of ghosting, further research on the prevalence, consequences, and therapists’ motives for this behavior seems imperative.
Partner phubbing (Pphubbing) concerns the act of ignoring a romantic partner during a conversation by paying attention to the mobile phone. In previous research, Pphubbing has been associated with several negative relationship outcomes, such as relationship dissatisfaction. In this study, we propose that another consequence of Pphubbing may be that the partner who is being phubbed (i.e., phubbee) engages in electronic partner surveillance (EPS) behaviors to check on their partner's online activities. We propose that this relationship is mediated by perceived partner responsiveness and anxiety. Data were collected via online survey among an adult sample in Belgium (n = 346; Mage = 40.5 years; 75.7% female). Analyses revealed that a relationship exists between Pphubbing and EPS, and that it can (partially) be explained through the chained mediation pathway of partner responsiveness and anxiety. Specifically, Pphubbing decreases perceived partner responsiveness, which in turn increases anxiety in the phubbee. Consequently, the phubbee may resort to partner surveillance to cope with these feelings and to decrease uncertainty. Our findings imply that research and practice related to digital intrusion within romantic relationships should consider (the interplay between) intra- and interpersonal factors in trying to explain the occurrence and impact of these harmful digital behaviors.
In this project, we explored descriptive and injunctive norms of ghosting and whether norms differed based on prior experiences with ghosting in romantic relationships. Ghosting is the act of unilaterally ceasing communication with a partner to dissolve a relationship. Perceived norms contribute to intentions and behaviors, but scholars have not previously investigated individuals’ perceived norms of ghosting (i.e., how common they think it is, how they think others react to ghosting). Adults (N = 863) on Prolific, residing in the United States, completed an online survey assessing their knowledge of, experience with, and perceived norms about ghosting in romantic relationships. A portion of these analyses were pre-registered on Open Science Framework. Descriptive norms regarding adults in general (i.e., societal-level) and their friends (i.e., personal-level) differed based on participants’ prior experience with ghosting in romantic relationships. Some injunctive norms at both the societal- and personal-levels also differed based on prior experience with ghosting in romantic relationships. Participants with prior ghosting experience thought ghosting of romantic partners was more common than those with no prior experience. Regardless of prior ghosting experience, participants tended to believe that individuals felt embarrassed/inadequate after being ghosted by a romantic partner. These analyses provide understanding about descriptive and injunctive norms regarding ghosting in romantic relationships and may be helpful to dating app developers in how they frame messaging about ghosting.
Interactions between intimate partners are important for the maintenance of a healthy relationship. However, the practice of snubbing one partner in favor of a mobile phone (phubbing), may undermine interactions. Thus far, research has mainly investigated between-person differences, i.e., people experiencing more partner phubbing report lower relationship satisfaction. However, phubbing is linked to processes which unfold within-person and might trigger different appraising mechanisms across different phubbing situations. This study examined participants in intimate relationships (N = 133) over seven days. Results based on multilevel modelling demonstrate that participants did not report lower relationship satisfaction on days when phubbing occurred compared to days without phubbing. However, on days when people experienced partner phubbing, higher phubbing intensity was associated with stronger appraisals reactions: participants reported lower perceived partner responsiveness, more negative and less positive moral judgment of partner’s phubbing behavior. These appraisal mechanisms were significantly associated with end-of-day relationship quality. This evidence highlights the importance of appraisal mechanisms in phubbing situations, in other words how the phubbing is perceived is important.
This article sheds a new light on the impact of image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) on women. Drawing on findings from 17 in-depth interviews, it details the emotional, physical and social impact of this online victimisation, and how the impact of IBSA manifests in women’s everyday lives. By also using these findings as a basis to examine online victimisation more broadly, this article brings to the fore broader considerations of how technology is facilitating a mutation in forms of sexual violence causing victims to encounter impacts which are specific to, or amplified by, technology. Therefore, it calls for greater attention to be paid to the impacts of IBSA and more research into how the relationships between the online and offline worlds require us to change our understanding of victimisation in an ever-increasing digital society.
