Development and Usability Testing of a Virtual Reality Game for Learning Computational Thinking

Abstract

Virtual reality (VR) is an innovative technology that immerses users within its environment, holding significant potential across various sectors, including education. Developing a VR-based application in the form of a game for educational purposes necessitates a usability evaluation. This study aims to develop and evaluate the usability of a VR game, CT Saber, designed explicitly for learning computational thinking (CT). The name CT Saber is inspired by the popular VR game Beat Saber, with 'CT' denoting computational thinking to emphasize the educational focus of the game. The research employed a Design and Development Research (DDR) approach, encompassing four stages: analysis & definition, design, development, and evaluation. To assess the usability of CT Saber, pilot testing was carried out involving 36 participants (24 male, 12 female) of computer science students aged between 19-22 years. The USE Questionnaire framework was used to evaluate usability, consisting of four variables: usefulness, ease of use, ease of learning, and satisfaction. The evaluation revealed that CT Saber is categorized as 'acceptable' from dichotomous and conventional academic grading perspectives. Similarly, a multiple linear regression analysis confirmed that the independent variables (usefulness, ease of use, and ease of learning) together significantly (p < 0.01) influence the dependent variable (satisfaction). However, only usefulness significantly influences satisfaction. Responses to open-ended questions in the questionnaire also indicated predominantly positive feedback from most participants. Consequently, it can be concluded that the CT Saber VR game developed in this study successfully meets the established criteria for usability.

Full text

International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 19
International Journal of Serious Games
ISSN: 2384-8766
https://journal.seriousgamessociety.org/
Article
Development and Usability Testing of a Virtual Reality
Game for Learning Computational Thinking
Sukirman Sukirman1,2, Laili Farhana Md Ibharim1*, Che Soh Said1, Budi Murtiyasa2
1Faculty of Computing and Meta-Technology, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia;
2Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Email: sukirman@ums.ac.id; laili@meta.upsi.edu.my*; chesoh@meta.upsi.edu.my; Budi.Murtiyasa@ums.ac.id
Keywords:
Beat Saber
Computational thinking
CT Saber
Immersive environment
Usability testing
USE Questionnaire
Virtual reality
Received: August 2023
Accepted: August 2024
Published: August 2024
DOI: 10.17083/ijsg.i11v3.670
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) is an innovative technology that immerses users within its
environment, holding significant potential across various sectors, including
education. Developing a VR-based application in the form of a game for
educational purposes necessitates a usability evaluation. This study aims to
develop and evaluate usability of a VR game, CT Saber, designed explicitly
for learning computational thinking (CT). The name CT Saber is inspired by
the popular VR game Beat Saber, with 'CT' denoting computational thinking
to emphasize the educational focus of the game. The research employed a
Design and Development Research (DDR) approach, encompassing four
stages: analysis & definition, design, development, and evaluation. To assess
the usability of CT Saber, pilot testing was carried out involving 36 participants
(24 male, 12 female) of computer science students aged between 19-22 years.
The USE Questionnaire framework was used to evaluate usability, consisting
of four variables: usefulness, ease of use, ease of learning, and satisfaction.
The evaluation revealed that CT Saber is categorized as 'acceptable' from
dichotomous and conventional academic grading perspectives. Similarly, a
multiple linear regression analysis confirmed that the independent variables
(usefulness, ease of use, and ease of learning) together significantly (p < 0.01)
influence the dependent variable (satisfaction). However, only usefulness
significantly influences satisfaction. Responses to open-ended questions in the
questionnaire also indicated predominantly positive feedback from most
participants. Consequently, it can be concluded that the CT Saber VR game
developed in this study successfully meets the established criteria for usability.
1. Introduction
Virtual reality (VR) is a computer technology that allows the simulation of artifacts and real -
world environments into the digital world [1]. VR technology offers unique experiences that
permit users to feel immersed in the simulated world [2]. The immersive experiences created
by VR technologies transport the users to new worlds and make them feel as if they are truly

20 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
present in the virtual environment [3]. Several elements contributing to the experiences are
visual realism, spatial audio, user body tracking, haptic feedback system, natural interaction,
free movement, and social interaction [4], [5], [6], [7], [8]. Visual realism can be generated
through high-resolution displays like realistic lighting, textures, and visual effects to increase
the sense of 3D objects' presence. The sense of touching a virtual object in the digital world
can be provided by haptic feedback like the vibration of VR controllers. Meanwhile, interaction
with multi-users in the VR environment can improve social interaction, like collaboration,
sharing experiences, or even watching virtual live performance concerts [9].
VR technology can be utilized in various interdisciplinary fields like medical training [10],
fire extinguisher training [11], fitness exercises [12], entertainment [13], and gaming [14]. In
gaming, VR games are more effective at generating a state of flow among their players than
non-VR games [15], [16]. Flow is a term used to describe an ideal psychological state where
people are completely absorbed in a task and have high levels of focus, control, and enjoyment
[15], [17]. Flow is also defined as a mental condition in which a person is completely absorbed
in an activity with high enthusiasm and satisfaction [18],[19]. Although the terms flow and
immersion frequently appear together in discussions of VR experiences, both are distinct. Flow
is a psychological state characterized by complete absorption and focus in an activity, typically
requiring a balance between the perceived challenges and the individual's skills [20].
Meanwhile, immersion refers to the sensory and perceptual envelopment achieved through VR
technology, facilitating a sense of presence within a virtual environment [21]. The flow is
obtained as the result of optimal user experience from enjoyment and effortless attention, while
immersion is typically described as the objective and quantifiable attributes of a mediated
environment. Compared to the computer desktop, VR produces a better game experience of
flow and immersion [22].
One of the most popular VR games that make players flow and immerse is Beat Saber, a
rhythm game that requires players to slash the beats which perfectly fit into the precisely
handcrafted music provided. Provided features in this game are: (a) music rhythm matches to
the slashing of lightsabers; (b) music and levels are drawn precisely by hand to improve the
music experience; (c) support multiplayer; (d) easy to learn; and (e) support physical exercise
while dancing and slashing the beats. The game was initially developed by a game company
studio, Beat Games, then acquired by Facebook and integrated into Oculus Studio in 2019 [23].
According to the official website (https://beatsaber.com), this game achieved many awards,
such as Best VR/AR Game 2019, best VR Game 2018, and immersive reality game of the Year
2018. As previously mentioned, Beat Saber employs music as the core of gameplay by letting
the beat or rhythm combined with visual effects lead the actions players have to perform.
Players have to slash the spawned objects by beating the sabers, and sometimes on several
levels, they have to avoid obstacles or spawned objects that should not be slashed by physically
moving the body or limbs. Therefore, the game forces the players to do physical activities,
where the combination of both music and physical actions increases the interest and
concentration of players, contributing to the flow or immersion [24].
VR has transcended beyond entertainment and gaming, emerging as a transformative
technology across diverse domains. In education, VR is a powerful tool due to its ability to
create immersive learning environments that facilitate active learning and even enhance
learners' concentration through visualization and interaction [25], [26]. For instance, in medical
training, VR allows students to perform virtual surgeries [27], offering a risk-free platform to
practice and refine their skills before operating on actual patients. Similarly, in history
education [28], VR can transport students back in time, providing a visceral experience of
historical events that traditional textbooks cannot offer. The inherent interactivity and
immersive nature of VR cater to various learning styles, significantly enhancing engagement
and retention of information. Moreover, it aligns with the constructivist learning theory [29],
which posits that learners construct knowledge best through experiences in realistic, context -

