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Ocimum basilicum (Basil): A Medicinal Plant with Proven Ethnomedicinal Uses, Chemical Composition, Bioactivities, and Pharmacological Properties
Abstract
The Ocimum L. (Lamiaceae) plant is highly prized for its economic and medicinal value. One of the best known species is O. basilicum (basil). Although originally native to the Americas, tropical Africa, and Asia, basil is now widely cultivated in Europe, North Africa, and south-west Asia. The plant’s medicinal properties have been well-documented throughout history, particularly in China and India. Its effectiveness in treating a range of ailments, such as stomach spasms and kidney problems, has been established since A.D. 1060. Basil possesses antibacterial, antifungal, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, anticonvulsant, cytoprotective, dermatologic, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, renoprotective, spermicidal, and insecticidal properties, making it one of the most versatile medicinal plants available. The seeds contain planteose, mucilage, polysaccharides, and a fixed oil consisting of 50% linoleic, 22% linolenic, 15% oleic acids, and 8% unsaturated fatty acids.
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Background
Bioactive principles from various natural resources including medicinal herbs have always played a crucial role in healthcare settings and increasingly became key players in drug discovery and development for many biopharmaceutical applications. Additionally, natural products (NPs) have immense arrangement of distinctive chemical structures with diverse functional groups that motivated numerous investigators including synthetic chemists to discover new therapeutic entities. Numerous pre-clinical investigations involving the animal models have evident the usefulness of these NPs against various human diseases including neurodegenerative disorders (NDs).
Main text
Ocimum basilicum Linn ( O . basilicum L.), also known as sweet basil, is well practiced in traditional healthcare systems and has been used to treat various human illnesses, which include malaria, skin disease, diarrhea, bronchitis, dysentery, arthritis, eye diseases, and insect bites and emphasize the significance of the ethno-botanical approach as a potential source of novel drug leads With the growing interest in advanced techniques, herbal medicine and medicinal plants explorations are still considered to be a novel resource for new pharmacotherapeutic discovery and development. O . basilicum L and its bioactive principles including apigenin, eugenol, myretenal, β-sitosterol, luteolin, rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, essential oil (EO)-rich phenolic compounds, and others like anthocyanins and flavones could be of therapeutic values in NDs by exhibiting their neuro-protective efficacy on various signaling pathways. The present comprehensive review collected various related information using the following searching engines such as PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, etc. and focused mainly the English written documents. The search period comprised of last two decades until present.
Conclusion
Although these efficacious plant genera of prime importance and has potential medical and socioeconomic importance, yet the pivotal evidence for its neuroprotective potential in novel clinical trials remains lacking. However, with the available wealth of obtainable literature on this medicinal plant, which supports this review and concludes that O . basilicum L may function as a promising therapeutics for the treatment of NDs.
Nowadays, the consumers' awareness and health-consciousness are increasing, which results in food selection and pressure to avoid the synthetic additives that may be responsible for many health risks, including cancer and carcinogenesis. Given these circumstances, many laboratories have done extensive research in order to develop safer natural antioxidants. This mini review attempts to provide new information about basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), which could be used in the prevention and treatment of various diseases caused by tested pathogens. Basil essential oil could be a good alternative to synthetic antimicrobials. It could also be used as raw material in food manufacturing and in the pharmaceutical and chemical industry. The aim of the present mini-review is to synthesize the main uses of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) as an aromatic plant, highlighting its chemical composition with effects on food preservation and human health, highlighting its chemical composition with effects on food preservation and human health.
The phytochemical analysis of Ocimumbasilicumshowed that it contained terpenoids, alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, saponin, reducing sugars, cardiac glycosides, steroids, glycosides. It also contained nutritive elements: carbohydrate, oils, protein, and many vitamins and minerals. The pharmacological investigations revealed that Ocimumbasilicum possessed antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiallergic, immunological, anticancer, antidiabetic, protective, cardiovascular, reproductive, antiulcerogenic, neural, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimutagenic and dermatological effects. In the current review, Web Science, PubMed, Scopus and Science Direct, were searched to investigatethe chemical constituents and pharmacological effects of Ocimum basilicum.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is one of the most important crops with essential oils as well as polyphenols, phenolics, flavonoids and phenolic acids. This annual plant belongs to mint family, and indigenous to tropical regions. Basil leaves also has tremendous pharmaceutical benefits and it is common to use in rice, meat, stews and soups. Traditionally, it has been used in kidney problems, as a haemostyptic in childbirth, earache, menstrual irregularities, arthritis, anorexia, treatment of colds and malaria. Basil has been shown positive effects against viral, fungal, bacterial and some infections. Basil leaves have been used in treatment of fevers, coughs, flu, asthma, bronchitis, influenza and diarrhea. Basil Seed Mucilage, commonly known as basil seed gum. Basil seed mucilage can be considered as thickening, stabilizing, fat substitute, texurizer, surface-active and emulsifying hydrocolloid. The most important pharmacological uses of basil are anti-cancer activity, radioprotective activity, anti-microbial activity, anti-inflammatory effects, immunomodulatory activity, anti-stress activity, anti-diabetic activity, anti-pyretic activity, anti-arthritic activity, anti-oxidant activity, as a prophylactic agent and in cardiovascular disease.
It is widely accepted by scientists that innovation of new antimicrobial agents has extreme importance for the sake of the future of human beings; therefore the researches about the antimicrobial potentials of plant extracts and their biochemical composition have great importance. This present study aims to investigate the antimicrobial activity of Mat-thiola tricuspidata ethanol extract against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms and Candida albicans by disk diffusion method, and to identify its chemical composition by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry. As a result, it was observed that the extract showed activity for all microorganisms excluding Enterobacter aerogenes ATCC 13048, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella infantis, and Salmonella typhimurium SL1344 and some chemical compounds were detected, which may be responsible for the antimicrobial activity.