Ghosting and orbiting occur when a relationship is ended unilaterally by suddenly withdrawing from all communication and without explanation. However, in orbiting, the disengager still follows the victims on social networking sites after the breakup. With the advent of the digital era, these practices have become increasingly common, gaining attention from psychology research. Within the theoretical framework of social exclusion, the present study (N = 176) investigated victims’ consequences of ghosting and orbiting, considering the two breakup strategies as instances of ostracism. Participants were invited to fill an online survey and randomly assigned to recall an episode of ghosting, orbiting, or rejection. Following the recall task, participants completed a series of questionnaires to measure the typical outcomes threatened by ostracism (i.e., emotions, basic psychological needs, breakup’s cognitive evaluation, and aggressive inclinations). The results showed a consistent pattern across most of the constructs measured. Specifically, ghosting led to worse outcomes than rejection, whereas the disengagers’ ambiguous signals characterizing orbiting seemed to buffer the victims partially from the consequences of relationship dissolution. Results are discussed in the light of social exclusion literature, adding to the growing research on ghosting.
This study is the first to explain the determinant factors of phubbing—checking cell phone during a conversation or while spending time with a significant other—and its effect on the relationship satisfaction of both partners. It is also aimed at determining whether gender and relationship length play moderating roles in a relationship. The study adopted the media displacement theory and the interdependence theory to build a conceptual model of these variables. This cross-sectional research was conducted using an online survey with 741 voluntary married participants from Saudi Arabia. Upon analysis, the data confirmed that problematic usage of cell phone, Internet, social media, games, and SMS had a positive effect on phubbing. Interestingly, it showed that both the sample’s and their partner’s relationship satisfaction increased in line with phubbing behavior. Several theoretical and practical contributions have resulted from these findings.
Exploring the interplay of love, money and threat in romance fraud, this Element reveals how language is used to persuade, manipulate, and threaten without causing alarm. It provides the first empirical examination of criminal interactions-in-action that exposes and tracks the grooming process and manipulation techniques from first contact with the fraudster, to the transition between romance and finance, and requests for money and intimate images, before morphing into explicit threats and acts of sextortion. Through the use of a range of interactional methodologies and real romance fraud messages, a new type of criminality in the form of 'romance fraud enabled sextortion' is revealed. The insights contained in this work have clear implications for future directions of academic exploration and practitioner efforts to protect the public. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
This book presents thought-provoking research and data about pornography that will prompt readers to reconsider their positions on a highly controversial and current issue.
Why do people use pornography? Is porn addiction a fact or myth? What is revenge porn and is it illegal? Can pornography be more diverse? This interdisciplinary collection presents well-researched facts and up-to-date data that encourage informed discussion about controversial and relevant issues in contemporary society. Chapters address topics such as the history and cultural trends of pornography, labor and production practices in creating porn, the effects of technology, current issues in obscenity law, and myths and facts about the effects of pornography.
New Views on Pornography: Sexuality, Politics, and the Law challenges assumptions about this popular yet controversial industry. Contributors include top scholars from media studies, sociology, psychology, gender studies, criminology, politics, and the law. This book provides a comprehensive overview of pornography that will help students, educators, and general readers deepen their understanding of this provocative subject.
Drawing on Uncertainty Reduction Theory and Expectancy Violations Theory, this study examines the relationship between unwanted persistent pursuit (UPP) behaviors and ghosting behaviors. An online survey distributed via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk found that those who experienced UPP were more likely to have previously engaged in ghosting behaviors. Additionally, those who experienced being ghosted had a more positive attitude toward UPP than those who had not been ghosted, and the relationship was moderated by dating recency. Finally, the results indicated a positive correlation between views of persistent pursuit and likelihood of engaging in ghosting behaviors that is moderated by dating recency.
The widespread use of and dependence on smartphones has resulted in spousal marital satisfaction being affected by partner phubbing behavior. We investigated the mediating effect of phubbing on the link between self-control and marital satisfaction for both actors and partners. We used the Smartphone Addiction Scale for Chinese Adults, the Self-Control Scale, and the Olson Enrich Marital Inventory to assess 676 Chinese couples with at least one child. Self-control had a significantly positive correlation with marital satisfaction, and spouses' phubbing partially mediated the relationship between participants' self-control and marital satisfaction, thus indicating a significant actor effect. Only a husband's phubbing significantly mediated the path between the husband's self-control and wife's marital satisfaction, thereby suggesting different partner effect patterns. These findings imply that self-control is a positive factor in marital satisfaction, and a spouse's phubbing may also play a negative role in marital satisfaction.