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 21
rich environments. Therefore, VR's application in education is not merely fitting but also has
the potential to revolutionize traditional pedagogical approaches by offering unparalleled
experiential learning opportunities that are both scalable and customizable to individual learner
needs.
Expanding on the transformative impact of VR technologies in educational frameworks, VR
provides learners with a more immersive and interactive learning experience [30]. Even [31]
stated that VR is one learning aid for the 21st century that allows users to retain more
information and better apply what they have learned after using it. Therefore, VR will also
become very suitable when used for learning 21st-century skills. One of the 21st-century skills
that is becoming a concern today is computational thinking (CT) [32], [33]. Research trends on
CT have also increased in recent decades [34], [35].
CT promotes a thinking way inspired by computer science (CS) problem-solving styles. CT
is defined as thought processes involved in formulating problems and their solutions that are
represented in a practical form to be tackled by an information-processing agent [36]. Even
[37] stated that CT is not only for CS pupils but also a fundamental ability that should be
understood by everyone outside CS learners, like reading, writing, and arithmetic. Children
who learn CT may benefit from commonly applied CS principles, concepts, and approaches .
Many studies also reported that infusing CT into the education curricula has been beneficial
for students' cognitive and non-cognitive learning processes [38], [39], [40]. In the CS scope,
CT is regarded as the core of topics like computing, programming, and problem-solving [33].
However, CT is not only about CS but also a combination of thinking abilities essential for
solving complex problems, including theoretical or mathematical thinking, engineering
thinking, and scientific thinking [41].
Inspired by one of the most successful VR games, Beat Saber, this study seeks to develop a
VR game with similar mechanics in several cases but with different goals and features that may
be used for learning CT, named CT Saber. The acronym CT on the CT Saber comes from
computational thinking. Research on the usage of VR technology for learning CT still needs to
be widely conducted, whereas research trends on CT show an increase [35] [34]. Recently, one
research about learning CT using VR was conducted by [42], but the main focus of this study
was to examine the relationship among (1) game elements like challenge, goal clarity, and
feedback as a pedagogical approach; (2) VR features like immersion and interaction; and (3)
perceived cognition of learners. They employed design science research (DSR) methodology
as the approach and used the Unity game engine as the tool to develop the VR game. Three
kinds of mini-games as the learning approach provided in the VR game apps are (1) River
Crossing, (2) Mount Patti Treasure Hunt, and (3) Tower of Hanoi. However, the device used
to deploy the game was VR Google Cardboard, a low-end VR technology [43].
One critical aspect to consider in the development of the VR game CT Saber is its usability
and ability to fulfill users' requirements. Thus, evaluating the game to ascertain its usability
and appropriateness for educational purposes becomes imperative [44]. Usability assessments
aim to collect data on the system's usability by eliciting user feedback through various methods,
such as field observations, questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, and standardized usability
questionnaires. These diverse techniques for usability evaluation share the common goal of
capturing users' perceptions regarding the interface to ultimately gauge user satisfaction.
The main objective of this research is to evaluate the usability of the developed VR game,
CT Saber, for learning CT. The developed game application is deployed in a VR device with
high-end technology, Oculus Quest 2, a head-mounted display (HMD) VR device with two
external controllers that make it more interactive and immersive[45]. The game design and
mechanics are also distinct from previous studies but have concepts similar to those of the most
successful VR games, Beat Saber. Several features that make users learn CT by action were
added, but they are also easy to play. It is important to note that while this study lays the
groundwork for understanding how the game might facilitate learning, it does not directly

22 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
measure the learning outcomes. Instead, it seeks to establish whether the game's design and
interactive features meet the usability criteria necessary for an effective learning tool in the
context of CT learning.
2. Methods and Material
This study aims to evaluate the usability of the developed VR game application, CT saber. The
method used to reach the objectives is design and development research (DDR). DDR is
described as the systematic study of design, development, and evaluation to establish an
empirical foundation for creating instructional and non-instructional products and tools and
new or improved models that govern their development [46], [47]. This method encompasses
a broad spectrum of activities and interests that can be either: (1) the study of process and
impact of specific design and development efforts or (2) the study of design and development
process as a whole or particular process components [48]. The first type relates to the studies
of the design and development of products and tools, while the second focuses on the design
and development of models and processes rather than demonstration. This study employs the
first one since the VR game product is developed as a learning tool. Figure 1 depicts the detailed
stages of this study, consisting of analysis & definition, design, development, and evaluation.
The approach model is developed based on previous research [49], [50].
2.1 Research Stages
2.1.1 Analysis & Define
The first stage is analysis, examination, and digging for information related to VR application
developments. Once the analysis was completed, we decided and defined the requirements for
the research. We analyzed several things: previous scientific research, VR devices, online
courses, game engines, relevant games, and CT competitions like the Bebras challenge.
Analyzing previous scientific research was needed since it can provide a baseline for
comparison so that research gaps and novelty can be identified. Previous research provides a
basis for knowledge and insights on this conducted research. The existing body of knowledge
and other research can be understood by performing this. Several previous researches that we
analyzed were about VR games for learning CT, Beat Saber, and related, such as [14], [15],
[17], [23], [42], [51].
Afterward, we analyzed potential VR devices to understand their performances,
requirements, and limitations. The VR devices considered in our analysis included the Meta
Quest 2 (formerly Oculus Quest 2), HTC Vive, and PlayStation VR. We ultimately selected the
Meta Quest 2 due to its high-end performance features, affordability, and wide availability of
documentation and tutorials. This device was chosen since it provides features that contribute
to the immersive experience, availability of documentation, and tutorials on the online course
platforms.
Figure 1. Research stages employed in this study