The outbreak of diseases caused by Candida species is growing. These opportunistic pathogens can produce biofilm on non-biological surfaces, such as removable orthodontic appliances. Over the past two decades, there has been a significant increase in resistance to several types of antifungal drugs. Recently, there is a growing interest in using herbal plants and their extracts as an alternative to antifungal drugs. A common plant is basil, which belongs to Lamiaceae family. This study aimed to determine the effect of basil extracts on the adhesion of C. albicans and C. dubliniensis to acrylic surfaces of removable orthodontic appliances. Basil dried leaves were macerated in ethanol to extract its constituent, and then the extract was dissolved in water and fractioned by other solvents, including n-hexane and ethyl acetate, successively. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the extracts against standard species of Candida were determined by the broth microdilution method based on clinical and laboratory standard institute (CLSI) protocol. Afterward, adherence and biofilm formation tests were done on acrylic specimens in the vicinity of proper concentration of fractions with the help of the Crystal Violet and spectrophotometry method. MIC for ethyl acetate fraction, n-hexane fraction, ethanol crude extract, and the aqueous fraction was 1024, 2048, ≥2048, >2048 µg/ml, respectively. Inhibition of adherence and biofilm formation for Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis in the vicinity of ethyl acetate fraction was 73% and 78%, respectively. In the vicinity of n-hexane fraction was 65% and 78%, respectively. Two fractions could inhibit the growth, adherence, and biofilm formation of two Candida species.
In the present study, the effect of enzyme pretreatment on essential oil recoveries from sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves was evaluated. Moreover, the consideration on the use of hydrodistilled residue by-products as a source of bioactive phytochemicals with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and repellent effects against the stored-grain pest Tribolium castaneum was examined. Results showed that the enzymatic pretreatment increased the extraction yield of essential oil by 400, 417, and 478% in hemicellulase-, cellulase-, and viscozyme-treated samples, respectively. Phenylpropanoids including methyl cinnamate, methyl eugenol, eugenol and estragol were found as the main components, and were particularly abundant in cellulase-treated samples. From the hydrodistilled residue of enzyme-treated samples, better recoveries of total phenols (TPC) (258.3-470.9 mg GAE/g extract) and flavonoids (TFC) (59.4-94.3 mg QE/g extract) were observed. Using the DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays, a strong antioxidant activity of the rosmarinic-rich extract was observed. Such an activity which was mediated through electron transfer mechanism was highly correlated with the TPC, TFC and rosmarinic acid content. The in vitro bioassay showed that methanol extract (6.29 and 12.58 µL/cm²) had repellent activity against the stored-grain pest Tribolium castaneum. These results suggest the potential of enzyme pretreatment to promote the use of hydrodistilled residue by-products as a valuable source of natural antioxidants and repellents ingredients.
The chemical compositions of essential oil of Oscimum basilicum extracted by hydrodistillation and different solvent extractions were analyzed by GC-MS. Qualitative analysis of the essential oil as well as other extracts showed that majority of these are mono and sesquiterpenes. Most of the identified compounds are biologically important. Further the Oscimum basilicum leaf possesses certain characteristics that can be ascribed to cultivation on a domestic plantation. Keywords: Ocimum basilicum; Essential oil; Hydrodistillation; Different extracts; GC-MS. © 2011 JSR Publications. ISSN: 2070-0237 (Print); 2070-0245 (Online). All rights reserved. doi:10.3329/jsr.v3i1.5409 J. Sci. Res. 3 (1), 197-206 (2011)
The present study evaluates the antimicrobial activity of Ocimum basilicum leaves extracts using well
diffusion assay. Microbicidal or Microbiostatic activities were determined using (MBC or MFC) /MIC
ratio. All O. basilicum extracts ethanol, methanol, and water possess antimicrobial activity. Methanol
was the best solvent with greater inhibitory activity followed by ethanol then water against bacteria.
However, all three solvents showed no difference in their inhibitory activity against yeast. The MIC and
MBC values were in decreasing order methanol, ethanol then water against bacteria whereas Candida
albicans was more sensitive at MIC 12.5µg/mL than C. tropicalis at MIC 25µg/mL and MFC values were
lower against C. albicans than C. tropicalis at 25µg/mL and 50µg/mL, respectively in all type of solvents.
The ratio of (MBC or MFC) /MIC were one to three-folds. The GC-MS result showed the presence of
several important chemical compounds like terpene, steroids, phenols, esters, and fatty acids most of
these compounds were reported to have an antimicrobial activity. The study indicates the importance
of O. basilicum extracts as microbicidal agent with wide spectrum and high inhibitory properties in low
concentrations. Therefore, O. basilicum leaves extracts may be important in the field of antimicrobial
production as alternatives to antibiotics.
Background
There is increasing interest in the pharmaceutical and food industries to substitute synthetic chemicals with naturally occurring compounds possessing bioactive properties. Plants are valuable sources of bioactive compounds. The present study investigates the chemical composition and antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities of ethanolic extracts (EEs) and essential oils (EOs) from two species in the Lamiaceae family, Ocimum basilicum L. and Thymus algeriensis Boiss. & Reut., cultivated in the Algerian Saharan Atlas.
Methods
The total flavonoid contents of the plants’ ethanolic extracts were determined by the aluminium chloride method, while the total phenols were determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation of the aerial parts of the plants and were analysed by GC-MS. The free radical-scavenging ability and antioxidant potential of the plants’ EEs and EOs were probed using the 2, 2-diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl radical-scavenging, ABTS radical-scavenging, ferric-reducing power and phosphomolybdenum assays. The antimicrobial activities were evaluated against several pathogens characteristic of gram-negative bacteria (three species), gram-positive bacteria (three species) and fungi (two species). The microdilution method was used to estimate the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs). The oils’ anticancer potential against several cancer types was also studied using the MTT assay and reported as the toxic doses that resulted in a 50% reduction in cancer cell growth (LD50).
Results
Phenolic compounds in the EEs from both plants were analysed by HPLC and demonstrated a rich flavonoid content. Chemical analysis of the essential oil from Ocimum basilicum revealed 26 unique compounds, with linalool (52.1%) and linalyl acetate (19.1%) as the major compounds. A total of 29 compounds were identified in the essential oil from Thymus algeriensis, with α-terpinyl acetate (47.4%), neryl acetate (9.6%), and α-pinene (6.8%) as the major compounds. The ethanolic extracts and essential oils from both plants exhibited moderate antioxidant activities and moderate to weak antimicrobial activities. Furthermore, anticancer activities against the examined human cancer cell lines were associated with only the EOs from both plants, with LD50 values ranging between 300 and 1000 μg/mL.
Conclusion
The results suggest that the bioactive compounds found in the ethanolic extracts and essential oils from Ocimum basilicum and Thymus algeriensis, with diverse antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer activities, may have beneficial applications in nutraceutical and pharmaceutical technologies.
