Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Water Bodies: A Study of Rivers and Lakes in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pose significant environmental and health risks due to their toxic properties, making their assessment in urban water bodies crucial. This study aims to evaluate the presence of three notable PAHs-anthracene, fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene-in the surface water of three rivers (Buriganga, Meghna, and Turag) and two lakes (Hatirjheel and Gulshan) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FD) was employed and validated for PAH determination, using solid phase extraction (SPE) with preconditioned C-18 SPE cartridge for sample extraction. Calibration showed excellent linearity with correlation coefficient (R²) ≥ 0.999. The limits of detection (LODs) were 200 ng/L for anthracene and 0.63 ng/L for both fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene, with corresponding limits of quantification (LOQs) of 660 ng/L and 2.08 ng/L, respectively. Percent recovery was 91.38% for anthracene, 85.49% for fluoranthene, and 95.72% for benzo[a]pyrene, with relative standard deviations (RSD) of 5.27, 17.55 and 2.84%, respectively. Most water samples had PAH levels below detection limits (bdl) such as anthracene (bdl-1789.57 ng/L), fluoranthene (bdl-1309.23 ng/L), and benzo[a]pyrene (bdl-25.17 ng/L), and the detected concentrations were significantly lower than WHO and USEPA guideline values. This indicates a relatively low level of PAHs contamination in the studied water bodies

Full text

ISSN 1022 - 2502, E-ISSN 2408- 8528
Dhaka Univ. J. Sci. 72(2): 75-83, 2024 (July) DOI: https://doi.org/10.3329/dujs.v72i2.75474
*Author for correspondence. e-mail: abida.chem@gmail.com
Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Water Bodies: A
Study of Rivers and Lakes in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Abida Sultana*, Md. Mazharul Islam, Mohammad Shoeb, Md. Iqbal Rouf Mamun and Nilufar Nahar
Department of Chemistry, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
(Received : 25 March 2024; Accepted : 25 June 2024)
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pose significant environmental and health risks due to their toxic properties,
making their assessment in urban water bodies crucial. This study aims to evaluate the presence of three notable PAHs
anthracene, fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrenein the surface water of three rivers (Buriganga, Meghna, and Turag) and
two lakes (Hatirjheel and Gulshan) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence
detector (HPLC-FD) was employed and validated for PAH determination, using solid phase extraction (SPE) with
preconditioned C-18 SPE cartridge for sample extraction. Calibration showed excellent linearity with correlation
coefficient s) were 200 ng/L for anthracene and 0.63 ng/L for both fluoranthene
and benzo[a]pyrene, with corresponding limits of quantification (LOQs) of 660 ng/L and 2.08 ng/L, respectively. Percent
recovery was 91.38% for anthracene, 85.49% for fluoranthene, and 95.72% for benzo[a]pyrene, with relative standard
deviations (RSD) of 5.27, 17.55 and 2.84%, respectively. Most water samples had PAH levels below detection limits (bdl)
such as anthracene (bdl-1789.57 ng/L), fluoranthene (bdl-1309.23 ng/L), and benzo[a]pyrene (bdl-25.17 ng/L), and the
detected concentrations were significantly lower than WHO and USEPA guideline values. This indicates a relatively low
level of PAHs contamination in the studied water bodies
Keywords: PAHs, Solid phase extraction, HPLC-FD, Surface water, Environmental monitoring, Toxic pollutants.
I. Introduction
Concerns about the aquatic environment have always been
extremely significant for the entire world as pollution
threatens numerous types of micro and macro organisms
found in rivers and lakes. Polluted wastewater, effluent
discharge, storm water runoff, and air deposition all
contribute to organic and inorganic contaminants entering
rivers and lakes1,2. Toxic pollutants may accumulate in
aquatic bodies such as fish and mussels, and since they are
consumed, they can pose a considerable potential danger to
people3. PAHs are hazardous pollutant that can endanger
the human health and trigger harmful effects to aquatic life
and ecological systems4. PAHs are a class of environmental
pollutants reported as persistence, tenacious, hazardous,
genotoxic, and oncogenic5. There are a wide range of
primarily natural sources of PAHs in the environment such
as forest fires, volcanic, and bacteria decay of organic
materials. The anthropogenic sources are categorized as
industrial, automobile, agricultural, natural, and domestic6,7.