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 23
After defining the device, the next step was browsing tutorials on the online course
platforms to boost the development. We selected Udemy as the online learning platform that
offers various courses on various subjects, including programming, web development,
photography, design, and VR game development. Before defining the most suitable course, we
analyzed several potential courses by looking at the content material lists, number of students
who joined, ratings, and comments from the other users. We chose the course with a rating of
more than 4.3, which has a good reputation. The selected course entitled “VR Development
Fundamentals With Oculus Quest 2 And Unity” was created by Tevfik Ufuk DEMİRBAŞ.
While browsing courses, we also analyzed the game engines used in the available courses.
We eliminated the courses that did not use the Unity game engine. This is because, in addition
to the many tutorials and documentation available on the internet, we also have fundamental
knowledge of this game engine. Concurrently, an analysis of relevant games on the Oculus
Quest app store was also carried out, such as the Enhance VR, and Beat Saber games. One of
the criteria is the game is installed on the Oculus platform. We were amazed by one of the
popular games built into the Oculus Quest 2 platform, Beat Saber. Inspired by this game, an
idea emerged to develop a similar VR game that is not only for entertainment but also for
learning CT. To develop a VR game with content for learning CT, we analyzed many tasks and
questions contested in the Bebras Challenge. This international CT competition aims to
promote and enhance the problem-solving skills of students [52]. Then, choose several
potential learning themes from the challenge before deciding on the most suitable one. We
chose the theme based on the possibility that it can be integrated and combined with Beat
Saber’s gameplay. We decided that the learning theme included in the game for learning CT
was about finding the best route in a maze space. This theme is similar to the shortest path
algorithm so that the users can learn CT concepts with it.
2.1.2 Design
The second stage is design, activities to devise the game core such as mechanics, game systems,
and gameplay. Designing game mechanics refers to conceptualizing, creating, and refining the
rules, systems, and interactions. The design of mechanics is like Beat Saber, the player slashes
the flying virtual cube toward them, but it is different. If gameplay in Beat Saber slashes the
cube as much as possible to get the best score, the designed mechanics in this study are not
only to slash a cube, but they have to define the best route by picking out the suitable arrow
attached. More details about game mechanics and systems are explained in a separate sub-
section.
Other activities in this stage are designing the strategies to test and evaluate the game and
the instruments used for evaluation. The design for testing is essential to help detect and prevent
bugs early before continuing to the next steps. It also improves the overall quality of the
application and may enhance the user experience in learning CT by playing the game. For
testing, we recruited volunteers from university students and designed the testing by allowing
them to play the developed game application. Afterward, they fill out the questionnaires
distributed to them. The designed questionnaires in this study were adapted from USE
questionnaires that contain several statements [44], [53].
2.1.3 Development
The development stage is the actual creation of the game, including prototyping, integrating
assets into the final product, and then developing instruments for evaluation. Prototyping refers
to making a draft version or early shape that will be the final product of the VR game. It was
based on the analysis and design stages conducted previously. We explored the ideas and
features embedded into the application by coding, testing, and revising before deploying a
project from Unity to the actual device, Oculus Quest 2. We also evaluated how well the coding
is running when deployed to the device and whether it has been appropriate to the desire or

24 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
needs improvement. Testing was carried out on the existing or additional features, whether
acceptable or necessary to refine.
Before developing the prototype, we learned the basics of VR development from the online
learning course bought from Udemy. It was also not only watching the videos in the course but
also trying to comprehend new knowledge and information and then trying to code the scripts.
Sometimes, it is even required to play and replay the course again to explore and conceive more
details of the material contents. Although the course duration is short, the actual activities for
it can be longer than the duration.
Prototyping and asset integration are two complementary activities. Assets were integrated
into the prototype when adding new features, improving, or revising it. The assets are obtained
from Unity Assets Store, for example, Volumetric Lines, a free GPU-based volumetric line
renderer. It was used to create a lightsaber-like sword in a Star Wars movie and implemented
as the lightsaber in the developed VR game. The assets are also created manually from the
Unity editor and acquired from the online course provided by the tutor, with modifications as
needed.
Both prototyping and asset integration were iteratively conducted until the final product was
achieved. Hence, this stage is the longest compared to all the other stages conducted in this
study. It is because this step involves not only learning from the course but also demonstrating
the programming skills needed to develop a prototype into the final product that will be used
for experiments with real users. Therefore, this step must be completed since the experiment
can only be conducted after the final product of the VR game is established.
2.1.4 Evaluation
Evaluation is the final stage in this study to assess the performance and its quality to determine
the strengths, weaknesses, and overall suitability to achieve the objectives. To evaluate the VR
game that has been developed, we employed pilot testing. It involved real users as participants
by allowing them to play the game. Afterwards, they were asked to provide feedback through
a questionnaire adapted from the USE questionnaire to measure the usability of the developed
VR game. They can also give comments and suggestions in the last section of the provided
questionnaire based on their experiences while playing the game. Their feedback is essential
since it can improve the quality and help get better results when conducting experiments.
2.2 Game Mechanics
Game mechanics are systems of interaction between a player and the game. Mechanics impact
the play experience or, in other words: what happens during play that affects the player [54].
They define the actions players can take, the consequences of those actions, and the objectives
players are attempting to attain. The mechanics of the VR game CT Saber in this study can be
seen in Table 1.
When the game starts, and the player enters the arena, the system creates a map in front of
the player. The map is represented in 8 x 5 tiles containing obstacles, rewards, and start and
finish symbols. The first tile is located in the bottom left corner, arranged to the right by 8;
then the 9th tile is located above the first tile, arranged to the right until the 16th tile, and so on
until the 40th tile is located in the top right corner. Obstacles are generated in random map
locations, and each level has different positions. Obstacles are depicted in the shape of cactuses
and rocks. The game is over when the created route crosses an obstacle. The route can be
created by slashing a cube having an arrow direction. The cubes and their direction are
generated randomly by the system, then move toward the player so that they can be slashed.
The direction defines where the route will be created from start to finish positions.

