Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Beyond the Observable: How the Daodejing Informs
Quantum Science and Modern Cosmology
This interdisciplinary research explores the remarkable convergence between
ancient Chinese philosophy, specifically the Daodejing, and modern scien;fic
understanding, par;cularly in quantum science and cosmology involving black
holes and dark energy. The Daodejing, wri?en over two millennia ago, offers
profound insights into the nature of reality, existence, and the interplay between
the seen and unseen. Through prose, it ar;culates concepts that uncannily
correspond to modern phenomena observed in quantum mechanics and classical
cosmology.
Daodejing describes the Dao, the ultimate source of all things, 無 (wu), as a
dynamic and fertile state. It is not simply an absence or an empty void; instead, it is
the precondition for the existence of all things. This is similar to the quantum
vacuum—an invisible field of potentiality from which particles emerge. The text
also reflects on the cyclical nature of transformation and the coexistence of
opposites, resonating with principles such as quantum superposition and duality.
Concepts such as the ineffable Dao, which embodies both the source and the
manifestation of all things, find their counterparts in the quantum notion of
superposition and the wave-particle duality, where potentiality and actuality
coexist.
This paper analyzes these philosophical descriptions, drawing correspondences
with key scientific principles, including the indeterminacy of quantum states, the
emergence of order from chaos, and the complexity of large-scale systems with a
creative ontology of interpretation. Daodejing’s prescient understanding of the
universe offers a fresh perspective on how Eastern philosophy can enrich and
deepen our comprehension of scientific phenomena. Through this synthesis, the
study aims to demonstrate that Daodejing provides a valuable conceptual
framework that anticipates the complexities and mysteries of quantum mechanics
and classical cosmology, offering relevant insights into contemporary scientific
inquiry.
David Leong, PhD
Charisma University
david.leong@charisma.edu.eu
h"ps://doi.org/10.32388/0BR192
Keywords: Daodejing, Dao, quantum science, classical physics, complexity science.
Introduction
The increasing interest in Eastern philosophies, particularly Dao, as a framework for
addressing human-nature relationships, has become a significant focus in contemporary
discourse (Hasenkamp & Sun, 2023). The Daodejing, traditionally regarded as the
foundational Dao scripture, comprises approximately 5,000 characters and has played a
pivotal role in shaping Dao thought. Its influence is evident through the numerous
translations produced in the past century and the extensive body of commentaries developed
over two millennia. The text, attributed to Laozi, reflects a distinct philosophical inquiry from
circa 722–207 BCE (Liu, 2008).
Dao, emphasizing harmony with the natural world, has increasingly attracted the attention of
Western thinkers, who are often intrigued by the profound and cryptic insights found
within Daodejing’s 81 chapters. However, efforts to interpret Dao principles through a
Western perspective frequently result in misunderstandings, as these principles are rooted in
ontological and epistemological assumptions that differ significantly from those in Western
thought. A common misinterpretation is the belief that Dao advocates a mystical view of
nature beyond human comprehension or engagement. While the Daodejing does explore the
ineffable nature of the Dao, it does not suggest that nature is wholly mystical or inaccessible.
Instead, Laozi emphasizes the concept of ziran (自然)—the natural order of things—as a key
element of Dao philosophy, particularly in Chapter 25.
In this description, cosmological evolution is marked by a cyclical process—origin,
expansion, dissolution, and return—that mirrors natural patterns observed in the world. The
universe unfolds spontaneously through the workings of ziran, without purposeful action or
teleological end (Chai, 2016). The Dao, which precedes the cosmos, is described as ‘great’
(da 大) and is responsible for both the emergence and dissolution of all things (Kamamoto,
2022). This process is continuous and eternal, indicating that the universe exists in a dynamic
state of flux governed by the principles of ziran (Liu, 2023). Ames and Hall (2003)
emphasized that ziran represents a mode of being that is ‘so of itself’, implying an intrinsic,
self-perpetuating order that does not rely on external governance or artificiality. They argue
that this concept challenges Western notions of creation, which often assume a divine or
external agent that initiates and directs cosmic development.