They are widespread pollutants and major components of
air pollution that are formed by the incomplete burning of
organic substances including tobacco products, biomass,
wooden materials, and petroleum-based materials8.
In the environment, there are numerous PAHs and 16 of
them has identified as priority pollutants by the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Anthracene, fluoranthene, and benzo(a)pyrene are included
in this list9,10. Anthracene, derived from coal tar, is pivotal
in producing alizarin and other dyes, with its primary
conversion into anthroquinone as a precursor11. Anthracene
often enters the body by consuming contaminated food or
water. Concerns about river and lake pollution include
living things degradation, loss of fish and animal habitat,
and health risks associated with the ingestion of river
carp12,13. Anthracene, once in body, might target fat tissues
or organs such as the kidneys and liver14. Fluoranthene, the
most prevalent and prolific pyrogenic PAH has a poor water
solubility of 0.26 mgL-1, which significantly reduces its
bioavailability15,16. Generated by activities like wood burning
or gasoline use, particulate matter adheres to airborne
particles, posing risks when inhaled or deposited into
ecosystems.17. Benzo[a]pyrene is produced by insufficient
burning of organic materials at temperatures ranging from
300 °C to 600 °C and is found in a variety of products
ranging from coal tar to many foods, particularly smoked
and grilled meats, and tobacco burning as in cigarettes
smoking18,19.
Dhaka, Bangladesh's capital has one of the greatest urban
growth rates among developing countries20. The
deteriorating water environment is another adverse
consequence of increased urbanization21. Alongside
untreated industrial and household waste, the presence of
burnt motor oil, lubricants, and dyeing chemicals, which
could potentially contain PAHs, significantly adds to the
pollution burden in these water bodies. As a result, it is
believed that water utilized for human intake, industrial
uses, agricultural irrigation, and fish production is heavily

76 Abida Sultana, Md. Mazharul Islam, Mohammad Shoeb, Md. Iqbal Rouf Mamun and Nilufar Nahar
polluted by these toxic substances22. To safeguard the
wellness of humans and keep up the healthy ecological state
of the aquatic environment, a better knowledge of the
spatial distribution and hazard level of PAHs in aquatic
environments surrounding the Dhaka city is required. As a
result, extensive surveillance and assessment of PAHs in
river and lake water are instinctively necessary in this
megacity23,24. The objective of this research is to assess the
levels of PAHs, specifically anthracene, fluoranthene, and
benzo[a]pyrene, in the surface waters of three rivers
(Buriganga, Meghna, and Turag) and two lakes (Hatirjheel
and Gulshan) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. This study employs
high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence
detection (HPLC-FD) and solid phase extraction (SPE)
using preconditioned C-18 SPE cartridges to validate the
method and determine the concentration of these PAHs in
the collected water samples.
II. Experimental
Sampling Area
The samples were collected from five different sources of
water in Dhaka city and its close vicinity (Fig. 1).
Hatirjheel, centrally located in Dhaka, is surrounded by
residential areas and serves as a major travel route for local
neighborhoods25. However, the water quality of nearby
Gulshan Lake has critically deteriorated due to severe
pollution, threatening local biodiversity26. Hatirjheel itself
is a 3.8 km long and 2.5 m deep area facing environmental
challenges27. The Meghna River, another major water body,
suffers from extensive pollution, particularly around
Meghna Ghat, due to industrial activities from shipyards,
cement factories, and chemical companies28,29. Similarly,
the Buriganga River is heavily polluted with waste from
mills, factories, households, and healthcare facilities,
compounded by Dhaka's daily solid waste disposal into the
river30,31. The Turag River is also contaminated by effluents
from numerous commercial and industrial sectors, which
discharge untreated waste into the water. These pollution
issues collectively pose significant environmental and
health risks in Dhaka32.
Fig. 1. Sampling area (left to right)- Hatirjheel, Gulshanlake, Meghna, Buriganga and Turag river.