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 25
Table 1. Game mechanics of VR game CT Saber
Game Mechanics
More Explanation
The system creates a map
The game system creates a map that contains obstacles, a heart, start, and finish
positions.
System generates cubes
The system generates cubes randomly that contains arrow with random direction.
The player makes a route
The game system allows players to make a route from start to finish position using an
arrow stuck in a cube.
The player slashes a cube
Cubes that are randomly generated by the system can be slashed by players using
lightsabers.
Scoring system
Players get a point when slashing a cube. The point system is designed by dividing the
maximum score 100 with step total numbers from start and finish positions.
Double score system
Players get a double point when the route created passes through a heart symbol.
Game accomplished
The game is accomplished when a player makes a route from start to finish, then
continues to the next level.
Leveling system
The game consists of six levels with different maps and obstacles on each level.
Timer system
The timer is set based on the audio clip length for the back sound.
Game over
The game is over in two conditions, time is over, or the route created by the player is
crossing an obstacle.
The game is over when the direction crosses an obstacle, and the player has to replay until
accomplished to continue to the next level. The game is accomplished when the map's route is
created from start to finish positions. The player gets a point by slashing a cube and doubling
if hitting a heart symbol. The point is obtained when the slashing amount is no more than the
total steps of the best route. For example, when the best route can be reached in 7 steps, but the
player steps more than seven means the point is no point and even minus. Therefore, a player
has to notice their steps and think about avoiding them and getting the best score.
2.3 Participants
Participants involved in this pilot testing were 36 (24 males, 12 females) undergraduate
computer science students aged between 19 and 22. They were in the second semester until the
8th semester, and they all learned programming starting from the first semester since it is a
compulsory subject. They were surveyed to see if they had ever learned about CT and had
experience using VR devices or something related. Related to learning CT, 26 students have
ever learned CT (72%), while 10 students have never (28%). Related to experience using VR
devices or related, 21 students have ever used a VR device or related (58%), while 15 students
have never used it (42%). It means that most students have skills in operating VR devices, so
their experience is beneficial to improving the quality. The participants are recruited
voluntarily, and they can leave anytime if they feel uncomfortable with the research activities.
They were explained about the research and purposes, why they were selected, the scope of
participation, and their rights. After receiving and understanding all the information, they
signed the consent form by selecting the agree or disagree options in the online recruitment
form.
2.4 Testing Procedure
Participants gathered in a laboratory as scheduled to conduct the pilot testing and collect data
from their feedback. Generally, the procedure for testing is depicted in Figure 2. Firstly,
participants were informed about the general information of the research, objectives, testing
stages and duration, and the consent form. Afterwards, the CT concepts and operational

26 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
definitions were explained using a slideshow presentation completed with a video. The
explanation contains an example of a case study about CT implementation in daily activities
and core CT skills, such as decomposition, pattern recognition, abstraction, and algorithm
design [55]. The emphasis is on these four CT skills: decomposition, pattern recognition,
abstraction, and algorithm design [35], [55]. To support it, we informed the participants about
how the developed VR game can be used for learning CT. Therefore, it will give them insights
into the CT concepts and the skills integrated into the VR game, which enable them to answer
questionnaire questions appropriately. Before continuing to the next step, they were confirmed
if they understood what we had explained or needed to repeat.
The subsequent explanation is about the VR device, Oculus Quest 2, and how to use it.
Afterwards, explain the game mechanics of CT Saber, covering the game goals, rules,
challenges, how to play, and the possible experiences that will be obtained. Then, we explained
the questionnaire with all the section parts, objectives, and how to fill it out. Before playing
the game, they were confirmed to clarify that they understood. Participants were allowed to
play CT Saber for 10-15 minutes each. We used 3 VR devices of Oculus Quest 2, and one of
them was cast on the LCD projector. Hence, their activities in the VR game environment can
be monitored, and we can give guidance when they face difficulties in operating the device and
the game. We can also look at their actions while playing the game to inspect their behavior.
Additionally, we can also see their game achievements to ensure that they accomplished the
game goals. Lastly, they fill out the questionnaire to gather feedback after playing the game.
Each participant needs at most 10 minutes to finish the distributed questionnaire.
Figure 2. Testing procedure to the real users
2.5 Material Instruments
The instrument used in this pilot study is the USE questionnaire [44], [53], divided into three
independent variables (usefulness, ease of use, and ease of learning) and one dependent
variable (satisfaction), as depicted in Figure 3. It is strategically chosen to assess the usability
of CT Saber for several reasons. First, its established validity and reliability make it a robust
tool for evaluating key aspects of usability, such as ease of use, satisfaction, and learnability,
which are critical for the initial assessment of educational VR games. Second, while
acknowledging the significance of broader constructs like user experience, playing experience,
flow, and immersion in the context of VR for education, the study aimed to prioritize the
foundational aspect of usability. This focus was chosen due to the pilot nature of the study and
the necessity to establish a baseline understanding of the game's practical application in
educational settings. Future research is encouraged to incorporate additional validated
questionnaires that comprehensively assess these broader constructs, to provide a more holistic
evaluation of the educational VR game's effectiveness.
Before being used to collect data, the questionnaire is validated by three experts with
backgrounds in CT knowledge, learning technology, and English. All the experts have

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 27
experience of more than five years in their respective areas. Experts with a CT background
assessed questions related to CT and the elements, while experts with a background in learning
technology assessed the questions related to VR technology for learning.
Meanwhile, English expert assessed the questions adapted from the original version and the
translation since the involved participants were using Bahasa Indonesia. All the three experts
confirmed that the developed instruments were suitable for the study. However, they have
several suggestions related to references, terms or phrases, and abbreviations in the
questionnaire. The suggestions are more to the technical aspects of writing.
Figure 3. Conceptual framework of USE questionnaire [53], [56]
The questionnaire consists of three parts, they are (1) questions about brief identity like
name, age, gender, and their experiences in learning CT, programming, and using VR devices;
(2) 31 question items to measure usability that adapted from the USE questionnaire; and (3)
one closed-ended question to find out whether participants feel dizzy and two open-ended
questions to discover the experiences and comments after playing the VR game. The USE
questionnaire to evaluate CT Saber is presented in Table 2. The options consist of a 4-point
Likert scale that: 1 states "strongly disagree", 2 states "disagree", 3 states "agree", and 4 states
"strongly agree". All the questions were constructed in positive wording format.
Table 2. Question lists adapted from the USE questionnaire [53].
Code
Statements
Code
Statements
Usefulness
U1
"CT Saber" helps me be more effective to foster
CT skills
U5
"CT Saber" makes learning CT easier to get
done
U2
“CT Saber" helps me be more productive to
foster CT skills
U6
"CT Saber" saves me time when I play it to
foster CT skills
U3
“CT Saber" is useful to foster CT skills
U7
"CT Saber" meets my needs to foster CT skills
U4
“CT Saber" gives me flexible control while
playing it to learn CT
U8
"CT Saber" does everything I would expect it to
do to foster CT skills
Ease of use
EOU1
"CT Saber" is easy to play
EOU7
I can play "CT Saber" without written
instructions
EOU2
"CT Saber" is simple to play
EOU8
I don't notice any inconsistencies as I play "CT
Saber"
EOU3
"CT Saber" is user friendly
EOU9
I can recover from mistakes quickly
EOU4
Learning CT with "CT Saber" does not require a
lot of steps to accomplish
EOU10
I can recover from mistakes easily
EOU5
"CT Saber" is flexible to play
EOU11
I can play "CT Saber" successfully every time
EOU6
Playing "CT Saber" is effortless

