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DOI:!https://doi.org/10.29210/020244071!
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Women's political participation in the United States after
women's suffrage: women's representation in the legislature of
the house of representatives and the senate
Ezra Sherly Margareth Silalahi
Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Article Info
ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received May 29th, 2024
Revised Jun 11th, 2024
Accepted Jul 15th, 2024
Historically, women have confronted formidable barriers to political
participation, entrenched by patriarchal norms. Despite the ratification of the
Nineteenth Amendment in the United States, which granted women voting
rights, substantive representation remains elusive. This study investigates the
persistent gender gap in political representation, focusing on the 113th
congressional elections. Employing liberal feminist theory and democratic
principles, it aims to elucidate the urgency of addressing women's
underrepresentation in legislative bodies. Through literature review and
quantitative analysis of electoral data, this research seeks to uncover the impact
of electoral systems on women's political engagement. Results reveal stark
contrasts between countries like the US and Rwanda, emphasizing the critical
role of electoral mechanisms in fostering gender parity. By illuminating these
disparities, this study underscores the imperative for policy interventions to
ensure equitable political participation for women, thereby advancing
democratic ideals and societal progress.
Keyword:
United states,
Political participation,
Women,
Women's suffrage
© 2024 The Authors. Published by IICET.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-SA license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0)
Corresponding Author:
Ezra Sherly Margareth Silalahi,
Universitas Indonesia
Email: ezra.sherly@ui.ac.id
Introduction
The entry of women into politics is part of the great history of human civilization. Patriarchal culture, which is
built into the very fabric of human life, is detrimental to women in politics and in various aspects of life. Women
experience subordination and marginalization, which makes them fighters for their own freedom. Despite
progress, women's political representation remains disproportionately low, hindering the realization of
democratic ideals and the full participation of half of the population in decision-making processes. This systemic
exclusion perpetuates gender inequalities and undermines the principles of justice and equality.
In the United States (US), the discourse surrounding women's rights and demands began to emerge in the
1950s. However, women's struggles had been discussed long before that year, with US women demanding their
rights as early as 1824-1920 (Miller, 2008). In countries that utilize elections for political regeneration, the
number of female candidates elected tends to be low, with some countries producing no more than 30% of
women (Ondercin & Key, 2020). However, a ranking of countries with female representation in the legislature
reveals that the United States itself is not among the top countries for the number of women in the legislature
(“Interchange: Women’s Suffrage, the Nineteenth Amendment, and the Right to Vote,” 2019). The table lists
the countries that comprise the top 25 rankings for women's participation in parliament (Burden & Ono, 2021).
349
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Women's!political!participation!in!the!United!States!after!women's!…!
This indicates that, despite the United States' status as a pioneer of democracy, women's representation in the
country's legislative bodies remains relatively low. The United States was ranked 85th with 18% of seats in the
House of Representatives (HoR) and 20% of seats in the Senate (Dowe, 2023a).
In developed regions, women's representation in ministerial positions exceeds 30%, yet none of the regions
exceed 30% for women's representation in parliament (Dahlum et al., 2022). However, developed countries such
as Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) have the highest percentage of women in parliament (44%)
(Erikson & Josefsson, 2024). Against the backdrop of the 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence, which
asserted the inherent equality of all humans, and based on the principles of that declaration, the July 19 women's
convention demanded that the same liberal principles be applied to both women and men. Feminist Elizabeth
Cady argued that, in the American Constitution, the words "all people" included women (Feng, 2023). In 1920,
the American women's movement, spearheaded by the National Women Suffrage Association, established a
framework for women to claim their rights, namely the 19th Amendment to the US Constitution (Prameswari
et al., 2023).
While women's representation in the US legislature has increased over time, it has not reached a significant
level. Although the United States can be considered the country where feminism originated, the opportunities
for women in the United States were not as extensive as those for women in other countries, even in developing
nations. Prior to the 111th Congress, which was elected in January 2009, men held 83% of the seats in the United
States Congress, with only 17% of the seats occupied by women (Cardo, 2021). In the 112th Congress, which
was elected in 2011, only 95 women were elected out of 535 seats in Congress, representing a mere 12% of all
seats in the US Congress (Håkansson, 2023).