Sample Collection
A total of 46 water samples with three replications were
collected from Hatirjheel lake (H-1 to H-10), Gulshan lake
(G-1 to G-10), Meghna river (M-1 to M-8), Buriganga river
(B-1 to B-8), and Turag river (T-1 to T-10) on January (Fig.
1). Sampling stations were at least 0.5 km from each other
in lakes and 1 km in river. Samples were collected 20-25
cm depth from surface of the water in a pre-cleaned 1 liter
plastic bottle, transported to the laboratory and stored at 4
°C until analysis.
Solid-Phase Extraction of PAHs
For the purpose of extraction of water samples, C-18
cartridges were used. The cartridges were conditioned
before the extraction procedure by successively passing 10
mL of each deionized water (Milli-Q system), methanol
(Merck, KGaA, 64271, Darmstadt, Germany), and
deionized water, respectively through the cartridges. 500
mL of water sample was allowed to pass through a C-18
cartridge for about two hours. Flow rate was maintained to
be about 4 mLmin-1 using a sartorius vacuum pump. Then
about 30 mL acetonitrile (HPLC grade from E. Merck,
Germany) was passed through the cartridge for about 30
minutes. Flow rate was maintained to be 1 mLmin-1 and the
eluate was collected in a sphere shape flask. The content of
the flask was evaporated to complete dryness in rotary
vacuum evaporator. Finally the dried mass was
reconstituted in 1 mL HPLC grade acetonitrile and
transferred to a vial. The sample extract was analyzed using
HPLC-Fluorescence Detector. Retention time and

Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Water Bodies: A Study of Rivers 77
corresponding peak area was recorded. The amount of
anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, and fluoranthene present in
sample was calculated using standard calibration curve.
HPLC-FD Analysis
Instruments involved in the analytical process included an
HPLC with fluorescence detector (Shimadzu CTO 10AS
vp), a C-18(2) 100A 250×4.5 mm column, an analytical
balance (104, Mettler Toledo, US), an oven (G-1020,
Salvis), a rotary vacuum evaporator (Heidolph, Germany), a
vortex machine (Kebo LabReax-2000), and minor
equipment including a Sartorius vacuum pump and Alltech
Backmaster (Brazil). All standard PAHs (purity ~ 99.9%)
were purchased from SUPELCO, USA. The standards were
stored in a refrigerator maintaining temperature -20 oC.
Primary standard solution of 100 ppm of each anthracene,
fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene were prepared by
dissolving them separately in acetonitrile. The working
standard solutions were prepared by serial dilution of
primary standard solution with solvent. The prepared
working standard solutions were injected in order of
increasing concentration. Retention time and corresponding
peak area was recorded. The calibration curves were obtained
by plotting the peak area for each standard against the
concentration. Some chromatograms of standard are shown
in Fig. 2. Analytical Conditions of HPLC-FD were as
follows: Pump: Low pressure, Column: C-18 (2), (250x4.6
mm), Particle size: 5µm, Flow rate: 1mL/min, Column-oven
temperature: 30 °C, Injection volume: 20µL, Injection
interval: 10 min, Mobile phase: HPLC grade water and
Acetonitrile, Isocratic separation, Solvent ratio, Water-
Acetonitrile: 5:95, Fluorescence; Excitation wavelength: 340
nm and emission wavelength: 425 nm.
Fig. 2. Chromatogram of standard anthracene (50 ng/L), fluoranthene (50 ng/L), and benzo[a]pyrene (10 ng/L)
Statistical analysis
In this study, the standard deviation (S) and relative
standard deviation (RSD) were calculated for the
assessment of PAHs in urban water bodies. Each water
sample and recovery experiment was analyzed in triplicate.
Microsoft Excel was utilized for these calculations,
applying standard mathematical formulas to determine the
precision and reproducibility of the results. The calculated
RSD values provided insight into the consistency of the
analytical method, ensuring the reliability of the high-
performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence
detection (HPLC-FD) and solid phase extraction (SPE)
techniques employed in this research. The following
statistical equations are used for calculating S (Eq. 1) and
RSD (Eq.2).