28 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
Code
Statements
Code
Statements
Ease of learning
EOL
I learned to play "CT Saber" quickly
EOL3
"CT Saber" is easy to learn to play
EOL2
I easily remember how to play "CT Saber"
EOL4
I quickly became skillful playing "CT Saber"
Satisfaction
S1
I am satisfied playing "CT Saber"
S5
"CT Saber" is wonderful
S2
I would recommend "CT Saber" to my friend
S6
I feel I need to have "CT Saber" for my own
S3
"CT Saber" is fun to play
S7
This VR game "CT Saber" is pleasant to play
S4
"CT Saber" works the way I want it to function
S8
Both occasional and regular users would like
"CT Saber"
3. Final Product
The VR game name in this study is CT Saber, a game for learning CT. It was developed using
the game engine Unity with editor version 2020.2.7f1. The software development kit (SDK)
used was Oculus Integration version 34.0, released in November 2021, then updated regularly
when the notification came up. The last update used before deploying to the actual device of
Oculus Quest 2 was version 40.0, released in May 2022. The SDK and its editor are running
on MacOS High Sierra version 10.13.6.
The game mechanics resemble the Beat Saber, slashing a cube that flies toward a player.
However, the players of CT Saber are not only just slashing a cube, but also thinking about the
best path that should be taken. The mission is to make the best route from start position to
finish and avoid obstacles that appear on the map.
The game has two main scenes: the main menu and the arena. Figure 4(a) depicts the main
menu scene when the CT Saber game is run. It consists of three menus; they are “how to”,
“play”, and “info”. When the “how to” menu is selected, the system shows information about
how to play the game, quests and obstacles, and game levels, as seen in Figure 4(b). If the
player presses the “info” menu, the system shows information about what they will learn with
this game and general information about CT concepts, as depicted in Figure 5 (a). Testing
results of the menu scene conducted by all participants showed that all features were running
well.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. (a) Main menu of the game, (b) Screen in “ How to” menu.

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 29
The second scene is the game arena. Figure 5 (b) displays the arena when the player enters
it and selected the “Play” button. The player will see a map in front and a scoreboard on the
side. The map is provided in the grid tiles hanging above the floor with white colors. Each tile
can randomly emerge icons: cactuses and rocks to indicate obstacles, start and finish flag s to
indicate the route's beginning and last positions and a heart icon to make a double score. The
start icon is located at the top two grids, and the finish icon is located at the bottom two grids.
The icon positions of start, finish, and heart on the map are always generated differently in
each game and level. Meanwhile, the obstacle icons have constant locations on each level, but
each level has a different map, and this game has six levels. Therefore, every single player will
have different start and finish positions that determine the route that will be made. These are
other features available in the game, and each player undergoes different experiences.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. (a) Screen in Info menu, (b) Game arena for playing the game.
Before the player starts to play, a countdown is run from number 3 to number 1 to indicate
that the game will be started soon. Hence, the player can prepare himself, thinking and planning
the route that will be made. As mentioned, the mission is to define the best route from the start
position lead to the finish. The route can be constructed by slashing a cube that has arrow
direction with lightsabers. The challenge is that players must think about creating the best route
and avoiding obstacles. Even they will also be thinking about how to get a heart icon to double
the score displayed on the left side of the map. They must also notice the timer since the game
will be over if the time is up and the route is not created. These are other features provided in
the developed VR game.
The game system shows a pop-up menu when the player accomplishes the mission, as seen
in Figure 6 (b). The pop-up menu contains a recapitulation of the obtained score at this level,
the number of steps, the best route amount, and the highest score that has ever been obtained.
A smile icon is displayed to indicate happiness when completing the game. Meanwhile, a sad
icon is displayed if the player fails to accomplish a mission. The pop-up menu also contains
three active buttons; they are (1) the Main menu button for going back to the main menu, (2)
the Replay button to replay the game at the same level, and (3) the Next button to continue the
next level with different obstacles and map. However, if the players fail to accomplish the
mission, the Next button will not appear. It indicates that the player should complete the
challenge at this level before continuing to the next level. These are other available features in
this developed game. Based on the testing results conducted by the participants, these features
were also running well.

30 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. (a) A route created by the player by slashing the flying cube, (b) Game accomplished.
Among the six levels available in the game, two quizzes are adapted from Bebras Challenge.
They can be met in level 2 and level 4 after accomplishing the game. The challenge is used to
measure the CT skills of the players. Figure 7 (a) shows a challenge containing a description,
clues, questions, and options the player can choose. Once the player selects the option, the
submit button can be pressed to answer the challenge. The game system will confirm the answer
by showing a pop-up menu before the answer is really sent. Therefore, the player can check it
back or continue the submission. These are other features available in this CT Saber. All the
features were tested by the participants while conducting the pilot testing. Figure 7 (b) shows
a participant who is playing the CT Saber using Oculus Quest 2 equipped with two controllers.
The game environment is cast to a projector screen so others outside the environment can see
the player's activities.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. (a) Quiz adapted from Bebras Challenge, (b) The participant playing CT Saber.
Generally, the game features for testing can be summarized into 15 parts and categorized
into three scenes, as shown in Table 3. Among the 3 VR devices all 36 participants were using,

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 31
all the available features successfully ran when the action was triggered. Therefore, feedback
and participant responses can be collected using the questionnaire that has been developed.
Table 3. Test results among 3 VR devices used by 36 participants
No.
Scenes
Game features
Results
Devices
Participants
1
Opening
Warning pop up menu
3/3
36/36
2
Main menu
How to menu
3/3
36/36
3
Info menu
3/3
36/36
4
Play menu
3/3
36/36
5
Game arena
Creating a grid map
3/3
36/36
6
Making a random obstacles and heart icon in the grid map
3/3
36/36
7
Creating a scoreboard to display information of scores and heart
icons obtained
3/3
36/36
8
Running countdown from number 3 to 1 before game is started
3/3
36/36
9
Generating cubes with random arrow direction
3/3
36/36
10
Creating a direction in the grid map based on the arrow in the cube
slashed by the player
3/3
36/36
11
Adding a score when the cube is slashed and timer is not over
3/3
36/36
12
Giving a double score when the player hitting a heart icon
3/3
36/36
13
Running game over when the player is slashing an obstacle
3/3
36/36
14
Showing up recap when the game is over or accomplished
3/3
36/36
15
Continue to the next level when the game is accomplished
3/3
36/36
4. Results
To evaluate the usability of the developed VR game, a pilot testing was conducted involving
36 computer science students as the participants. They were asked to play the CT Saber game
to test all of the functionality and features. They were allowed to explore all of the scenes
provided in the game, starting from the warning menu, entering the main menu, and playing
the actual game in the scene arena. The warning menu appears firstly to inform the users about
potential adverse effects while playing the game, namely motion sickness or dizziness. They
can report when they undergo it, stop playing, and quit the game to avoid the worst impact.
The good thing is, there is no participant who stop to play and leave the experiment.
All the participants completed all levels provided in the game, which means that the game
and its environment are safe, and the experiment can be carried out with more participants.
However, one participant stated that he felt little dizzy when filling out the questionnaire
distributed in the last section, even though his dizziness did not interfere with the game he was
playing.
4.1 Reliability and Validity Testing
The collected data is analyzed using SPSS Statistics software version 23. Figure 8 shows the
reliability testing and indicates a robust internal consistency across the measures of the USE
questionnaire, which encompasses four dimensions: Usefulness (U), Ease of Use (EOU), Ease