It is noteworthy that a country where the feminist movement originated and continues to advocate for
women's rights in detail does not facilitate women's easier access to government institutions such as the House
of Representatives (HoR) or the Senate (Holqi et al., 2024). Rwanda, for instance, has achieved 48.8% female
representation in parliament, while the United States has not reached 20% female representation in the 113th
Congress during the 2013-2015 period. The United States has established laws pertaining to women's political
participation. However, these legal provisions do not ensure an increase in women's political engagement
(Dowe, 2023a). The period between the 1950s and the 1970s, commonly referred to as the "golden age" of
women in the United States, saw a rise in female activism and a greater utilization of their voting rights in
general elections (Saputri et al., 2023).
The political participation of women in the United States originated from the movement carried out by
American women to fight for their rights, specifically the right to use their votes in a general election. This
movement was known as the women's suffrage movement or the women's rights movement. The inaugural
gathering of the women's rights movement was convened by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott on July
19-20, 1848. The meeting resulted in the Declaration of the Women's Rights Convention in Seneca Falls on July
19, 1848 (Sundström & Stockemer, 2022). The meeting yielded a new development that significantly impacted
women's political engagement, yet it did not inevitably lead to a surge in women's enthusiasm for exercising
their electoral franchise. Following their acquisition of the suffrage, the women's movements experienced a
hiatus until the mid-20th century when women once again asserted their rights.
The period from 1848 to 1920 spanned 72 years. In the 1950s, following the ratification of the 19th
Amendment to the Constitution, women's rights movements began to gain momentum once more. However,
despite this renewed activism, women in the United States continue to face challenges in achieving equality in
political participation. The skepticism surrounding women's abilities to assume leadership roles in political
positions persists (Wängnerud, 2009). Despite various efforts to promote women in politics, women continued
to be underrepresented in well-paid positions in Congress until the 1970s in the United States. In 1979, for
instance, less than 5% of women held seats in the House of Representatives (HoR), and only about 10% occupied
state legislative seats across all states. This persistent underrepresentation highlights a significant gap in gender
equality and political participation, both in the United States and globally. In response to this gap, some
countries, including Indonesia and several African countries, enacted affirmative action policies to provide
women with more opportunities.
Furthermore, India employs a quota system for women in the Senate, a practice also observed in Europe,
where 40% of women are permitted to occupy senior roles in companies. Despite these measures, challenges
persist in achieving gender parity in political leadership roles worldwide. Therefore, this research aims to explore
the effectiveness of affirmative action policies and quota systems in promoting women's participation in politics
and to identify potential barriers and strategies for increasing women's representation in political institutions.
Through a comprehensive analysis of global practices and their outcomes, this research seeks to contribute to
the ongoing discourse on gender equality and political empowerment.
Silalahi, E.S.M.
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Method
The methodology employed in this research is descriptive research. Descriptive research is a type of research
that provides a detailed and comprehensive account of a situation without any intervention or manipulation of
the object under study. In addition to descriptive research, this study employs qualitative research, which is
based on phenomena that have occurred. This research relies on library research, specifically sources of books
that support and recognize the validity of the data. These sources include newspapers and journals related to the
development of gender equality in the United States and its relationship to women's political participation in
Congress. Despite conducting a comprehensive literature analysis, the author encountered several challenges in
meeting the needs of references in the library. To address these challenges, the author sought to supplement the
library's resources by identifying additional sources, including online books, articles, journals, data, news, and
information pertinent to the research topic. These sources were obtained from official websites, such as those of
international institutions, book download sites, and electronic newspapers. However, it is important to note that
the author still performed the necessary data validation and sorting to ensure the reliability of the data obtained.
Results and Discussions
Authors
Title
Method
Result
Henry B Mayo in
Abidin & Kurnia
(2022)
Implementasi Nilai-Nilai
Demokrasi dalam Pemilihan
Kepala Desa di Kabupaten
Bandung Barat
Literature Review
A democratic country is
founded upon a number of
values, one of which is the
organization of a change of
leaders. To conduct an
election, each country
employs a distinct
methodology to reach the
votes of its citizens
KAM, C.,
BERTELLI, A.