In contrast, the Dao cosmology, as presented in Chapter 25, posits an organic, self-
organizing, and inherently harmonious universe. Ames (2023) further explored ziran within
the broader Dao framework, noting that it reflects an ontological principle whereby all
beings, from the most minute to the cosmic scale, are interconnected through the Dao. This
interconnectedness is expressed through the cyclical nature of existence—growth, decay, and
renewal—all of which align with the Dao's natural rhythms.
Organisms are understood as following life cycles, inherited sequences of stages through
which they live, reproduce and adapt. Disrupting pest and pathogen life cycles plays key roles
in agriculture, biomedicine and public health. Metabolism, development and inheritance are
seen to depend on self-maintaining regulatory loops, including cell-to-cell and environmental
signalling systems. Organisms are connected to each other, and to the air, soil, rocks and
water, by biogeochemical cycles. The effects of human activities on the circulation not least
of carbon, nitrogen and water threaten climate crisis, pollution and habitat loss. Omni-present
today, cycles are also among the oldest ways of framing human existence, and of thinking
about life and death, health and disease, as well as daily and seasonal rhythms of regeneration
(Hopwood et al., 2021, p.2)
Ziran embodies the idea of things being natural, following their inherent tendencies without
force or artificial interference (Lai, 2007). This principle is not merely a passive state but an
active expression of the Dao’s dynamic nature, which unfolds in a circulatory pattern
encompassing growth, decay, and renewal (T. Michael, 2012). The circulatory pattern
inherent in ziran is illustrated in chapter 25 of the Daodejing, where Laozi describes
the Dao as something that “passes on in constant flow. Passing on, it becomes remote.
Having become remote, it returns” (Legge, 1891). This passage highlights
the Dao’s movement through phases of expansion and contraction, reflecting a natural cycle
that governs all aspects of existence. The idea of returning, or ‘fan’ (返), is particularly
significant, as it underscores the Dao’s tendency to revert to its root after reaching a point of
extremity where it returns to its roots (guigen 歸根), a concept that is central to Dao. Ziran,
as a cosmological principle, implies that the natural world and human society should align
with this circulatory pattern to achieve harmony and balance. This translates to understanding
that all things, including social and political structures, are subject to the same emergence,
decline, and renewal cycles. Governance, therefore, should not resist these natural cycles but
rather work in harmony with them, allowing for the natural flow of change and adaptation.
Chapter 16 in the Daodejing reinforces this theme of cyclical movement and return.
The (state of) vacancy should be brought to the utmost degree,
and that of stillness guarded with unwearying vigour. All things
alike go through their processes of activity, and (then) we see them
return (to their original state). When things (in the vegetable
world) have displayed their luxuriant growth, we see each of them
return to its root. This returning to their root is what we call the
state of stillness; and that stillness may be called a reporting that
they have fulfilled their appointed end.
The report of that fulfilment is the regular, unchanging rule. To
know that unchanging rule is to be intelligent; not to know it leads
to wild movements and evil issues. The knowledge of that unchanging
rule produces a (grand) capacity and forbearance, and that capacity
and forbearance lead to a community (of feeling with all things).
From this community of feeling comes a kingliness of character; and he
who is king-like goes on to be heaven-like. In that likeness to
heaven he possesses the Tao. Possessed of the Tao, he endures long;
and to the end of his bodily life, is exempt from all danger of decay (Legge, 1891).
Here, the emphasis is on the inevitability of return to the root, equated with stillness and
constancy—a state of alignment with the Dao. This cyclical return to the source reflects the
natural order of existence, much like Moleschott’s (1857) assertion that “just as trade is the
soul of commerce, so the eternal circling of matter is the soul of the world” (p. 41). Both
perspectives highlight the perpetual cycles that govern the flow of matter and the essential
nature of continuity and renewal in maintaining balance.
Regarding the universe’s origination, the Dao cosmology, as outlined in Chapter 25, suggests
that the cosmos emerges from a state of undifferentiated potential. This pre-cosmic ‘One’
(yi 一), synonymous with Dao, gives rise to the many or the ‘ten thousand things’ 萬
物 wanwu.
Given they are the most important components of Daoist thought, it is not surprising that the
relation between dao 道and the One (yi 一) takes many forms. It is often presumed that dao is
the higher-level concept and that One supplements, or is the manifestation of, dao (Feng,
2023, p. 805).