The genus Ocimum has a number of species that are used to treat different types of disorders and diseases from ancient
tmes. In this genus, O. basilicum plays a vital role due to its various medicinal propertes. It is universally cultvated
as herbaceous, perennial plant but originated from Asian contnent. O. basilicum is used as a culinary herb and also
has a number of pharmacological actvites to prevent or treat cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, menstrual cramps,
digestve disorders, neuro-degenerated disorders and cancer. In additon to that, it has been reported for antoxidant,
antmicrobial, and larvicidal actvites. Chemical consttuents such as linalool; eugenol; 1, 8-cineone; methyl eugenol and
anthocyanins are mostly responsible for the above mentoned actvites. Some traditonal uses of this plant coincidences
with experimental results. However, the studies conducted based on its traditonal use are negligible. This review is an
atempt to provide a pharmaceutcal perspectve of Ocimum basilicum.
The global meat industry is characterised by a growing interest in natural preservative additives. This study determined the effect of sweet basil ( Ocimum basilicum L .) essential oil (SBEO) on colour and lipid oxidation in minced beef. The phytoconstituents of SBEO were analyzed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Thereafter, minced beef samples from Nguni and Boran cattle were treated with either no additives (control, C) or SBEO added at 2% (SB2), 4% (SB4), or 6% (SB6). The meat samples were aerobically packaged and stored (4 ± 1°C) for seven days for measurement of lightness (L⁎), redness (a⁎), yellowness (b⁎), hue, chroma, and lipid oxidation (acid-reactive substances, TBARS) on days 0, 4, and 7. Thirty-two bioactive compounds with reported antioxidant and antimicrobial and activities were identified in SBEO, including Estragole (41.40%), 1, 6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl (29.49%), and trans-.alpha.-Bergamotene (5.32%). On days 0, 4, and 7, SB2, SB4, and SB6 had higher (P < 0.05) L⁎, a⁎, b⁎, hue, and chroma values; and on days 0 and 4 TBARS were lower (P < 0.05) in SB2 and SB4 than C and SB6. The addition of 2% and 4% SBEO improved colour and lipid oxidative stability, demonstrating potential for its use as a natural antioxidant additive in meat.
Lamiaceae
has numerous proven biological properties. Our aim was to investigate the
antioxidant and antimicrobial activities and chemical composition of essential
oil and extracts of Ocimum basilicum and
Thymbra spicata. For this purpose, we
used four Gram-positive (Staphylococcus
aureus, Streptomyces murinus, Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis), four
Gram-negative (Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Yersina enterocolitica, Proteus vulgaris), a yeast (Candida albicans) and a mold (Aspergilus niger). Essential oil and the
extracts of Thymbra spicata have the
most effective and significant activity against the bacteria, yeast and mold.
Antioxidant activity of the Thymbra
spicata was higher than Ocimum
basilicum. Phenolic compounds have good properties like antioxidants acting
as reducing agent, hydrogen donors and singlet oxygen quenchers. Fourteen
phenolic compounds were analyzed and some phenolics were detected in Ocimum basilicum and Thymbra spicata. These results suggest
that Lamiaceae is rich in phenolic compounds and has antimicrobial and
antioxidant properties as well. Therefore, it can be a useful herbal source in
food and drug industries.
This study examined the phytochemicals and medicinal properties of the floral essential oil of O. basilicum purpureum from Nigeria. The GC and GC-MS analyses revealed the presence of twenty-five organic compounds making up 99.7% of the total percentage composition of the essential oil. The most abundant components was phenolic compound called methyleugenol (15.5%), followed by 2-phenyl-1-hexanol (14.0%), 1-(4,5-dimethyl-2-nitrophenyl)-1H-tetraazole (14.0%), 2-methyl-3,5-dodecadiyne (14.0%), o-nitrocumene (14.0%) and patchoulane (6.7%). The total phenolic content was quantitatively determined as 459 µgmg-1 gallic acid equivalent (GAE) confirming the presence of high amount of phenolic compounds in the floral essential oil. The DPPH IC 50 value was 1.0 µgml-1 , the essential oil was capable of scavenging free radicals in a range of 73-86% and the antioxidant power of the essential oil increased with concentration.
The fungus Cochliobolus is the teleomorph of Bipolaris and Curvularia which are economically important plant pathogens worldwide. Several species of Bipolaris are well documented human pathogens. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the efficacy of the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum against some Bipolaris and Cochliobolus species. Sixteen compounds, representing 95.4% of the chemical components of the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum, were identified by GC-MS. The main compounds were estragole (55.95%), 1,8-Cineole (10.56%), methyl eugenol (10.09%) and linalool (5.57%). Aromatic oxygenated monoterpenes (57.42%) were the dominant constituents of the essential oil followed by oxygenated monoterpenes (16.13%) and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (6.9%). The essential oil exhibited a complete inhibition of the growth of Bipolaris ellisii, Bipolaris hawaiensis, Bipolaris spicifera, Cochliobolus australiensis and Cochliobolus cynodontis at 80 mg/ml and fungicidal effect on Cochliobolus australiensis only at the same concentration after six and twelve days of exposure. Spore germination and germ tube elongation of B. hawaiensis were completely inhibited by the essential oil (at 40 mg/ml) and B. spicifera (at 80 mg/ml) with MIC values ranged from 40 to 160 mg/ml. These 2 results suggest that the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum are potential and promising antifungal tools for controlling plant and human fungal pathogens.
The essential oils obtained from Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum vulgare collected at fully-mature and flowering stages, Mentha piperita, Mentha spicata, Lavandula officinalis, Ocimum basilicum (green- and purpleleaf varieties), Origanum onites, O. vulgare, O. munitiflorum, O. majorana, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Satureja cuneifolia, as well as the widely encountered components in essential oils (γ-terpinene, 4-allylanisole, (-)-carvone, dihydrocarvone, D-limonene, (-)-phencone, cuminyl alcohol, cuminyl aldehyde, cuminol, trans-anethole, camphene, isoborneol, (-)-borneol, L-bornyl acetate, 2-decanol, 2-heptanol, methylheptane, farnesol, nerol, isopulegol, citral, citronellal, citronellol, geraniol, geranyl ester, linalool, linalyl oxide, linalyl ester, α-pinene, β-pinene, piperitone, (-)-menthol, isomenthone, carvacrol, thymol, vanillin, and eugenol), were screened for their antiviral activity against Herpes simplex type-1 (HSV-1) and parainfluenza type-3 (PI-3). Cytotoxicity was expressed as cytopathogenic effect. Most of the oils and compounds displayed strong antiviral effects against HSV-1, ranging between 0.8 and 0.025 μg mL -1. However, the samples tested were less effective against PI-3, with results ranging between 1.6 and 0.2 μg mL -1. The essential oil of A. graveolens was the most active. Most of the tested oils and compounds exhibited good antibacterial and antifungal effects.