Where, x = Each value of the data set, 

values in the data set, and n = number of vales in the data set.
Quality control and quality assurance
The method was validated in terms of calibration, linearity,
identification, selectivity, precision, accuracy (recovery),
specificity, LOD, and LOQ33,34. LOD and LOQ were
determined by injecting diluted standard solutions of PAHs
in HPLC-FD. For LOD, the peak height of the
corresponding compounds were considered three times
higher than the base-line noise and for LOQ, the peak
height was considered to be ten times higher than the base-
line noise35. The recovery (accuracy) experiment was
carried by using 500 mL deionized water36. The spiking
level was 20 ngL-1 for anthracene, fluoranthene, and
benzo[a]pyrene, respectively. Five replicate recoveries
were done for each standard. Recovery experiment was
carried out using a C-18 cartridge as described in SPE of
PAHs from water. The sample extract was analyzed by
HPLC-FD following the same analytical conditions as
HPLC-FD. Following equation (Eq.3) is used for the
calculation of recovery percentage:

78 Abida Sultana, Md. Mazharul Islam, Mohammad Shoeb, Md. Iqbal Rouf Mamun and Nilufar Nahar
Selectivity (or specificity) was assessed by analyzing
standard solutions of PAHs, blank solutions, and by
checking their retention times. To identify any undesired
substances potentially affecting the analytes,
chromatograms of both standard and blank samples were
compared, revealing no interference peaks at the retention
times corresponding to anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene, and
fluoranthene. Linearity was assessed by generating
calibration curves using the standard compounds37.
Calibration curves of standard anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene,
and fluoranthene were constructed as peak area vs
concentration. The linearities were excellent with
correlation coefficients of R2    anthracene,
fluoranthene and benzo[a]pyrene.
Fig. 3. Chromatogram of Blank Sample (left) and reagent Blank (right)
III. Results and Discussion
A total of 46 water samples from Hatirjheel lake (n=10),
Gulshan lake (n=10), Meghna river (Narayangonj) (n=8),
Burigangariver (Dhaka) (n=8), and Tungi river (Gajipur)
(n=10) were collected to analyze in this study. The linearity
was excellent with correlation coefficients of R2 
anthracene, fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene. The amounts
of targeted PAHs in water samples were determined via the
calibration curve method. The extraction efficiency of the
analytical procedure was evaluated via recovery
experiments using distilled and deionised water as control
sample. The mean recovery rates for anthracene,
fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene were 91.38, 85.49, and
95.72%, respectively. Furthermore, RSD for anthracene,
fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene were 5.27, 17.55, and
2.84%, respectively (Table 1).
Table 1. Method Validation Parameters of targeted PAHs
PAHs
Regression line
R2
LOD (ngL-1)
LOQ (ngL-1)
Recovery±SD (%)
RSD (%)
Anthracene
y= 3.268x + 1953
0.999
200
660
91.38±4.82
5.27
Fluoranthene
y= 11.05x + 839.6
0.999
0.63
2.08
85.49±2.43
17.55
Benzo[a]pyrene
y= 389.8x + 970.5
0.999
0.63
2.08
95.72±16.80
2.84
Water samples collected from three different rivers and lake
were extracted by SPE technique and analyzed by HPLC-
FD. Some chromatograms of collected samples are shown
in Fig. 4, in which the presences of target PAHs are
confirmed.
The amounts of anthracene, fluoranthene and
benzo[a]pyrene in different water samples from all the
sources are shown in Table 2-6.