M., & HELD, A.
(2020)
The Electoral System, the Party
System and Accountability in
Parliamentary Government.
American Political Science
Review
Literature Review
Electoral accountability
requires that voters have the
ability to constrain the
incumbent government’s
policy-making power. We
express the necessary
conditions for this claim as
an accountability identity in
which the electoral system
and the party system interact
to shape the accountability of
parliamentary governments.
Data from 400 parliamentary
elections between 1948 and
2012 show that electoral
accountability is contingent
on the party system’s
bipolarity, for example, with
parties arrayed in two
distinct blocs. Proportional
electoral systems achieve
accountability as well as
majoritarian ones when
bipolarity is strong but not
when it is weak. This is
because bipolarity decreases
the number of connected
coalitions that incumbent
parties can join to preserve
their policy-making power.
Our results underscore the
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Authors
Title
Method
Result
limitations that party
systems place on electoral
reform and the benefits that
bipolarity offers for clarifying
voters’ choices and
intensifying electoral
competition
Tripp, A. M.
(2023).
War, Revolution, and the
Expansion of Women’s Political
Representation. Politics &
Gender.
Literature Review
During these critical
junctures, women’s rights
activists gained opportunities
to advance their demands.
The context of changing
international gender norms
also influenced these
moments. I consider two key
moments in the worldwide
expansion of political
citizenship: the struggle for
women’s suffrage and the
struggle to expand women’s
representation in local and
national representative
bodies.
Dowe, P. K. F.
(2023)
The Radical Imagination of Black
Women
Literature Review
Political science’s approach
to ambition negates and
disregards mechanisms
beyond voting that Black
women often engage in, such
as doing political work
through community and
civic organizations. That
data provided from
interviews reveal the
complex dynamics that
contribute to the nuanced
process that Black women
emerge as candidates and
engage as politicians.
Delahaye, C., &
Ramdani, F.
(2022)
Introduction: The Complex and
Reciprocal Relations between
Suffrage and Other Forms of
Activism. Transatlantica
Literature Review
This issue will thus focus on
the mobilization for
enfranchisement in the
United States in the manner
it was and still is related to
questions of racial justice,
the labor movement, and the
fight for other economic,
social, political, and
reproductive rights for
women and other minorities.
By including gender, race,
class, geographical, and
cultural perspectives to the
long history of the vote, the
articles in this thematic
dossier offer new narratives
to the complex and
Silalahi, E.S.M.
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Authors
Title
Method
Result
reciprocal connections
between the key grassroots
movements of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries
Kannabiran, K.
(2024)
Political Reservation for Women:
The (Un)making and Futures of
the Constitution (106th
Amendment) Act, 2023
Literature Review
This context is examined
through a close reading of
parliamentary debates and
reports of parliamentary
committees in 1996–1997
and 2009–2010 and a brief
glimpse at the other
backward classes and
Muslim feminist
engagements within larger
movements for equal
citizenship.
Howard, N. O., &
Owens, M. (2022).
Organizing Staff in the U.S.
Senate: The Priority of
Individualism in Resource
Allocation. Congress & the
Presidency
Literature Review
Results of a time series
model show that increasing
allocations for a staff area
actually promotes greater
allocations for other areas
rather than undermining
them, and that changes in
membership and eras shape
how senators collectively
choose to allocate staff
resources
Bos, A. L.,
Holman, M. R.,
Greenlee, J. S.,
Oxley, Z. M., &
Lay, J. C. (2020)
100 Years of Suffrage and Girls
Still Struggle to Find their “Fit” in
Politics. PS: Political Science &
Politics
Literature Review
This is a pressing issue
because children’s
perceptions are likely to
influence their participation
as adults. This article
explores whether and how
girls and boys differently
view politics and their role in
it. We report survey data
from more than 1,600
children ages 6 to 12 to
explore basic gender gaps in
political interest and
ambition. We argue that
these results may reveal the
roots of a larger problem: 100
years after women gained
suffrage, girls still express
less interest and enthusiasm
than boys for political life
and political office.
Clayton, A.,
O’Brien, D. Z., &
Piscopo, J. M.