It was analysed the content and composition of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) essential oil at two different hours in the day and two seasons. Aiming to maximize essential oil production of medicinal species through the knowledge of the influence of environmental factors on its yield, its was studied the effects of the hour in the day in two different seasons on basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) essential oil yield and quality. The research was carried out at Universidade Federal de Viçosa, MG, Brazil, from April/99 to January/00. The species was assexually propagated, starting from one main plant with subsequent transplanting at the Medicinal Plant Garden. Harvest were carried out in August/99 and January/00, at 8:00 AM and 4:00 PM. The content of essential oil was expressed on dry matter basis and it was extracted through the vapor dragging method. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were used to determine oil chemical composition. The content of essential the oil was influenced by both the season and the hour in the day. The oil content in January/00 morning was higher than the content in August/99, in any hour. In January/00 the oil content in the morning was higher than the oil content in afternoon. However, there were no considerable changes in the chromatographic profile in any season or hour, being eugenol and linalool the major constituents.
Objective: To identify the major volatile constituents and evaluate the antibacterial activity of
essential oil isolated from the aerial parts of Ocimum basilicum (O. basilicum) Linn. grown in
Oman.
Methods: The fresh plant material was collected in the month of September from Seeb
Nursery in Muscat Governorate, Sultanate of Oman. The aerial parts of O. basilicum Linn.
were separated from fresh plant and essential oil was isolated by hydrodistillation method
by using Clevenger apparatus. A greenish yellow oil was obtained in 0.6% v/w yield which
was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for its chemical composition. The
antibacterial activity of oil was also evaluated against three Gram–positive and four Gram–
negative pathogenic bacterial strains by agar well diffusion method.
Results: A total of thirty six chemical constituents were identified and linalool (69.87%) was
found to be the major constituent. Other main identified constituents included geraniol (9.75%),
p-allylanisole (6.02%), 1,8–cineole (4.90%), trans–琢–bergamotene (2.36%) and neryl acetate
(1.24%). The essential oil of O. basilicum showed excellent antibacterial activity against
Gram–positive bacteria and moderate activity against Gram–negative bacteria.
Conclusions: Omani basil is characterized by a high content of linalool which makes it useful
in food, pharmaceutical and perfumery industries.
This study evaluated the chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of twelve Ocimum basilicum L. cultivars grown in Serbia. The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detection and GC-mass spectrometry. The oil yields ranged from 0.65 to 1.90 %. A total of 75 compounds were identified as constituents of analyzed essential oils. GC/MS analyses revealed that a majority of the examined basil cultivars belonged to the “linalool chemotype”. The results of the DPPH assay showed a very high antioxidant capacity of the basil oils, which was especially high for Blue Spice cultivar (IC50 = 0.03 μg/mL). Significant antimicrobial activity was shown for all the tested oils. Essential oil of Compact cultivar was the most active against the bacterium Micrococcus flavus, with an MIC value of 0.009 μg/mL while Osmin cultivar exhibited the strongest antifungal activity with MIC values ranging from 0.08-1.07 μg/mL. All the examined essential oils showed a 10- to 100-fold greater ability to inhibit fungal growth compared to commercial antifungal agents.
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae) commonly known as sweet basil, has been used as a traditional medicinal plant for the treatment of headaches, coughs, diarrhea, constipation, warts, worms, and kidney malfunctions.
The essential oil of the flowering aerial parts of O. basilicum growing in the Western Ghats region of North West Karnataka, India, was obtained by hydro-distillation and analyzed by gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The oil was tested against six Gram-positive, eight Gram-negative bacteria, and three fungi by the tube-dilution method at a concentration range of 5.00-0.009 mg/mL.
Twenty-five constituents were identified in the essential oil of O. basilicum. The major constituents were identified as methyl eugenol (39.3%) and methyl chavicol (38.3%), accounting for 98.6% of the total oil. The oil was found to be active against Gram-positive, Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi with minimal bactericidal concentration values in the range of 0.143 ± 0.031 to 0.572 ± 0.127 mg/mL, 0.781 ± 0.382 to 1.875 ± 0.684 mg/mL, and 0.312 ± 0.171 to 0.442 ± 0.207 mg/mL, respectively.
The essential oil of O. basilicum of this region contains methyl eugenol/methyl chavicol chemotype and has bactericidal properties.
The antioxidant efficacy of basil extracts was estimated in stabilization of sunflower oil. The basil essential oil was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Twenty-two compounds were identified representing 93.74% of the total essential oil. Basil methanolic extract was thermally evaluated by heating at 185°C. At the 100 min heating time, the extract exhibited antioxidant activity higher than that of butylated hydroxytoluene. Different concentrations of methanolic extract were added to sunflower oil. Selected parameters (i.e., weight gain, induction period to primary oil oxidation, peroxide value, conjugated dienes, and conjugated trienes) were considered for evaluating the effectiveness of basil in stabilization of sunflower oil. Basil methanolic extract showed good antioxidant activity according to synthetic antioxidants. Basil may be used as a natural antioxidants to prevent vegetable oils oxidation.