Fig. 4. Chromatogram of water sample of Hatirjheel lake (left), Meghna river (middle) and Burigangariver (right)

Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Water Bodies: A Study of Rivers 79
Table 2. PAHs (ngL-1) in Water Samples of Meghna River
Sample
ID
Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
M-1
1789.57±22.43
1.25
10.16±0.88
8.66
bdl
-
M-2
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
M-3
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
M-4
823.96±42.59
5.16
230.26±37.54
16.30
bdl
-
M-5
bdl
-
1309.23±59.27
4.53
bdl
-
M-6
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
M-7
bdl
-
69.72±14.61
20.96
bdl
-
M-8
bdl
-
17.09±1.52
8.91
bdl
-
Note: RSD-Relative standard deviation
Table 3. PAHs (ngL-1) in Water Samples of Buriganga River
Sample ID
Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Average±SD
RSD (%)
Average±SD
RSD (%)
Average±SD
RSD (%)
B-1
bdl
-
8.79±0.89
10.18
bdl
-
B-2
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
B-3
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
B-4
bdl
-
8.21±0.92
11.24
bdl
-
B-5
bdl
-
6.89±0.62
9.00
bdl
-
B-6
bdl
-
3.99±0.52
13.07
bdl
-
B-7
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
B-8
bdl
-
7.50±1.46
19.51
bdl
-
The results showed all three PAHs were present in varying
amounts in the analyzed water samples. From the Table 2, it
is showed that anthracene was found to be present in only
two sampling points of the Meghna river as 1789.57 ngL-1
(M-1) and 823.96 ngL-1 (M-4) and below detection limit
(bdl) in other six sampling points. Anthracene is also
present as bdl in the entire sample collected from
Burigangariver (Table 3), Turag river (Table 4), Hatirjheel
lake (Table 5) and Gulshan lake (Table 6) except one
sampling point (G-5) of as 2937.62 ngL-1. The level of
anthracene found in those samples are far below the
   -1) reported by world health
organization (WHO)38. The elevated levels of anthracene in
samples collected from the Meghna river and Gulshan lake
water are attributed to industrial effluent discharge or
vehicle emissions, which are subsequently washed into the
river by rainfall. The presence of anthracene in varying
concentrations at different sampling sites in bdl is likely the
result of its volatility, dissolution, biological degradation,
photooxidation, and rapid photolysis.
Table 4. PAHs (ngL-1) in Water Samples (n=3) Collected from Turag River
Sample
ID
Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Average±SD
RSD (%)
Average±SD
RSD (%)
Average±SD
RSD (%)
T-1
bdl
-
3.70±0.62
16.89
bdl
-
T-2
bdl
-
3.03±0.37
12.51
bdl
-
T-3
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
T-4
bdl
-
9.40±1.85
19.77
bdl
-
T-5
bdl
-
3.07±0.23
7.74
bdl
-
T-6
bdl
-
3.64±0.64
17.50
bdl
-
T-7
bdl
-
3.53±0.04
1.15
bdl
T-8
bdl
-
3.37±0.07
2.00
bdl
-
T-9
bdl
-
4.18±0.16
3.83
bdl
-
T-10
bdl
-
5.36±0.58
10.89
bdl
-

80 Abida Sultana, Md. Mazharul Islam, Mohammad Shoeb, Md. Iqbal Rouf Mamun and Nilufar Nahar
Table 5. PAHs (ngL-1) in Water Samples Collected from Hatirjheel Lake
Sample ID
Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
H-1
bdl
-
59.29±6.86
11.57
25.17±0.74
2.96
H-2
bdl
-
1190.74±35.50
2.98
bdl
-
H-3
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
H-4
bdl
-
bdl
-
5.47±0.94
17.32
H-5
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
H-6
bdl
-
61.76±10.23
16.57
22.69±0.58
2.59
H-7
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
H-8
bdl
-
6.16±1.09
17.82
bdl
-
H-9
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
H-10
bdl
-
7.12±0.41
5.88
bdl
-
On the other hand, all the water samples collected from
every source contained fluoranthene in varying amounts
(bdl-1309.23 ngL-1) (Table 2 to Table 6). For example, the
amount of fluoranthene in water sample was bdl-1309.23,
bdl-8.79, bdl-9.40, bdl-1190.74 and bdl-6.98 ngL-1 in
Meghna river, Burigangariver, Turag river, Hatirjheel lake,
and Gulshanlake, respectively. The trends of anthracene
level was M-5>M-4>M-7>M-8>M-1>M-2 M-3 M-6(bdl)
in Meghna river (Table 2); B-1>B-4>B-8>B-5>B-6>B-
2 B-3 B-7(bdl) in Burigangariver (Table 3); T-4>T-10>
T-9>T-1>T-6>T-7>T-8>T-5>T-2>T-3(bdl) in Turag river
(Table 4); H-2>H-6>H-1>H-10>H-8>H-3 H-4 H-5 H-
7 H-9(bdl) in Hatirjheel lake (Table 5) and G-1>G-4>G-
9>G-6>G-8>G-10>G-2 G-3 G-5 G-7(bdl) in Gulshanlake
(Table 6). The level of fluoranthene found in those samples
are far below the guideline value (300 μgL-1) reported by
world health organization (WHO)38. Similarly, a very
carcinogenic PAH benzo[a]pyrene was found in bdl level in
all water samples from Meghna river (Table 2)
Burigangariver (Table 3), Turag river (Table 4) and
Gulshanlake (Table 6) but found in only three sampling
point such as H-1 (25.17 ngL-1), H-4 (5.47 ngL_1) and H-6
(22.69 ngL-1) out of ten in Hatirjheel lake. The level of
benzo[a]pyrene found in those samples are far below the
guideline value (200 ngL-1) reported by USEPA39,40.