32 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
of Learning (EOL), and Satisfaction (S). Each item within these dimensions, coded as U1, U2,
..., EOU1, EOU2, ..., EOL1, EOL2, ..., S1, S2, ..., was subjected to Pearson correlation to assess
inter-item consistency. The results show high correlation coefficients, well above the critical
value of 0.329 for a significance level of 0.05, suggesting that the items are coherent and
reliably measure the constructs of interest. For instance, items within the Usefulness construct
(U1-U8) are correlated to ensure that they collectively represent the construct, with similar
processes applied to the EOU, EOL, and Satisfaction constructs. Specifically, the Satisfaction
items (S1-S8) were correlated with the Satisfaction construct, affirming that participants'
responses consistently reflected their satisfaction with the VR learning game. These high
coefficients thus confirm the questionnaire’s reliability in capturing users’ perceptions of the
usability aspects of the VR learning environment, underscoring the instrument's validity for
further analysis of user satisfaction in the context of VR for educational purposes.
Figure 8. Validity testing results
Table 4 shows the reliability test results of all variables based on the framework depicted in
Figure 3. It can be seen that all of the construct items (usefulness, ease of use, ease of learning,
and satisfaction) are reliable based on Cronbach’s alpha score, which is higher than 0.7 [44],
[57]. Even, the reliability test score of all variables is more than 0.90 which refers to the perfect
reliability. Therefore, it can be concluded that all the construct variables are acceptable.
Table 4. Reliability test results
No.
Variables
Cronbach’s alpha
N of Items
1
Usefulness
0.930
8
2
Ease of Use
0.931
11
3
Ease of Learning
0.915
4
4
Satisfaction
0.900
8
4.2 Usability Measurement Score
One way to describe the result of usability measurement is by the mean score of each variable
used [56], [58]. Table 5 provides the mean score of each variable: usefulness, ease of use, ease
of learning, and satisfaction, namely 3.20, 3.20, 3.37, and 3.14, respectively, on a four-point
Likert scale. The classification of mean scores into acceptable or unacceptable categories
follows a dichotomous approach, reflecting the directionality of participants' responses. Scores
that lean towards the higher end of the Likert scale, specifically 'agree' (3) or 'strongly agree'
(4), indicate a favorable evaluation of the VR system's aspects and are thus deemed acceptable.
Conversely, lower scores representing 'disagree' (2) or 'strongly disagree' (1) suggest that the
system does not meet user expectations, categorizing the evaluation as unacceptable. This
binary interpretation, as applied by [59], streamlines the Likert scale into a 'binomial data'

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 33
format by classifying scores into acceptance or rejection categories based on participant
consensus. In this vein, our study's Likert-derived mean scores for 'Usefulness', 'Ease of Use',
'Ease of Learning', and 'Satisfaction' correspond to the percentages of 80.12, 79.92, 84.20, and
78.56, respectively, on a standardized 0-100 scale. According to the threshold defined by [60],
a score above 50 is considered satisfactory; thus, our findings, which exceed this benchmark,
affirm the system’s usability across all measured dimensions.
Table 5. Mean score and 0-100 score
No.
Variables
Mean score
0-100 score
1
Usefulness
3.20
80.12
2
Ease of Use
3.20
79.92
3
Ease of Learning
3.37
84.20
4
Satisfaction
3.14
78.56
4.3 Multiple Linear Regression
Analysis of the relationship between two or more independent variables and a single dependent
variable, as depicted in Figure 3, was carried out using multiple linear regression testing. This
model should meet normality assumptions and be free from classical multicollinearity,
heteroscedasticity, and autocorrelation assumptions. Figure 9 (a) depicts the results of the
normality test to show the data distribution. It can be seen that the points of the data follow a
straight line, so it indicates that the residual is a normal distribution. Multicollinearity test
results are shown in Table 6. Multicollinearity is not found when the tolerance data of each
independent variable is more significant than 0.1 and the variable inflation factor (VIF) is
below 10. It can be shown that the tolerance score of all independent variables is more
significant than 0.1, and the VIF score is below 10. Therefore, all independent variables are
free of multicollinearity, or no correlation exists among each variable.
Figure 9 (b) shows the scatterplot of residual data from the heteroscedasticity test. It can be
noticed that the residuals have no specific pattern and are randomly scattered above and below
0 on the y-axis. The Breusch-Pagan test was conducted to confirm it, and the results are
provided in Table 6, column ‘Breusch-Pagan’s Sig.’. All the scores of Breusch-Pagan’s Sig.
are more than 0.05 (p >0.05). Therefore, it can be stated that there is no heteroscedasticity in
the regression model, and it meets the criteria of the classical assumption test.
(a)
(b)
Figure 9. (a) Normality test data plot, (b) Heteroscedasticity test scatterplot.

34 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
Multiple linear regression tests can be performed once the normality test and classical
assumptions are met. Table 6 displays the test results of multiple linear regression, which show
the Sig. value of each variable, namely usefulness (p = 0.001), ease of use (p = 0.190), and ease
of learning (p = 0.371). The detailed analysis of the coefficients clearly shows that usefulness
presents as the only significant influence on satisfaction. The standardized coefficients, or Beta
values, highlight the relative strength of each predictor in the model, with usefulness exhibiting
the strongest relationship with Satisfaction (Beta = 0.499). Based on the F test shown in Table
7, it can be stated that together, the three independent variables (usefulness, ease of use, and
ease of learning) significantly influence the dependent variable (satisfaction) due to the Sig.
value being less than 0.05 (p < 0.05).
Table 6. Test results of multicollinearity and multiple linear regression.
Coefficientsa
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t
Breusch-
Pagan’s
Sig.
Collinearity
Statistics
B
Std. Error
Beta
Sig.
Tolerance
VIF
1
(Constant)
5.361
3.045
1.761
.088
.381
Usefulness
.434
.123
.499
3.520
.001
.656
.645
1.550
Ease of Use
.159
.119
.252
1.338
.190
.681
.366
2.733
Ease of
Learning
.227
.250
.147
.907
.371
.864
.491
2.035
a. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction
Table 7. Results of F test.
ANOVAa
Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
1
Regression
365.932
3
121.977
17.433
.000b
Residual
132.938
19
6.997
Total
498.870
22
a. Dependent Variable: Satisfaction
b. Predictors: (Constant), Ease of Learning, Usefulness, Ease of Use
4.4 Open-ended Feedback of Participants
In the last section of the questionnaire, participants were prompted with open -ended questions
to elicit user feedback regarding their engagement with the CT Saber game. These questions
were: "Describe a unique (interesting) experience you had while playing the CT Saber game"
and "Provide comments regarding the activities of playing & learning CT that you did through
the CT Saber game". This qualitative approach allowed participants to express their
perspectives and insights, offering a nuanced understanding of the game’s impact on learning
computational thinking. These open-ended questions are instrumental in capturing the richness
of the user experience, going beyond quantitative metrics to reveal personal narratives and
subjective responses that could offer valuable directions for future refinements of the
educational tool. Table 8 shows several experiences and comments written by the participants.
Data gathered from participants indicates that the use of the VR game, specifically CT
Saber, provides a distinctive and engaging experience that not only fosters the development of
CT but also presents an interactive and enjoyable way of learning. Many participants
highlighted the game's realism, although some experienced challenges with visual clarity,
potentially due to technical issues or limitations of the VR device.
The game's use of a sword to navigate mathematical challenges and solve problems within
a dynamic environment illustrates how gameplay elements can be integrated into learning
activities. These challenges are designed to reflect questions found in standard tests like UTBK,
requiring critical thinking and problem-solving strategies from the players. A significant aspect