In the studies conducted in 2010–2011, the chemical composition of the essential oils of three sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivars were investigated by GC-MS method. Forty eight compounds (95.08% of the total oil) were identified in the essential oil of O basilicum L. cv 'Thai Siam'. The main components found in the oil were linalool (24.60 and 36.60% in 2010 and 2011, respectively), (E)-methyl cinnamate (18.73 and 21.90%) and methyl chavicol (5.57 and 7.50%). In the essential oil of O basilicum L. cv 'Bolloso Napo-letano', forty constituents were identified, representing 97% of total oil. Linalool (41.09 and 47.75%), methyl chavicol (14.34 and 20.21%) and 1,8-cineole (7.21 and 10.23%) were the major components. Similarly, linalool (37.51 and 48.65%), methyl chavicol (13.41 and 18.55%) and 1,8-cineole (7.72 and 12.59%) were found to be the main constituents of the oil of O basilicum L. cv 'A Foglie di Lattuga'. A total of 35 compounds were identified in this oil, representing 95.24% of the total oil content.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L) extracts showed significant antioxidant activity and represent a rich source of antioxidants that could contribute to its disease-fighting potential. Basil contains functional ingredients due to its rich content of phenolic compounds, characterized as main carriers of its antioxidant activity. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of the conditions and methods of extraction on chemical composition of basil extracts and also to find similarities or dissimilarities of the extraction procedures in the scope of determined content of functional ingredients. The determination of phenolic compounds (phenolic acids and flavonoids) of 100 basil extracts was performed using HPLC. The concentration of phenolic acids (chlorogenic, p-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic, ferulic, vanillic, cinnamic and rosmarinic) varied from 0.01 to 79.88 mg/kg of dried extract (DE). Concentration of flavonoid components (quercetin, naringenin, rutin) ranged from 0.06 to 72.24 mg/kg of DE. Extraction with dichloromethane (10 min), chloroform (10 min), n-hexane (30 min) and infusion provided high content of rosmarinic acid and quercetin, but also a significant content of chlorogenic acid, vanillic acid, naringenin, cinnamic and ferulic acid. Chemometric analysis indicated the most effective experimental procedure and provided an overview of their grouping in the space of the extracted ingredients.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum L. var. thyrsiflora) seed was analyzed for its physico-chemical, phytochemical, functional, and hydration properties. The seed is ellipsoid in shape with mean dimensions of 2.52 mm length, 1.43 mm width and 1.10 mm thickness. Thousand seed weight was 2.10 g. Hunter color values (‘L’, ‘a’ and ‘b’) of basil seed were 14.24, 0.42, and 47.85, respectively which depicts black colour of seeds. Proximate composition showed that the seed contain 8.90% moisture, 9.40% protein, 33.01% fats, 5.20% ash, 43.50% carbohydrates and 36.30% total fibre. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis showed the presence of omega fatty acids such as alpha-linolenic acid (71.10 %), palmitic-acid (13.72%), stearic-acid (8.26%), oleic-acid (1.53%), arachidioic-acid (1.17%) and traces of gamma tocopherol, gamma linolenic-acid, and squalene. The phytochemical analysis of seed showed the presence of 18.24 mg GAE/g phenolic compounds, 0.525 mg QE/g flavonoids, 15.64 mg/g alkaloids, 0.97 mg/g saponins, and 0.134 mg/g triterpenoids. An antioxidant activity of 30.30% was observed. Furthermore, higher values for water absorption capacity (37.72 g/g) and lower values for oil absorption capacity (6.04 g/g) were observed. Besides, low values for syneresis (7.37%) and a high emulsification capacity (95.50%) was obtained. Hydration studies indicated that the presence of ions decreased the water absorption and swelling power of basil seed. Scanning electron microscopy depicted an oblong shape and a smooth surface of basil seed. Findings suggest that basil seed can be used as a promising ingredient in food industry.
The essential oil obtained by hydro-distillation of leaves of Ocimum basilicum (basil essential oil) was analyzed for its potential to manage the Alternaria alternata causal agent of Alternaria rot of tomato, in vitro and in vivo. Further, the chemical composition of the extracted basil oil was analyzed by the GC/MS. A total of 20 chemical compounds were identified in the hydro-distilled basil essential oil. The primary constituents of the basil essential oil were methyl chavicol (38.2 %) and linalool (28.7 %). In vitro, the basil essential oil successfully constrained the growth and conidia germination of A. alternata. The highest concentration of basil essential oil (10 %) provided maximum growth reduction (88.0 %) of the fungus. Likewise, the highest concentration of basil essential oil (10 %) caused a 90 % reduction in conidia germination. In vivo, the tomatoes treated with 4 % and 6 % basil essential oil had 33.3 % and 55.5 % respectively, reduction in the infected wounds as compared to control (untreated inoculated). Also, there were 52.9 % and 62.3 % less A. alternata infected fruits when treated with 4 % and 6 % basil essential oil respectively as compared to control (untreated inoculated). This proves that the basil essential oil was able to manage the Alternaria rot of tomato successfully. Therefore, the basil essential oil can substitute the synthetic fungicides to manage the Alternaria rot of tomato.
The crude solvent extracts of medicinal plants may be exploited as medicines for the betterment of human health. The isolation, purification and characterization of active phytochemical components and their mechanism of action is of predominant grandness. Keeping in view the importance of Ocimum basilicum, the present study was designed to document the phytochemical and antimicrobial activity of methanolic extract of O. basilicum stem. For this purpose dried powdered stem was extracted by successive solvent extraction using petroleum ether (for non-polar Fractions), chloroform (for constituents of intermediate polarities) and methanol (for polar constituents). Six major fractions Ob-1 to Ob-6 were separated from the methanolic extract of O. basilicum stem by column chromatography and purified by thin layer chromatography. All biological active and purified fractions were analyzed by Ultra Violet (UV) and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. These extracts were initially subjected to screening of antimicrobial activities. The results of the initial screening indicated that methanolic extract was more active than other solvent extracts. Antimicrobial potential of six major fractions Ob-1 to Ob-6 was determined against three species of gram-positive (Clostridium defficile, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria, three species of gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and Klebsiella pneumoniae) bacteria and three species of fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans). All the six isolated fractions displayed well-marked antimicrobial potential against nine microbes. Ob-4, Ob-5 and Ob-6 appeared to be most potent than other fractions, but lesser than the standard antibiotics.
In this study, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) essential oil (EO) in response to different Fe sources (Fe-arginine, Fe-glycine, and Fe-histidine nano-complexes and Fe-EDDHA) were examined. EO samples were predominantly constituted by the phenylpropanoid methyl chavicol (53-89.5%). Application of Fe nano-complexes significantly increased the occurrence and concentration of sesquiterpenes, while decreased the content of oxygenated monoterpenes. Antioxidant activity of basil EOs was evaluated using free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, Nitric oxide, H2O2 and Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances scavenging assays, and in all assays the highest and the lowest activities were recorded in basils supplied with Fe-histidine nano-complex (1.02, 1.62, 2.21, 3.22 mg mL-1) and control (3.89, 4.89, 5.52, 6.79 mg mL-1), respectively. Fe-histidine nano-complex was the most effective treatment to inhibit fungal (C. albicans: 0.058 mg mL-1; A. niger: 0.066 mg mL-1), Gram-negative (E. coli: 0.181 mg mL-1; S. typhimurium: 0.163 mg mL-1) and Gram-positive (B. subtilis: 0.033 mg mL-1; S. aureus: 0.002 mg mL-1) growth. In conclusion, application of iron nano-complexes significantly altered biological and pharmacological characteristics of basil EOs. Our results are quite encouraging since EOs exhibited potent antioxidant effect and antimicrobial activities.