Table 6. PAHs (ngL-1) in Water Samples Collected from Gulshan Lake
Sample ID
Anthracene
Fluoranthene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
Average ± SD
RSD (%)
G-1
bdl
-
6.98±0.94
13.47
bdl
-
G-2
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
G-3
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
G-4
bdl
-
6.18±0.47
7.53
bdl
-
G-5
2937.62±8.20
7.09
bdl
-
bdl
-
G-6
bdl
-
5.10±0.56
11.02
bdl
-
G-7
bdl
-
bdl
-
bdl
-
G-8
bdl
-
4.73±0.16
3.37
bdl
-
G-9
bdl
-
5.81±0.23
4.05
bdl
-
G-10
bdl
-
4.36±0.05
1.26
bdl
-
The study conducted by Nahar et al. (2023) analyzed the
concentration of PAHs in the Buriganga river water. The
mean concentration anthracene, fluoranthene, and
benzo[a]pyrene were 590.9, 1855.7 and 21.7 ngL1,
respectively, based on the analysis of 15 water samples41.
Mandal et al. (2015) conducted an analysis on surface water
samples collected from lakes and ponds in Dhaka city, with
a sample size of ten each. Their study revealed that
anthracene was present in four tap water samples at
concentrations ranging from 37000 to 54000 ng/L42.
Habibullah-Al-Mamun et al. (2018) collected a total of 28
water samples from four coastal sites along the southeast
and southwest regions of the Bay of Bengal coast in
Bangladesh, encompassing fourteen distinct sampling
locations. The mean concentration anthracene,
fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene were 179.8, 225.9 and
19.9 ngL1, respectively43.

Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Water Bodies: A Study of Rivers 81
The reason of the presence of anthracene, benzo[a]pyrene,
and fluoranthene in the river water might be anthropogenic
for their industrial discharge, urban runoff, oil spil,
combustion process and atmospheric deposition44. A
numbers of ship building and repair yards are located in the
bank of the river Burigangaand Meghna. The areas nearby
these rivers are also recognized as highly industrialized
with small chemical and pharmaceutical industries,
tanneries, paints and dye industries are situated around.
Anthracene, fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene are prevalent
in the environment due to various factors such as urban
runoff, oil spills, coal burning, atmospheric deposition,
untreated industrial and domestic waste discharge, as well
as effluent discharge from Dhaka city. Microorganisms like
bacteria, fungi, and algae also contribute to their presence.
In the rivers Meghna and Buriganga, launch terminals serve
as points for shipment and loading-unloading activities,
often leading to the release of engine oil. There are also
trade places for burnt oil along the riverbanks, where oil is
refined and sold back to the community. Additionally,
engine boats contribute to oil pollution in the water bodies.
Coal tars, containing over 1000 compounds including at
least 30 PAHs, further contribute to the complexity of
pollution. In addition to that, launches, ships, ferry etc. for
inland navigation use coal tar to prevent corrosive damages.