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 35
of this game is its ability to immerse players in a deep thinking process, often necessitating
time to contemplate and arrive at the correct solution.
Table 8. Experiences and comments written by the participants
No.
Question No. 1: Describe a unique
(interesting) experience you had while
playing the CT Saber game
Question No. 2: Provide comments regarding the activities
of playing & learning CT that you did through the CT Saber
game
1
The game looks realistic, although the display
is a bit blurry
Learning is solving problems, such as in the UTBK test, there
are questions that take a long time to think about the answer.
For games, you can solve the fastest way to the finish
2
I feel that I am playing while learning in a
more real way
CT saber is a good solution to foster computational thinking in
lay people
3
A unique experience in the form of playing
with swords to complete a step to the finish
line. After completing this there is also a
challenge that is similar but more
mathematical
In terms of activity, it may be similar to Beat Saber in its use,
where it is more flexible in operation, and the blocks that can
be hit are not too far from the player. Meanwhile, from studying
CT, we have to be able to think quickly to select which ones to
hit and which way to go.
4
Can experience playing games realistically
It's fun and it's better to add several other complementary
features to increase the level.
5
Because I have nearsightedness, the picture
is a little unclear
The activities or activities of the game are good and interesting.
Makes players more interactive and able to think critically
6
Very unique game, great for introducing VR to
students
A fun game to try and learn to hone critical thinking
7
The stick vibrated when it touched
It's fun and very interactive
8
I can feel as if I have entered the game.
Cool, unique, and very satisfying
Participants also noted that CT Saber serves as an effective solution for nurturing
computational thinking, especially among individuals new to the concept. Activities requiring
participants to think critically and interact with elements in the game have the potential to
enhance their ability to understand and apply computational thinking principles in various
scenarios.
Despite some participants expressing satisfaction with a fulfilling and visually comfortable
gaming experience, others pointed out potential areas for improvement. For instance, the
addition of complementary features to increase the level of difficulty and variety of activities,
as well as enhancements to audiovisual elements, could further support immersion in the game.
This feedback indicates room for further innovation and adjustments in the game design to
facilitate effective learning.
5. Discussion
This study aims to develop a VR game for learning CT and evaluate its usability. The developed
VR game is named CT Saber, inspired by one of the most successful VR games on the Oculus
platform, Beat Saber. All the designed game features successfully ran on three devices of
Oculus Quest 2. It means that all the functional game is running well according to the game
mechanics that have been design. The USE Questionnaire framework was adapted to evaluate
usability, and a pilot test was conducted with computer science students. Variables measured
are usefulness, ease of use, ease of learning, and satisfaction.
The results showed that the adapted USE Questionnaire was a valid and reliable instrument
for evaluating the developed VR game, CT Saber. This is evidenced by the validity test, which
confirmed that each item within the questionnaire met the criteria. Additionally, the reliability
indices for all variables encompassed by the questionnaire surpassed the established baseline.

36 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
These results are congruent with numerous scholarly inquiries aimed at appraising the usability
of pedagogical applications [53], [56], [61].
The development of this CT Saber VR game was included within the software engineering
framework, so it is necessary to ensure that all game functions run smoothly and without errors.
Errors checking was conducted based on the developed features as described in Table 3. The
systematic examination of the game features demonstrates that each functionality performed
optimally when tested by 36 participants in the three distinct Oculus Quest 2 devices. This
comprehensive validation is a testament to the robustness of the game's architecture, wherein
all incorporated features were observed to operate seamlessly, affirming the game’s operational
integrity. The absence of functional discrepancies during these trials underscores the
meticulous development process and the reliability of CT Saber as a viable educational tool
within a virtual reality environment.
Quantitative assessments were conducted utilizing the Likert-scale-based USE
Questionnaire to appraise the usability of the CT Saber VR game. Data analysis revealed that
each variable secured a substantial rating. Hariyanto et al. (2020) [56] stated that the evaluation
can be seen from binary rationale [62], the “binomial data” method [63], and the conventional
academic grading system [60]. Based on these, the results were categorized as accepted due to
the mean scores of all variables more than 3. The aggregate score across the four assessed
usability dimensions attained a commendable 80.70 out of a potential 100, surpassing the
established usability benchmark [60]. This indicates that the CT Saber VR game met and
exceeded the threshold for acceptable usability, reflecting user satisfaction with the overall
interactive educational experience provided by CT Saber.
Furthermore, a multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to explore the
interrelationships among the variables included in the survey. All model assumptions met the
standard prerequisite criteria before the regression test was performed. Based on the F-test
results show that simultaneously, all independent variables (usefulness, ease of use, and ease
of learning) significantly influence the dependent variable (satisfaction). This suggests that
these three facets are interrelated and have a substantial and simultaneous impact on how
satisfied users feel about their experience.
In terms of usability, this signifies that the dimensions defined in the USE Questionnaire
effectively predict and explain the variance in user satisfaction. The high mean square value
relative to the residual mean square further reinforces the explanatory power of the regression
model. This implies that a significant proportion of the total variability in satisfaction scores
can be attributed to variations in the independent variables, confirming the aptitude of these
usability constructs for capturing user satisfaction in educational VR applications.
However, when dissecting the individual contributions of the independent variables, it
emerges that only usefulness significantly influences satisfaction when evaluated partially.
Meanwhile, ease of use and ease of learning aspects do not show significance. This finding
indicates that the functional utility of the VR game CT Saber is paramount in the users'
evaluative process, underscoring usefulness as the cornerstone upon which user satisfaction is
built.
One of the reasons why usefulness may outshine other factors is its impact on satisfaction
can be attributed to the novelty of VR technology in educational environments. Users place a
premium on the practical benefits of novel technology as they navigate the initial learning curve
to secondary considerations until the fundamental utility criterion is satisfied. It is also
plausible that once a user deems the VR helpful tool, they are more willing to invest effort in
overcoming any usability challenges. This could explain the diminished perceived impact of
ease of use and ease of learning on overall satisfaction.
To enhance the usability of VR games that feature embodied interactions similar to Beat
Saber, several key design recommendations can be made based on the development and
evaluation of CT Saber. Firstly, intuitive controls and immediate feedback are paramount [64].