(2024)
Founding Narratives and Men’s
Political Ambition: Experimental
Evidence from US Civics
Lessons. British Journal of
Political Science
Literature Review
Men who watched a video
featuring the
accomplishments of the
Founding Fathers reported
significantly more political
ambition than men assigned
to the control group.
Additional studies indicate
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Authors
Title
Method
Result
that the effects are specific to
the Founding Fathers (as
compared to early American
statesmen). Men are also
more likely than women to
identify the Founding
Fathers as inspiring figures
and to feel pride when
considering them. Our
findings suggest how history
is told contributes to men's
persistent political
overrepresentation.
Henry B. Mayo in Abidin & Kurnia (2022) posited that a democratic country is founded upon a number of
values, one of which is the organization of a change of leaders. To conduct an election, each country employs a
distinct methodology to reach the votes of its citizens. This method is known as the Election System. Every
democratic country has its own system for organizing the election of legislative candidates or the election of the
president and vice president. This system is referred to as the Election System. An electoral system is a method
for organizing and enabling citizens to elect representatives among themselves. Andrew Reynolds defines the
electoral system as a means by which the people can participate in the election process. It is a system of
organization that is used in a country to determine the procedures for organizing and determining the results of
election winners. In essence, it is a mechanism for selecting decision-makers when the community has become
too large for every citizen to be involved in every decision that affects the community. In another definition, an
electoral system is a mechanism for selecting decision-makers when the community has become too large for
every citizen to be involved in every decision that affects the community. Electoral systems are the methods by
which votes are generated from elections and translated into seats won in parliament by parties and candidates.
As important as it is to know about electoral systems, there are several reasons why a country chooses one
of the many electoral systems of its choice, depending on its function and benefits to the country. At the most
fundamental level, electoral systems serve to translate votes cast in general elections into seats won by political
parties and candidates. In the study "The Electoral System, the Party System and Accountability in
Parliamentary Government" by (KAM et al., 2020), the relationship between electoral systems, party systems,
and the accountability of parliamentary governments is meticulously examined. The authors argue that electoral
accountability hinges on the ability of voters to constrain the policy-making power of incumbent governments.
This article elucidates the necessary conditions for this form of accountability, framing it within an
"accountability identity" where the electoral system and the party system interact to influence the level of
accountability in parliamentary governance.
Electoral accountability refers to the capacity of voters to hold incumbent governments responsible for their
actions and policy decisions. In a democratic context, this accountability is essential as it ensures that
governments remain responsive to the electorate's preferences and needs. Kam et al. argue that for electoral
accountability to be effective, voters must be able to restrict the policy-making power of the ruling parties, thereby
preventing them from acting solely in their self-interest. The study by Kam, Bertelli, and Held offers valuable
insights into the complex relationship between electoral systems, party systems, and electoral accountability in
parliamentary governments. By demonstrating that the effectiveness of electoral systems in ensuring
accountability is contingent on the bipolarity of the party system, the authors underscore the importance of a
holistic approach to electoral reform. Strengthening party system bipolarity can clarify voter choices and
intensify electoral competition, thereby enhancing the overall accountability of parliamentary governments.
In her 2023 study "War, Revolution, and the Expansion of Women’s Political Representation" published in
Politics & Gender, (Tripp, 2023)explores the critical junctures that have allowed women's rights activists to push
for greater political representation. The study emphasizes the significance of changing international gender
norms and their impact on pivotal moments in the expansion of women's political rights. Two key moments are
highlighted: the struggle for women's suffrage and the ongoing efforts to enhance women's representation in
local and national representative bodies. The struggle for women's suffrage marked a significant turning point
in the fight for gender equality. Gaining the right to vote was not only a victory for women's rights but also a
crucial step towards broader political representation. Tripp's research indicates that these gains were often made
Silalahi, E.S.M.
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during periods of upheaval, such as wars and revolutions, which created opportunities for activists to advance
their demands.
Majoritarian systems tend to entrench existing power dynamics, while proportional representation systems,
particularly when combined with gender quotas, have proven more effective in promoting women's political
representation. The ongoing struggle for gender equality in political representation underscores the importance
of supportive electoral systems and the influence of global gender norms in shaping national policies. P. K. F.