Leaching or abrasion of this coal tar may be other sources
for the contamination of river water by anthracene,
benzo[a]pyrene and fluoranthene. Brick kilns represent
another potential origin of PAHs found in the Burigangaand
Meghna rivers, with approximately 300 of these kilns
discharging their waste into these waterways45. During
sampling from Turag, and Buriganga river, effluents
coming from plastic factories, machineries industries,
garments factories, and leather crafts making industries to
the river was evidenced. It was not possible to know
whether these effluents were treated through effluent
treatment plant (ETP) or not before they were released. If
not, these could be the potential sources of PAHs (in the
present case, fluoranthene) in the Turag river and
Buriganga river.
Hatirjheel lake, located centrally in the capital city of
Bangladesh, Dhaka, is a significant expanse. Its proximity
to the Tejgaon industrial area results in the disposal of
various forms of industrial waste into the lake.
Unfortunately, a huge land beside the lake area is being
used for living purpose of slum people coming from the
rural area of the country. These people along with some
original residents of Hatirjheel lake dumping their
household wastes directly to the lake. Drains and sewerage
pipe dumping waste in the Hatirjheel lake polluting the
surface water and the environment. These practice
including wastes, petroleum products, dust of roads etc.
might be the possible source of fluoranthene and
benzo[a]pyrene in the Hatirjheel lake water. Gulshan lake is
a confined water body with a length of 0.87 km located in a
highly populated residential area of Dhaka city.
Unfortunately, a huge land beside the lake area is being
used for living purpose of slum people coming from the
rural area of the country. Residents, including newcomers
and locals, directly dispose of household waste into the
lake, while the dumping of waste from drains and sewerage
pipes into Gulshan lake has been flagged as a significant
pollution issue by DWASA46. These practice including
industrial wastes, petroleum products, dust of roads etc.
might be the possible source of anthracene, fluoranthene
and benzo[a]pyrene in the Gulshan lake water. In the
research on PAHs in Urban Rivers and Lakes in Dhaka,
Bangladesh, only a very small number of samples showed
the presence of PAHs, with most concentrations falling
below standard guideline values. Consequently, human
health risk assessments, health hazard evaluations, and
ecological risk factors were not calculated, as the detected
levels of PAHs were deemed insufficient to warrant such
analyses. Mitigating PAHs) in water is challenging, but
heterogeneous photocatalysis using semiconductor metal
oxides (e.g., TiO2 and ZnO) and noble metal-doped
graphene composites offers an efficient and eco-friendly
solution47. Monitoring PAH levels during drinking water
treatment processes showed that chemical treatments with
KMnO4, FeCl3, and NaClO can achieve over 90% removal
efficiency for certain PAHs. Gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry analysis confirmed the highest removal rates
for benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, and dibenzo(a,h)
anthracene48.
IV. Conclusion
The study focuses on PAHs, globally recognized as critical
priority pollutants. Using a cost-effective Solid Phase
Extraction (SPE) method without derivative processes, the
research assesses three targeted PAHs in water samples
from Dhaka's rivers and lakes. Results indicate significant
levels of fluoranthene in Hatirjheel Lake, Meghna,
Buriganga, and Turag rivers; anthracene in Meghna River;
and benzo[a]pyrene in Hatirjheel Lake. Despite relatively
low LOD and LOQ, HPLC-FD proves suitable for routine
PAH analysis in water. The study highlights acute
anthropogenic sources as contributors to PAH
contamination, emphasizing vehicular emissions and urban
combustion activities. Recommendations include
implementing safety measures in industries and households

82 Abida Sultana, Md. Mazharul Islam, Mohammad Shoeb, Md. Iqbal Rouf Mamun and Nilufar Nahar
and addressing vehicle emissions and fuel burning practices
to achieve a sustainable environment. Overall, the method
successfully determines PAH levels in Dhaka's water
bodies, underlining the need for pollution mitigation efforts.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the International Program in
Chemical Science (IPICS), University of Uppsala, Sweden
and Higher Education Quality Enhancement Project
(HEQEP), University Grants Commission (UGC),
Bangladesh for financial support.
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