Thus, Dao is the ultimate, ungraspable reality, the source from which all things arise, while
the One represents the first principle of differentiation from the undifferentiated Dao, acting
as a manifestation of Dao in the form of unity (Gao, 2022). This notion of a unified origin
leading to multiplicity parallels contemporary scientific models of the universe’s origin,
particularly the Big Bang theory, the concept of cosmic inflation, and quantum singularity.
The research proposes that the Daodejing can be understood as an early philosophical
reflection on concepts akin to quantum indeterminacy, non-linearity, and emergence. By
framing these Dao descriptions as engagements with ideas relevant to today's scientific
paradigms, the study contributes to a broader interdisciplinary understanding of how ancient
metaphysical systems can intersect with and inform modern science. The primary objective
of this paper is to develop an interdisciplinary dialogue that highlights how philosophical
teachings, particularly those of Daodejing, offer profound insights into the foundational
challenges facing contemporary science, including the unpredictability and complexity of
natural phenomena.
Through a careful analysis of the early Dao texts, this paper offers a reinterpretation of these
cryptic writings concerning contemporary scientific developments, particularly within
cosmology. The discussion explores the nature of reality articulated in the Dao philosophy,
focusing on the concept of ziran (自然) and its relevance at the microscopic particle level and
within the broader context of everyday lived experience. By drawing comparisons between
the Dao principles and modern scientific insights, this paper highlights the intersection
between ancient metaphysical concepts and contemporary understandings of the universe
without suggesting that they are identical. The paper explores the correspondences between
these ideas, illustrating how Daodejing articulates natural phenomena in a manner that
parallels scientific inquiry, though with less precision and formal rigour characteristic of
modern scientific methodology. This interdisciplinary research investigates the deep parallels
between ancient Chinese philosophical doctrines, uncovering uncanny correspondences.
The Daodejing provides descriptions of the Dao and the nature of reality that, although
expressed in poetic and metaphorical language, bear striking resemblances to phenomena
understood in modern science—especially cosmology.
In this light, the study aims to illuminate the holistic perspectives offered by Daodejing,
which integrate metaphysical understanding with scientific exploration. It suggests that the
non-linear and emergent properties in nature and scientific systems are not new concepts but
have been engaged philosophically for millennia. Considering the Daodejing as a
philosophical text that prefigures many of the problems that classical cosmology faces, this
research opens new pathways for understanding the universe's dynamic and often elusive
nature. Through this comparative analysis, the study seeks to bridge the gap between ancient
wisdom and modern scientific thought, demonstrating how these fields can enrich one
another in our quest for deeper understanding.
Quantum Indeterminacy and the Indescribable Dao
When language is employed to convey the concept of Dao, whether through description or
articulation, it inevitably encounters limitations. The very act of attempting to
express Dao through words distorts its true essence, as Daotranscends linguistic
representation. Consequently, any effort to encapsulate Dao in any form results in an
incomplete and potentially misleading representation, as the profundity and totality
of Dao extend beyond the capacity of human language to capture fully.
The Dao, as described in Chapter 1 of Daodejing, which cannot be fully articulated or named,
reflects the challenges faced in modern scientific discourse and the uncertainty of science
(Feynman, 1998) when attempting to describe quantum states or cosmic vastness. In his now-
famous remark, “I think I can safely say that nobody understands quantum mechanics,”
delivered during Lecture 6 of The Messenger Lecture Series at Cornell University in 1964,
physicist Richard Feynman emphasized quantum mechanics' profound and counterintuitive
nature. While seemingly simple, this statement reflects a profound commentary on quantum
systems' enigmatic and perplexing behaviour, which defy classical logic and intuition.
Feynman’s intent was not merely to highlight the complexity of the mathematical
formulations but to underscore the fundamental challenge quantum mechanics poses to our
conceptual understanding of the physical world. Feynman’s comment was an admission of
the enigmatic nature of the theory itself. The intent behind his statement was to highlight the
idea that, while quantum mechanics provides accurate predictions and has been validated
through countless experiments, the conceptual framework it operates within is so far removed
from classical notions of reality that it defies conventional logic (Feynman, 2005). This lack
of intuitive clarity does not detract from the theory’s validity. Instead, it serves as a humbling
reminder of the limits of human cognition when confronted with the fundamental workings of
the universe.