We investigated the roles of different shading strategies on plant growth, antioxidant activity and phenolic profile of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), a widely used herb with culinary and medicinal properties. Sweet basil plants were cultivated in a commercial multi-span tunnel-greenhouse covered with an EVAC plastic film, shaded from solar radiation in five different ways: n. 1, by calcium hydroxide whitening; n. 2, installing up - or n. 3, under - the greenhouse roof, a PE-HD white reflective net with 36% shading factor; n. 4, installing up - or n. 5, under - the greenhouse roof, a PE-HD white reflective net with 58% shading factor. The remaining part of the greenhouse (n. 6 - control)was unshaded. In each trial, yield traits, antioxidant activity and contents of phenolics of sweet basil plants were assessed to evaluate the influence of the shading strategy on these parameters. The antioxidant capacity was evaluated by using three different in vitro assays: DPPH scavenging activity, reducing power (FRAP)and lipid peroxidation inhibition (BCB). To compare the data obtained by the different chemical methods, the relative antioxidant capacity index (RACI)was calculated. The yield was highest in unshaded plants. The control trial, in which the incoming solar radiation was filtered only by the film which covers the greenhouse, showed the highest RACI value (0.98), indicating that the antioxidant capacity was probably influenced by higher light and temperature conditions. Phenolic quantification, determined by HPLC-DAD, enabled to observe a correlation between the antioxidant power and the identified metabolites.
Basil essential oil (BEO) contains a wide range of chemical compounds whose content may vary depending on chemotypes, environmental conditions, agronomic techniques and particularly the origin of the plant. In our present study, essential oils (EOs) were isolated by hydrodistillation method from dry herbs of three basil cultivars and analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Two of the tested cultivars belong to sweet basil group (B1 and B2) while the third one was large leafed ʽGenovese’ basil (B3). EO content in the dry herb was 0.65%, 0.41% and 0.62% respectively. The main classes of compounds of B1EO and B3EO were sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (38.39% and 37.95%), oxygenated monoterpenes (25.44% and 28.04%) and phenylpropanoids (17.43% and 15.71%). The main constituents of both EOs were monoterpene alcohol linalool (13.68% and 15.38%), phenoyl derivate eugenol (10.83% and 8.97%) and sesquiterpene hydrocarbon α-bergamotene (8.12% and 9.25%). In both EOs, epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene was detected in considerable amount (7.03% and 8.07%). The most abundant compound classes in B2EO were oxygenated monoterpenes (52.07%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (24.27%) and phenylpropanoids (10.95%). Linalool was the dominant compound (40.97%), followed by epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene (8.70%) and methyl chavicol (7.92%). The results showed complex chemical composition of BEOs and pointed out the presence of biologically active compounds of importance for different branches of the pharmaceutical, chemical and food industry. Although there are differences in the chemical composition of the BEOs, the obtained results show that all of the tested cultivars are rich in compounds which are responsible for biological activities.
Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the most popular fresh herbs. Ocimum basilicum shows great variation in morphology and essential oil components. This study was conducted to determine essential oil yields and components of different tbasil cultivars when grown in the Mediterranean region of Turkey. Seeds of four cultivars of sweet basil were provided from Greece, France, Germany, and Turkey. Basil plants were allowed to flower three times during the summer period. Essential oils were extracted from flowering plants by hydrodistillation, and the oil was analyzed by GC and GC/MS. Essential oil ratio and components showed great variation, depending on the cultivars and harvest times. The results showed the existence of three different chemo types according to main compounds: linalool(Greek basil), linalool + methylcinnamate (Turkish and German basil), andlinalool + methyl eugenol (French basil).
Introduction: Basil (Ocimum basilicum L., OB) is a plant world widely used as a spice and a typical ingredient of the healthy Mediterranean diet. In traditional medicine, OB is indicated for many maladies and conditions; OB-containing nutritional supplements are increasingly sold. Conversely, safety concerns have been raised about the promutagens and procarcinogens alkenylbenzenes contained in OB.
Areas covered: A critical review of the current status of OB as a nutraceutical, the pharmacology of its bioactive components, the rationale for its indications, and its safety.
Expert opinion: Due to the polyphenolic and flavonoidic content, OB can be considered as an important ingredient in healthy diets; OB preparations may be effective as chemopreventive agents or adjunctive therapy in the treatment of different clinical conditions.
From a toxicological perspective, since the tumorigenic potential of alkenylbenzenes is counteracted by other OB constituents such as nevadensin, it can be concluded that OB consumption in food and preparations is safe. The only concern relates to OB essential oils: in this case, a concentration limit for alkenylbenzenes should be precautionary defined, and the use of plant chemotypes with no or low levels of these alkylbenzenes for the preparation of essential oils should be made compulsory.
Medicinal and aromatic crops are economically important because they are sources for secondary metabolites such as essential oils (EOs) and polyphenolic compounds. High biomass yields are obtained by conventional chemical fertilizers, whereas the production of EOs is more influenced by elicitors that act on secondary metabolic pathways. The objective of the field trials was to evaluate the effects of biologic and conventional fertilizers (biosolids: 40 and 20 t ha⁻¹, organic: 600 kg ha⁻¹, microorganisms (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, AMF): 60 kg ha⁻¹, chemical NPK 20-20-20: 300 kg ha⁻¹) on plant growth, EO chemical profile and yield, and physiology of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). The two sweet basil cultivars (varieties) used were the green-leafed ‘Aromat de Buzau’ and the purple-leafed ‘Violet de Buzau’. The greatest increases in fresh yields compared with unfertilized plants, 116% and 68% increases for the ‘Aromat de Buzau’ and ‘Violet de Buzau, respectively, were obtained from the conventionally (chemical) fertilized plants. The 40 t ha⁻¹ biosolids treatment increased the EO content of the ‘Aromat de Buzau’ by 30%, while the AMF and organic treatments increased the EO content of the ‘Violet de Buzau’ by 21%. The major constituents of ‘Aromat de Buzau’ methyl chavicol and β-linalool, were increased by 4 and 17% with the AMF and organic treatments, respectively. Eucalyptol and δ-guaiene concentrations in the EO were higher in the 40 t ha⁻¹ biosolids treatment, while τ-cadinol and γ-cadinene were higher in the 20 t ha⁻¹ biosolids treatment. For ‘Violet de Buzau’ the AMF treatment led to an increase of β-linalool, limonene, and (+)-camphor, and decreased the concentration of methyl chavicol. The organic treatment increased the concentrations of limonene, (+)-camphor, terpinene-4-ol, and β-caryophyllene, and decreased the concentration of methyl chavicol. The highest concentration of methyl chavicol was observed in the chemical fertilizer treatment. The 20 and 40 t ha⁻¹ biosolids treatments led to highest yields of eucalyptol, (+)-camphor, terpinene-4-ol, β-caryophyllene, germacrene D, and τ-cadinol. The results demonstrated that conventional fertilizers can increase fresh yield while biological fertilizers positively alter the EO composition, leading to increased crop quality.