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 37
This can be achieved through the use of haptic feedback and clear visual cues that guide player
actions and provide instant confirmation of their success or errors [65]. Clear objectives and a
well-defined progression path are also essential. Players should understand their goals at all
times, and the game should offer a smooth difficulty curve that allows them to build skills
progressively. Additionally, ensuring an immersive and engaging environment through high-
quality visuals, spatial audio, and realistic interactions can significantly enhance user
experience [66], [67]. Finally, accessibility and comfort must be prioritized by including
adjustable settings for visual and control preferences, thereby accommodating a wider range of
player needs and reducing potential discomfort during extended play sessions.
These suggestions are supported by comparative analyses with other VR saber games, such
as Fruit Ninja VR version and Synth Riders. Fruit Ninja, which requires players to slice fruits
with precise hand movements, emphasizes the importance of intuitive controls and immediate
feedback, similar to Beat Saber. Synth Riders, on the other hand, focuses on freestyle hand
movements synchronized with musical beats, highlighting the significance of clear objectives
and immersive environments. Both games demonstrate how usability can be enhanced through
balanced challenges and engaging gameplay, reinforcing the findings from CT Saber’s
usability testing. By integrating these design elements, VR games can offer more effective and
enjoyable experiences, extending beyond the single focus of evaluating the CT Saber test to a
broader application in educational and entertainment contexts.
The empirical evidence gathered from user comments provides substantial support for the
primacy of usefulness in shaping user satisfaction with the VR game CT Saber. Participant
feedback consistently highlights the practical value and applicability of the game in facilitating
CT, reflecting a direct correlation with the quantitative findings that underscore usefulness as
a critical determinant of satisfaction. Users expressed a sense of achievement and engagement
when the game successfully bridged the gap between virtual activities and the acquisition of
computational skills, affirming the practical benefits of the game's design.
The qualitative data from open-ended responses reveal that when users perceive the game
to be beneficial for learning, particularly in developing and applying computational strategies,
their satisfaction levels are notably higher. It can be seen from the feedback provided by
participants, who frequently stated in the comments that the interactive and engaging nature of
the CT Saber game helped them better understand and apply CT concepts. For instance, many
participants noted that the game's tasks, such as finding the best route, directly mirrored
problem-solving activities they encountered in their academic studies. This alignment between
the game's challenges and real-world applications made the learning experience more relevant
and practical, thereby enhancing their overall satisfaction. Additionally, participants
appreciated the immediate feedback and rewards within the game, which reinforced their
learning and contributed to a sense of accomplishment and engagement. These aspects
highlight the importance of perceived educational value in determining user satisfaction with
educational VR games.
6. Conclusion and Limitations
Based on the results and discussion, it can be concluded that the developed VR game CT Saber
meets the usability criteria as evident from the tripartite assessment conducted. Firstly, the
mean scores of the four usability variables (usefulness, ease of use, ease of learning, and
satisfaction) stood at an average of 3.23. Using a dichotomous approach to the 4-point Likert
scale, these scores lean towards the acceptable category, indicating a favorable user perception.
Secondly, the multiple linear regression analysis using the USE Questionnaire framework
demonstrated that, simultaneously, all independent variables (usefulness, ease of use, and ease
of learning) significantly influence the dependent variable of satisfaction. However, a closer
inspection reveals that, partially, only the aspect of usefulness exerts a significant influence on

38 International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024
satisfaction. This underscores the paramount importance of perceived utility in users’ overall
satisfaction with the VR experience. Thirdly, the responses to open-ended questions from
participants echoed this sentiment, with feedback overwhelmingly supporting the utility of CT
Saber in providing an engaging and effective learning experience. Together, these assessments
suggest that the developed VR game CT Saber shows the principles of usability, which is
pivotal for educational technology acceptance and efficacy.
This study has underscored several key principles for enhancing the usability of VR
learning games, particularly those with embodied interactions like CT Saber. One significant
lesson learned is the critical role of intuitive controls and immediate feedback in maintaining
user engagement and facilitating effective learning. For instance, Fruit Ninja VR, which also
relies on precise hand movements, highlights the importance of responsive controls and clear
visual feedback. Similarly, Synth Riders emphasizes the need for immersive environments and
rhythmic interaction to keep players engaged. However, CT Saber stands out by seamlessly
combining educational content with gameplay mechanics that directly reinforce CT skills. This
targeted approach to learning makes CT Saber a valuable tool for educational purposes beyond
the general entertainment focus seen in Fruit Ninja VR and Synth Riders. It is essential to
ensure that VR learning games have intuitive controls, clear objectives, and immersive
environments. These elements collectively enhance the educational impact and user
satisfaction, providing a robust framework for the development of future VR educational tools.
While this study provides valuable insights into the usability of the CT Saber VR game for
learning CT, several limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, the sample size was relatively
small and consisted predominantly of computer science students, which may limit the
generalizability of the findings to a broader population. Future studies should involve a more
diverse group of participants to enhance the external validity of the results. Secondly, although
the usability of the game was thoroughly evaluated using the USE Questionnaire framework,
cognitive load assessment was not included in this study. Given that embodied/reality -based
interaction in VR can significantly affect mental workload, future research should integrate
cognitive load measurement better to understand its impact on learning efficiency in CT [68].
This consideration is particularly important for optimizing the educational effectiveness of VR
games like CT Saber.
Finally, the study duration was limited, restricting the depth of participant interaction with
the game. Extending the study period in future research could provide more comprehensive
insights into the long-term usability and learning outcomes of the game. Although the promise
of VR gaming for CT learning is evident, the depth of its impact has yet to be thoroughly
explored. Our future research plans include an investigation into the longer-term educational
impacts of VR gaming on CT abilities, with a particular focus on factors associated with VR's
strengths in immersion and presence. These unique attributes of VR technology could
significantly enhance the learning process, and understanding their effects is essential for
optimizing VR's instructional potential. Addressing these limitations in subsequent studies will
help refine the design and implementation of VR-based educational tools, contributing to their
overall efficacy and adoption.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta (UMS), Indonesia, for funding this study and
research. This research is part of the Doctor of Philosophy program in Information Technology
Education, Faculty of Computing and Meta-Technology, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris,
Malaysia.

S. Sukirman et al.
International Journal of Serious Games I Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2024 39
Conflicts of interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
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