The reality we perceive through our sensory faculties differs significantly from the
underlying quantum realities, where the fundamental building blocks of all matter, such as
quarks, fermions, and bosons, are uniform and unobservable to the naked eye (Louis, 2021).
Our everyday experience is shaped by macroscopic phenomena—objects, colours, sounds—
arising from these fundamental particles' complex interactions. However, at the quantum
level, the nature of reality is markedly different. The particles that constitute matter do not
adhere to the classical, deterministic laws we observe in the macroscopic world (Čapek,
1991). Instead, they follow probabilistic rules governed by quantum mechanics, where
uncertainty and superposition play critical roles (Roger Penrose, 2011a). At the quantum
level, the particles that make up matter, such as quarks (which combine to form protons and
neutrons) and fermions (the class of particles that includes electrons), are described by
quantum field theory (Pickering, 1999). In this domain, matter exists not in the fixed forms
we observe daily but as probability fields (Bunge, 2013). These particles exhibit wave-
particle duality, a phenomenon in which particles can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like
behaviours depending on the observation conditions (Dimitrova & Weis, 2008).
Similarly, bosons, such as photons and gluons, act as force carriers, mediating interactions
between particles without having mass themselves (Quigg, 1985). These particles exist in
quantum states that defy the intuition developed through sensory experience, revealing a
reality that operates under principles far removed from our deterministic world (Verheyen,
2021). The difference between macroscopic and quantum realities highlights the contrast
between human perception and the underlying fabric of the universe. As Squires (1994)
pointed out, while the macroscopic world appears solid and continuous, the quantum world is
discrete and governed by rules of probability rather than certainty. The macroscopic
phenomena we experience daily, such as solidity or temperature, arise from the collective
behaviour of vast numbers of quantum particles. These emergent properties, such as heat,
result from the statistical behaviour of particles, as described by thermodynamics and
statistical mechanics, rather than from the direct properties of individual particles (Huang,
1987). Niels Bohr stated: “Everything we call real is made of things that cannot be regarded
as real. If quantum mechanics hasn't profoundly shocked you, you haven't understood it yet.”
Bohr’s (1928) philosophical approach to quantum mechanics, particularly his views on the
counterintuitive nature of quantum reality, emphasized that traditional concepts of reality are
inadequate at the quantum level. Quantum entities, such as electrons and photons, exhibit
behaviours that defy classical explanations, such as wave-particle duality and
complementarity (Bohr, 1928). These phenomena challenge our everyday perceptions of
reality, leading to Bohr’s (1928) assertion that understanding quantum mechanics
fundamentally alters one’s view of what is real. As Heisenberg (1927) also illustrated through
his uncertainty principle, the nature of quantum systems is deeply tied to observation, further
complicating classical notions of reality.
Moreover, the limitations of human sensory perception underscore the gap between
observable and unobservable realities. Our senses are adapted to perceive and interpret
information on a specific scale spectrum. We can see light in the visible spectrum and feel
matter as solid (Fox, 2010), but these experiences do not reflect the quantum processes that
govern these phenomena.
Chapter 14 of Daodejing:
視之不見，名曰夷；聽之不聞，名曰希；搏之不得，名曰微。此三者不可致詰，故混
而為一。其上不皦，其下不昧。繩繩不可名，復歸於無物。是謂無狀之狀，無物之象
，是謂惚恍。迎之不見其首，隨之不見其後。執古之道，以御今之有。能知古始，是
謂道紀。
Chapter 14 of the Daodejing reflects on the nature of the unseen and the imperceptible, a
theme that resonates with the paradoxes and mysteries of quantum mechanics. This chapter
describes an elusive, ungraspable reality that the senses cannot fully perceive or describe
through conventional means. This paper reinterprets this chapter through the lens of quantum
mechanics.
1. 視之不見，名曰夷；聽之不聞，名曰希；搏之不得，名曰微 is reinterpreted as:
“Looked at but not seen, it is called unobservable; listened to but not heard, and it is called
rarefied; grasped at but not touched, it is called subtle”.