Dowe explores the multifaceted ways Black women engage in political work beyond traditional voting
mechanisms. This study delves into the unique dynamics and challenges faced by Black women in their journey
to becoming candidates and politicians, emphasizing the importance of community and civic organizations in
their political activities (Dowe, 2023b). Dowe's research highlights that the traditional political science approach
to ambition often overlooks the significant roles that Black women play in community and civic organizations.
These roles are crucial for their political engagement and development as candidates. Black women frequently
use these platforms to address social issues, mobilize communities, and build networks that support their
political ambitions.
P. K. F. Dowe's study "The Radical Imagination of Black Women" underscores the importance of looking
beyond traditional voting mechanisms to understand the full spectrum of political engagement by Black women.
The correlation between electoral systems and women's suffrage is influenced by broader social dynamics,
including the vital role of community and civic organizations. Majoritarian systems often present significant
challenges for women, particularly Black women, while proportional representation systems offer a more
inclusive framework for political representation. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for fostering a more
equitable and representative political landscape. In their 2022 study "Introduction: The Complex and Reciprocal
Relations between Suffrage and Other Forms of Activism" published in Transatlantica, C. Delahaye and F.
Ramdani examine the intricate connections between women's suffrage and various forms of activism in the
United States. This study sheds light on how different electoral systems and legislative bodies have influenced
the fight for women's suffrage and their subsequent political representation in the U.S. House of Representatives
and the Senate.
The struggle for women's suffrage in the United States was significantly shaped by the country's electoral
system. The U.S. uses a majoritarian electoral system, specifically first-past-the-post, for both the House of
Representatives and the Senate. This system tends to favor larger, established parties and can create barriers for
minority groups, including women, trying to gain political representation. The U.S. House of Representatives,
with its single-member districts and majoritarian electoral framework, has historically posed challenges for
women seeking political office. This system often reinforces existing power structures, making it difficult for
women to break through the male-dominated political landscape. However, over the decades, activism and
changing social norms have led to a gradual increase in the number of women elected to the House. Delahaye
and Ramdani's study highlights the intricate relationship between electoral systems, legislative bodies, and
women's suffrage in the United States. The majoritarian electoral system of the U.S. presents challenges for
women's political representation in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. However, persistent
activism and changing social norms have gradually improved women's representation. Understanding this
complex interplay is essential for continuing to advance gender equality in U.S. politics.(Delahaye & Ramdani,
2022).
In her 2024 study "Political Reservation for Women: The (Un)making and Futures of the Constitution (106th
Amendment) Act, 2023," K. Kannabiran explores the significant impact of electoral systems on women's
suffrage and political representation in the United States, particularly focusing on the U.S. House of
Representatives and the Senate. This study sheds light on how structural changes and political reservations can
influence the inclusion of women in these legislative bodies. The fight for women's suffrage in the United States
was a landmark achievement that significantly transformed the political landscape. However, the electoral
system in place plays a crucial role in shaping the extent of women's political representation. The U.S. employs
a majoritarian electoral system, specifically first-past-the-post, for both the House of Representatives and the
Senate. This system tends to favor larger, established parties and can create barriers for minority groups,
including women, in gaining political representation.
The House of Representatives, with its single-member districts and majoritarian electoral system, has
historically presented challenges for women seeking political office. This structure often reinforces existing
power dynamics, making it difficult for women to penetrate the male-dominated political arena. Nonetheless,
through persistent activism and evolving social norms, the number of women elected to the House has seen a
steady increase over the years. K. Kannabiran's study underscores the significant correlation between electoral
systems, legislative bodies, and women's suffrage in the United States. The majoritarian electoral system presents
challenges for women's political representation in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. However,
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Women's!political!participation!in!the!United!States!after!women's!…!
political reservations, such as those introduced by the 106th Amendment, hold the potential to significantly
enhance women's inclusion in these legislative bodies. Continued activism and advocacy remain essential in
driving progress towards gender equality in U.S. politics. (Kannabiran, 2024)
The struggle for women's suffrage in the United States culminated in the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting
women the right to vote. However, the electoral system in place continues to play a critical role in shaping
women's political representation. The U.S. employs a majoritarian electoral system, specifically first-past-the-
post, for both the House of Representatives and the Senate. This system tends to favor larger, established parties
and often creates barriers for minority groups, including women, seeking political office. The House of
Representatives operates with single-member districts and a majoritarian electoral system. This structure can
reinforce existing power dynamics, making it challenging for women to gain representation. Despite these
challenges, there has been a gradual increase in the number of women elected to the House, driven by social
movements and advocacy for gender equality.