Foodborne diseases and antibiotic resistant bacteria have become a serious worldwide public health problem. In this context, this study was carried out to describe the chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils from three Brazilian Ocimum species, since essential oils are considered safe. The essential oils were analyzed by GC-MS and the antimicrobial activities were determined by MIC assays against some pathogens. The essential oils from two samples exhibited effective antimicrobial activity against Bacillus cereus 100-200 μgnmL⁻¹. The concentration of the major compound, linalool (from 24.7% to 60.2%), was not the main feature for the antimicrobial activity. The development of a multivariate statistical method based on O2PLS-DA was carried out for the identification of the most effective combination of constituents to describe the efficiency of O. basilicum essential oils as antimicrobial agents against foodborne pathogens.
The interest in a natural and healthy lifestyle has moved the plant crops under the spotlight. The aim of the work was to test the antioxidant activity of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) extracts obtained by extraction with water (in presence and absence of light), methanol (95%), ethanol (30, 40, 50, 60, 96%), chloroform, dichloromethane and hexane. Fragmentation of plant material was 0.3 and 2 mm and the extraction was performed during 10 and 30 min. The total phenolic content ranged from (5.17 ± 0.15 to 65.25 ± 2.19) mg of gallic acid equivalents per gram of a dry weight of extract, and the content of the total flavonoids from (0.11 ± 0.01 to 40.63 ± 2.14) mg of quercetin per gram of a dry weight of extract. All the extracts showed an antioxidant activity with an IC50 values of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical inhibition in the range from (0.22 ± 0.01 to 20.49 ± 1.54) μg/ml. The evaluation of experimental data for 44 basil extracts was performed by applying hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). It was found that the increased time of extraction, solvent polarity and plant fragmentation increase the quality of the extracts in terms of the content of phenolic components and antioxidant effects. Extracts with the strongest antioxidant capacity were obtained by concentrated ethanol and methanol maceration. The chemometric analysis showed good correlation between the yield and total phenolic composition, and between the flavonoid content and antioxidant activity, predicting thus, basil extract quality.
We have determined the effect of plant maturity on total and individual anthocyanin concentrations, phenolic acid content, and antioxidant capacities in three purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivars. Plant maturity significantly influenced total phenolic content (with values ranging from 3.30 to 20.08 mg/g dry weight, DW) and average concentrations of individual phenolics, including caftaric (0.08–0.85 mg/g DW), chicoric (0.13–3.55 mg/g DW), and rosmarinic (1.31–21.31 mg/g DW) acids. Cultivar and plant maturity significantly affected the total anthocyanin content (2.07–9.72 mg/g DW) and the concentrations of the four most abundant individual anthocyanins. Plant maturity also had a significant effect on measured FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) reducing capacities (3.50–28.73 mmol/100 g DW), and phenolic acid concentrations were found to have an important influence on basil antioxidant properties. Overall, the cultivar and the maturity of basil at the time it is harvested play critical roles in the herb’s phenolic and anthocyanin composition as well as its antioxidant properties.
Ocimum basilicum L. (sweet basil) belongs to family Lamiaceae. The family Lamiaceae comprises the most employed medicinal plants as a worldwide source of spices and also as a consolidated source of extracts. The chemical composition of sweet basil essential oil has been investigated and by now more than 200 chemical components have been reported from many regions of the world. The chemical constituents showed the presence of monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpene, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpene, triterpene, flavanoids, aromatic compounds, etc. The compounds have been reported to exhibit antibacterial and antifungal, antiproliferative/anticancer, antidyspepsia, antigiardial, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiulcer, antiviral, insecticidal and wound-healing activities. They also showed antiwormal response, cardiac stimulant, effects on CNS, hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic effects and inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation. Various parts of the plant of O. basilicum (sweet basil) have been widely used in traditional medicine. Leaves and flowering parts of O. basilicum are traditionally used as antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative, digestive, galactogogue, stomachic and tonic agent. They have also been used as a folk remedy to treat various ailments such as feverish illness, poor digestion, nausea, abdominal cramps, gastro-enteritis, migraine, insomnia, depression, gonorrhea, dysentery and chronic diarrhea exhaustion. Externally, they have been applied for the treatment of acne, loss of smell, insect stings, snake bites and skin infections.
Plants used in folk and traditional medicines have been accepted as therapeutic drug development in modern medicine. SinceOcimum basilicum cv. dark opal has been used in Persian traditional medicine and many Iranian dishes,it was considered important to determine the reductive capacity of the purple basil oils and extracts, as this may indicate their potential as antioxidants. Results indicated that the extracts have more powerful antioxidant activity than the oils.Also,the phytochemical analysis of the extracts has led to the identification of 3 phenolic. Our study, partially validates the traditional use of this medicinal herb as complementary medicine.
Context:
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae), popularly known as basil, is part of a group of medicinal plants widely used in cooking and known for its beneficial health properties, possessing significant antioxidant effects, antinociceptive, and others.
Objective:
The objective of this study is to determine the pharmacological effects produced on the bacterial strains Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa when standard antibiotics and O. basilicum essential oil are combined.
Materials and methods:
The extraction of O. basilicum (leaves) components was done by steam distillation. The Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was calculated using microdilution technique, where the oil concentrations varied from 2 to 1024 μg/mL. The combinations of O. basilicum oil with ciprofloxacin or imipenem were analyzed by the checkerboard method where fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) indices were calculated.
Results:
Ocimum basilicum essential oil, imipenem, and ciprofloxacin showed respective MIC antibacterial activities of 1024, 4, and 2 μg/mL, against S. aureus. In S. aureus, the oil with imipenem association showed synergistic effect (FIC = 0.0625), while the oil with ciprofloxacin showed antagonism (FIC value = 4.25). In P. aeruginosa, the imipenem/oil association showed additive effect for ATCC strains, and synergism for the clinical strain (FIC values = 0.75 and 0.0625). The association of O. basilicum essential oil with ciprofloxacin showed synergism for clinical strains (FIC value = 0.09).
Conclusion:
Ocimum basilicum essential oil associated with existing standard antibiotics may increase their antibacterial activity, resulting in a synergistic activity against bacterial strains of clinical importance. The antibacterial activity of O. basilicum essential oil may be associated with linalool.