Ghosting involves terminating communication, including through technological mediums, as a means of ending a relationship. Despite attention from popular media, empirical examinations of this breakup strategy are sparse. Using a correlational design, we examined the defining features of ghosting including its associations with other breakup tactics, whether it is an exclusively unilateral strategy, and the role of social media unfollowing in its implementation. A convenience sample of primarily undergraduate students ( n = 260) completed an online survey describing recent breakups, indicating the disengagement tactics used, social media unfollowing, and the extent to which the breakups involved ghosting. Findings indicated that ghosting is extremely common, it was used to terminate more than half of participants' recent relationships. Most participants had experienced a breakup involving ghosting as either the disengager and/or the recipient. Ghosting was found to involve less open confrontation, more avoidance/withdrawal and de‐escalation tactics. Contrary to previous research, ghosting can occur bilaterally, with partners ghosting each other. Social media unfollowing is an important aspect of ghosting. Relationships ended via ghosting have fewer post‐breakup connections than those ended through other strategies. Typically, ghosters initiate social media unfollowing. Findings provide insight into how ghosting should be conceptualized and measured in future explorations.
Using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model, this study investigates among Liberian couples whether partner phubbing predicts relationship satisfaction, both directly and indirectly via mobile phone conflict. Moreover, this study examines whether phubbing by men is less likely to lead to conflict than that by women given the differential power relations and income distributions in Liberian romantic couples. Using data from married, cohabiting, and couples living apart ( N = 128) in Liberia, a direct link was found between the phubbing behavior of women and partner’s (men) relationship satisfaction. Moreover, men and women’s phubbing behavior predicted their own and their partner’s experience of mobile phone conflict, which in turn predicted a decrease in relationship satisfaction. Power imbalance between men and women, as well as income disparity, were found to influence some of the relationships between partner phubbing, phone conflict, and relationship satisfaction, but did not give substantial support to the hypotheses that women would elicit more conflict than men in couples characterized by high power imbalance and income inequality. Overall, the study shows the importance of examining interdependence effects in phubbing research and supports that there is meaningful cross-cultural variation that warrants further scrutinizing.
Infidelity is a common experience within romantic relationships and is closely linked with relationship dissolution and well-being. Using an intersectionality theoretical framework, we undertook a systematic review of the infidelity literature in flagship journals associated with the disciplines of the International Association for Relationship Research. Our review includes findings from 162 published empirical articles. We identified several themes within the infidelity literature, including: individual, interpersonal, and contextual predictors; outcomes and reactions; beliefs and attitudes; prevalence; and conceptualization. We also found that the infidelity literature primarily utilizes participants who are White, heterosexual, cisgender individuals who reside in the United States or Canada. Moreover, researchers were limited in information they provided about participants’ identities so in most articles it was difficult to assess many dimensions of identity. Ultimately, these findings limit our ability to apply an intersectional framework. We argue that researchers should extend the research they cite, collect richer demographic data, expand their samples (especially beyond White heterosexual cisgender American college students), and consider the sociohistorical context of their participants (e.g., the particular social circumstances and historical forces which shape individuals’ lived experiences). For example, scholars using an intersectional framework would explain their participants’ relationship experiences through a lens which includes systems of sexism, racism, heterosexism, cissexism, classism, etc., in conjunction with individual and interpersonal factors.
Background: Applying for a job can be a stressful experience. When a potential employer chooses to not move forward with a candidate, they can either directly tell them or cease communication altogether—known as ghosting. Ghosting has harmful consequences, such as lower basic psychological needs satisfaction than direct rejection, and there has been an apparent increase in this phenomenon by potential employers. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of being ghosted after submitting a hypothetical job application. Methods: An international sample of unemployed people (N = 554) completed an online job application task and were randomly assigned to receive no (i.e., ghosted), impersonal, or personal feedback. Results: While our manipulation was perceived as intended, there was not an effect of condition on needs satisfaction. However, exploratory analyses suggest that ghosted participants have greater self-esteem and control than those that received personal feedback. Thus, the effect of being ghosted during a job application may not be as clear cut as previously thought. Conclusions: Although the current study did not find evidence that applicants feel worse after being ghosted than being directly rejected, such an experience can still hurt, and more research is needed to understand the long-term effects of being ghosted by a potential employer.