Activism and social movements have been essential in advancing women's suffrage and political
representation. The women's suffrage movement laid the groundwork for broader political participation, and
contemporary movements continue to advocate for inclusive practices and policies. These efforts are vital in
challenging existing power structures and promoting reforms that support women's political engagement.
(Howard & Owens, 2022). This study examines how electoral systems and the structures of the House of
Representatives and the Senate impact women's political participation and representation, even a century after
gaining the right to vote. The passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920 was a pivotal moment in U.S. history,
granting women the right to vote. However, the type of electoral system used significantly influences women's
political representation. The U.S. uses a majoritarian electoral system, specifically first-past-the-post, for both
the House of Representatives and the Senate. This system tends to favor established, larger parties and creates
barriers for minority groups, including women, to gain political office
The House of Representatives, characterized by single-member districts and a majoritarian electoral
framework, has historically posed significant challenges for women seeking office. This system often reinforces
existing power structures, making it harder for women to enter the political arena. Despite these obstacles, there
has been a gradual increase in the number of women elected to the House due to persistent advocacy and
evolving social norms. Bos et al. highlight that even after 100 years of women's suffrage, young girls and women
still struggle to find their "fit" in politics. Societal expectations and gender norms play a significant role in shaping
perceptions of political suitability and ambition. These perceptions are influenced by the electoral system and
the broader political environment, which often marginalizes women's political aspirations. (Bos et al., 2020). In
their 2024 article "Founding Narratives and Men’s Political Ambition: Experimental Evidence from US Civics
Lessons" published in the British Journal of Political Science, A. Clayton, D. Z. O’Brien, and J. M. Piscopo
explore how historical narratives influence political ambition. Their findings provide insight into the broader
dynamics of how electoral systems and legislative structures impact women's suffrage and political
representation in the United States, particularly within the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate.
The ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920, which granted women the right to vote, was a monumental
step toward gender equality in the United States. However, the design of electoral systems plays a critical role
in shaping the extent to which women can translate their voting rights into political representation. The U.S.
employs a majoritarian electoral system, specifically first-past-the-post, for both the House of Representatives
and the Senate. This system tends to favor established, larger parties and can pose significant barriers to women
and other minority groups seeking political office. The Senate, with its structure of two seats per state and
statewide elections, also follows a majoritarian system. Clayton, O’Brien, and Piscopo's study suggests that this
system presents similar challenges to women's representation as seen in the House. However, women have made
significant strides in the Senate, often through the support of strong grassroots movements and evolving political
landscapes. Despite these gains, women continue to be underrepresented in the Senate.
Conclusions
Patriarchal culture marginalizes women, disadvantaging them in various societal aspects, including politics. In
the U.S., women strive for emancipation from discrimination, despite the Declaration of Independence
affirming freedom for all. The Women's Suffrage movement, which sought women's right to vote, culminated
in the 19th Amendment in 1920. Over time, women entered politics, with Jeannette Rankin becoming the first
female House member. Despite these advances, increasing women's legislative participation remains challenging
due to lingering patriarchal attitudes and structural barriers. The U.S. ranks low in women's political
representation, with only 17% female legislators, compared to higher percentages in countries like Rwanda and
South Africa. The U.S. uses a plurality electoral system, which hinders women's legislative success compared to
Silalahi, E.S.M.
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proportional systems that often employ quotas to boost female representation. This electoral structure
emphasizes individual candidate success in districts, disadvantaging women. Consequently, the U.S., despite its
historical role in advancing women's political rights, struggles to achieve higher levels of female political
representation.
References
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American History, 106(3), 662–694. https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jaz506
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