Te hydrodistilled essential oil from aerial parts of cultivated Ocimum basilicum L. plants from Northwest Iran was analyzed by gas chromatog-raphy/mass spectrometry. Forty seven components were identifed, comprising 97.9% of total oil. Monoterpenoids (77.8%) prevailed among the essential oil components, followed by the lesser share of sesquiterpenoids (12.8%). Oxygenated monoterpenes (75.3%) were the predominant components of oil with menthone (33.1%), estragol (21.5%), isoneomenthol (7.5%), menthol (6.1%) and pulegone (3.7%) as the main compounds. Limonene (1.5%) was the only highlighted monoterpene hydrocarbon. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (8.8%) were the second subclass of essential oil constituents with trans-caryophyllene (2.2%), germacrene D (1.4%), trans-β-farnesene (1.1%) and α-amorphene (1.1%) as their main ones. α-Cadinol (2.9%) - an oxygenated sesquiterpene - comprised notable amounts in the essential oil. An acetylated compound, namely menthyl acetate (5.6%), showed traceable amounts in the volatile oil profle. Methyl eugenol, a compound with highly appreciated amounts from most previous reports, comprised only one percent of oil. In total, the chemical and percentage composition of oil from cultivated O. basilicum L. from Northwest Iran was characterized as a new menthone/estragole type capable of providing these oxygenated monoter-penes for related food and pharmaceutical industries.
Plants that contain high concentrations of the defense compounds of the phenylpropene class (eugenol, chavicol, and their derivatives) have been recognized since antiquity as important spices for human consumption (e.g. cloves) and have high economic value. Our understanding of the biosynthetic pathway that produces these compounds in the plant, however, has remained incomplete. Several lines of basil (Ocimum basilicum) produce volatile oils that contain essentially only one or two specific phenylpropene compounds. Like other members of the Lamiaceae, basil leaves possess on their surface two types of glandular trichomes, termed peltate and capitate glands. We demonstrate here that the volatile oil constituents eugenol and methylchavicol accumulate, respectively, in the peltate glands of basil lines SW (which produces essentially only eugenol) and EMX-1 (which produces essentially only methylchavicol). Assays for putative enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway leading to these phenylpropenes localized many of the corresponding enzyme activities almost exclusively to the peltate glands in leaves actively producing volatile oil. An analysis of an expressed sequence tag database from leaf peltate glands revealed that known genes for the phenylpropanoid pathway are expressed at very high levels in these structures, accounting for 13% of the total expressed sequence tags. An additional 14% of cDNAs encoded enzymes for the biosynthesis of S-adenosyl-methionine, an important substrate in the synthesis of many phenylpropenes. Thus, the peltate glands of basil appear to be highly specialized structures for the synthesis and storage of phenylpropenes, and serve as an excellent model system to study phenylpropene biosynthesis.
With the increase of microbial diseases and many reports of resistance of microorganisms to antifungal drugs, the importance of studies on bioprospecting of natural products with antimicrobial properties also increases. The aim of this study was to find new antifungal agents among essential oils from five Brazilian Ocimum species: Ocimum americanum, Ocimum basilicum var. purpurascens, O. basilicum var. minimum, Ocimum micranthum and Ocimum selloi. Plant leaves were steam distilled and the obtained essential oils composition was determined by means of GC–MS analysis. The main constituents for O. americanum oil were 1,8-cineole (25.9%) and (Z)-methyl cinnamate (29.4%), for O. basilicum var. purpurascens linalool (41.5%) and α-muurulol (11.8%), for O. basilicum var. minimum linalool (44%) and 1,8-cineole (15.5%), for O. micranthum and eugenol (64.11%) and β-caryophyllene (14.3%) and for O. selloi, linalool (16.8%) and anethole (52.2%). The antifungal activity of essential oils was evaluated against Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, Candida glabrata and Candida krusei by the broth microdilution method. Among the five plants O. micranthum and O. selloi showed the best results, with MIC ranging from 312.5 to 1250 μg mL−1. The Ocimum essential oils, mainly O. micranthum and O. selloi are active in vitro against the Candida species showing to be promising sources for new phytotherapeutic agents to treat mycosis due to the presence of effective antifungal compounds as eugenol and anethole.
Aroma compounds in the extracts of basil leaves (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme leaves (Thymus vulgaris L.) were identified by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The major aroma constituents of basil were 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol (linalool; 3.94 mg/g), 1-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) benzene (estragole; 2.03 mg/g), methyl cinnamate (1.28 mg/g), 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol (eugenol; 0.896 mg/g), and 1,8-cineole (0.288 mg/g). The major aroma constituents of thyme were 2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol (thymol; 8.55 mg/g), 4-isopropyl-2-methylphenol (carvacrol; 0.681 mg/g), linalool (0.471 mg/g), α-terpineol (0.291 mg/g), and 1,8-cineole (0.245 mg/g). Twelve aroma constituents of basil and thyme were examined for their antioxidant activities using the aldehyde/carboxylic acid assay. Eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, and 4-allylphenol showed stronger antioxidant activities than did the other components tested in the assay. They all inhibited the oxidation of hexanal by almost 100% for a period of 30 days at a concentration of 5 μg/ml. Their antioxidant activities were comparable to those of the known antioxidants, α-tocopherol and butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT).
The essential oils composition of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) fruits obtained by hydrodistillation was studied at three stages of maturity by GC–FID and GC–MS. Essential oil yields showed marked increase during maturation process and forty one compounds were identified. Geranyl acetate (46.27%), linalool (10.96%), nerol (1.53%) and neral (1.42%) were the main compounds at the first stage of maturity (immature fruits). At the middle stage, linalool (76.33%), cis-dihydrocarvone (3.21%) and geranyl acetate (2.85%) were reported as the main constituents. Essential oils at the final stage of maturity (mature fruits) consist mainly on linalool (87.54%) and cis-dihydrocarvone (2.36%). Additionally, accumulation of monoterpene alcohols and ketones was observed during maturation process of coriander fruit.
Five clones of Ocimum basilicum hairy roots, A-1 and A-2 (included by Agrobacterium rhizogenes ATCC 15834), and J-1, J-2 and J-3 (induced by A. rhizogenes MAFF 03-01724), grew well in hormone-free Murashige-Skoog, Gamborg B5 and Woody Plant liquid media. In these cultures, a large amount of rosmarinic acid was produced (maximum: 14.1% dry wt, by J-1 in MS medium) together with small amounts of the related phenolics, lithospermic acid (ca 1.70% dry wt) and lithospermic acid B (ca 0.17% dry wt).