Catfishing, the act of deceiving and exploiting another person online, can have significant negative impact on the target. To date, limited research has explored individual differences in perpetration of catfishing. We address this paucity by adopting an evolutionary psychology theoretical framework (the “cheater strategy” hypothesis) and exploring the utility of gender and the Dark Tetrad personality traits of psychopathy, sadism, Machiavellianism, and narcissism to predict catfishing perpetration. A sample of 664 participants (55.8% men, 40.3% women) with an average age of 28.84 years (SD = 9.60) were recruited via social media and completed an anonymous online questionnaire which comprised measures of personality and catfishing behaviours. Combined, the variables explained 62.6% of variance in catfishing perpetration. Results partially supported the hypotheses, with only psychopathy, sadism, and narcissism emerging as positive predictors of catfishing perpetration. Findings of the current study indicate that evolutionary psychology may be a useful theoretical framework when exploring antisocial online behaviours. Further, these findings provide crucial information regarding the psychological profile of a “catfish” and may have important practical implications by informing the prevention and management of this online behaviour.
Infidelity constitutes a threat to those in exclusive romantic relationships and may lead to relationship dissolution. There is, however, substantial variation with regards to the acts that are or are not considered to be infidelity. In the present study, we investigate the relationship between Dark Triad traits and the acts perceived to constitute infidelity. Five categories of infidelity are considered; online infidelity, fantasized infidelity, emotional infidelity, sexual infidelity, and hidden attachment. Dark Triad traits (Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy) predicted the extent to which specific acts were perceived to constitute infidelity when controlling for demographic factors and personal experience of infidelity. In particular, those high on Machiavellianism were less likely to perceive fantasizing and expressed emotion as infidelity. Those high on primary psychopathy were more likely to perceive fantasizing and emotional expression as infidelity and less likely to consider sexual acts or hidden attachment as indicators of infidelity.
Sexting has become another form of intimate communication in the digital society in which we live, not only for adults but also for adolescents. Therefore, this study aims to explore adolescents' perspectives on the definition of sexting, reasons for engaging, or not, in it, attitudes towards this phenomenon and its possible consequences. Focus groups conducted with 57 adolescents aged 15-19 in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia highlight sexting as a complex phenomenon in which consent is central to understanding it. Adolescents point to sexual gratification and pressure as the most frequent reasons for sending erotic-sexual content, and harming another person and ending a relationship as the most frequent reasons for forwarding without consent. Most of the attitudes reported towards sexting are rejectionist or neutral but, in fact, they are in line with the logic of positive attitudes. Moreover, they denote a high awareness of the possible consequences, both positive and negative. These findings substantially expand knowledge for addressing sexting in psychoeducational programmes by considering the perspective and experience of adolescents' own voice.
Online dating websites and apps offer an array of conveniences that have captivated those looking to form new relationships. However, as these platforms have grown in popularity, companies have had to grapple with their potential to act as catalysts for sexual violence and abuse both on and offline. In light of increasing anecdotal, popular media, and law enforcement reports, there is growing academic interest in online dating as a specific avenue of technology-facilitated sexual violence, with its own potential contextual drivers and safeguards. Using a scoping review methodology, the authors map this emerging literature's contours, characterize its theoretical, methodological, and empirical contents, and identify lacunae and opportunities for future research. Areas addressed in the current literature include the prevalence of digital sexual harassment and abuse, individual differences in victimization and perpetration, mechanisms by which online dating technologies facilitate or impede sexual violence, and responses from industry, policymakers, and the general public. Among other gaps, there is need for additional longitudinal and experimental research, qualitative analyses of online dating technologies' digital architectures, and investigation into the psychological and social sequelae of online dating violence.
The goals of the two studies were to identify common communicative responses to co-present mobile phone usage and conversational partners’ reactions to that communication, and to determine whether individuals perceive their communicative responses as effective. Study 1 identified common participant responses and partner (i.e., phone user) reactions to those responses. In Study 2, researchers coded data from a new sample for these same responses and reactions and measured participants’ perceived effectiveness and likelihood to use the same responses again. The most frequent responses were demanding/requesting to stop, asking partner about their phone use, and using humor/sarcasm. Stopping, apologizing and stopping, justifying the use, and continuing to use the phone were the most common partner reactions. Directness of communicative responses was unrelated to reaction valence. Most conversational partner reactions were positive, but when negative, participants rated direct responses as significantly less effective than indirect responses.
Sexting has generated considerable public and professional interest with concerns centring on young people, and potential harms to mental and sexual health. Little research thus far has explored the practice among adults and none has focused on the cultural norms relating to the emotional experience of sexting across different ages and genders. We conducted 40 semi-structured interviews with a diverse sample of adults aged 18-59 years in Britain on the role of digital technologies in participants' sexual lives. In this paper, we draw on the accounts of 34 people with experience of sexting. We identified three main themes in participants' accounts related to the emotional aspects of sexting: (1) trust, (2) desire/intimacy and (3) shame. Under each theme, we identified motivations, 'feeling rules', and examples of 'emotion work' relating to the self, the other and the dyad. We conclude that there are shared cultural norms that constitute what appropriate sexting should feel like. Interventions aiming to minimise harms arising from sexting need to build on commonly held cultural conventions regarding the 'rules of the game' concerning feelings as well as behaviours.
Although ghosting (i.e., unilaterally ending a relationship by ceasing communication) has only recently entered the lexicon, it is a regularly used form of relationship dissolution. However, little research has examined the emotional experiences of ghosting, particularly the experiences of those on both sides of the ghosting process. In a multi-method study, participants who had both ghosted and been ghosted in previous romantic relationships (N = 80) provided narratives of their experiences and completed questionnaires. The narrative responses were analyzed by coders and by using LIWC. Ghosters and ghostees used similar overall levels of positively and negatively valenced words to describe their experiences, but ghosters were more likely to express guilt and relief, whereas ghostees were more likely to express sadness and hurt feelings. Ghostees also experienced more of a threat to their fundamental needs - control, self-esteem, belongingness, meaningful existence - than ghosters.
“Ghosting” as a method of relationship dissolution has entered both popular media and academic discussion as a topic of interest. Journalists and researchers have used both observation and qualitative methods to define this breakup strategy with varying and sometimes contradictory results. The goal of this study was to create an accessible and empirical definition of ghosting and to resolve discrepancies between existing definitions. To do so, we asked 499 participants (321 cisgender women, all residing in Canada and aged 17–29) two open‐ended questions about ghosting. Participants provided their own definition of ghosting, and then identified behaviors that they associated with ghosting. Next, we conducted inductive qualitative analyses with four cycles of coding to determine the key components of the behavior that distinguish ghosting from other methods of relationship dissolution. Based on participant responses and language, we derived the following definition of ghosting: “One way that people can end a relationship is by ghosting. Ghosting is when one person suddenly ignores or stops communicating with another person, without telling them why.” Our proposed definition of ghosting addresses shortcomings presented by previous and concurrently developed definitions and provides a starting point for future research on ghosting in romantic relationships, friendships, workplaces, and beyond.
Harassment has long been considered a severe social issue and a culturally contextualized construct. More recently, understanding and mitigating emerging harassment in social Virtual Reality (VR) has become a growing research area in HCI and CSCW. Based on the perspective of harassment in the U.S. culture, in this paper we identify new characteristics of online harassment in social VR using 30 in-depth interviews. We especially attend to how people who are already considered marginalized in the gaming and virtual worlds contexts (e.g., women, LGBTQ, and ethnic minorities) experience such harassment. As social VR is still a novel technology, our proactive approach highlights embodied harassment as an emerging but understudied form of harassment in novel online social spaces. Our critical review of social VR users' experiences of harassment and recommendations to mitigate such harassment also extends the current conceptualization of online harassment in CSCW. We therefore contribute to the active prevention of future harassment in nuanced online environments, platforms, and experiences.