This passage underscores the ineffable and intangible qualities of the Dao, paralleling the
nature of quantum reality, which resists direct observation. At the quantum level, particles
such as electrons and photons do not conform to the observable characteristics of
macroscopic objects; they exist in a realm beyond the reach of the senses (Aerts, 2014). This
reflects the quantum principle of wave-particle duality, where particles exhibit wave-like and
particle-like behaviours depending on the observation method, thus challenging classical
notions of visibility and tangibility (Marman, 2018). In quantum mechanics, electrons are not
directly observed in the traditional sense but are understood through probabilistic models and
their effects on other systems (West, 1975). Similarly, Laozi's depiction of the Dao suggests
that the ultimate reality cannot be seen, heard, or grasped, mirroring how quantum
phenomena evade sensory detection and defy classical definitions of existence.
2. 此三者不可致詰，故混而為一 is reinterpreted as: “These three cannot be fathomed, and
so they merge into one”.
In this context, the ‘three’ refers to elements or states that, in classical terms, would be
distinct and separate. However, at the quantum level, the boundaries between these states
blur, making them indistinguishable, thus leading to their unification into a single, coherent
whole (Compagno et al., 2018). In quantum mechanics, particles such as electrons exist not in
a single, defined state but in a superposition of states, where multiple possibilities coexist
simultaneously (Haroche, 1998). This superposition cannot be fully comprehended or
observed directly because the act of measurement collapses the superposition into a single
state. The notion that ‘these three cannot be fathomed’ reflects that individual quantum states
are not fully determinable when considered in isolation (Esfeld, 2004); they are inherently
uncertain and interconnected.
3. 其上不皦，其下不昧。繩繩不可名，復歸於無物is reinterpreted as: “Above, it is not
bright; below, it is not dark. The appearance of the unbroken line cannot be named, it returns
to nothingness”.
This paper argues that this phrase refers to the phenomena arising from wave-particle duality
in the double-slit experiment. In this quantum experiment, particles such as photons or
electrons exhibit wave-like and particle-like properties, depending on whether they are
observed (Falkenburg, 2010). The spectrum of light and dark bands that appear in the double-
slit experiment without observation can be attributed to the probabilistic interference patterns
that emerge when particles behave as waves (Van Thuan, 2021). In this scenario, the particles
pass through both slits simultaneously, creating a pattern of constructive and destructive
interference, which results in alternating light and dark regions. This pattern reflects the wave
nature of particles, where multiple possibilities coexist, and the outcomes are determined by
the probabilistic superposition of the wave functions (Couder & Fort, 2012). However, when
an observer is introduced to measure which slit the particle passes through, the wave function
collapses, and the particle behaves more like a classical object, with no interference pattern;
in this collapsed state, the probabilistic interference ceases, and the particle follows a
deterministic path and appears as discrete lines behind the slits (Couder & Fort, 2012). The
light and dark spectrum, which initially emerges from the wave-like behaviour, disappears
under observation, leaving behind a single, unbroken line. The ‘return to nothingness’ can be
understood as the collapse of the wave function, where the multiple potential outcomes revert
to a single, definite reality upon observation. This process embodies the foundational
uncertainty of quantum mechanics, where the act of measurement determines the system's
final state.
Thus, the passage can be seen as an allegory for the dual nature of quantum particles and the
role of observation in shaping reality. The appearance of the unbroken line represents the
deterministic behaviour post-observation. At the same time, the interplay between light and
dark corresponds to the probabilistic interference that arises in the absence of measurement,
ultimately converging back into the void of potentiality when observation collapses the
quantum system.
4. 是謂無狀之狀，無物之象，是謂惚恍is reinterpreted as: “This is called the shape
without shape, the form without form. This is called vague and elusive”.
Laozi described the Dao as a ‘form without form’ or a ‘shape without shape’ that parallels
quantum entities like electrons, which do not have definite positions or shapes until observed.
In quantum mechanics, wave-particle duality exists in probabilistic states rather than defined
forms, only manifesting measurable properties when observed (Bunge, 2012). The Dao,
similarly, is elusive and defies description, much like how quantum particles challenge our
classical understanding of matter as having fixed properties.
5. 迎之不見其首，隨之不見其後is reinterpreted as: “Approach it, and you do not see its
beginning; follow it, and you do not see its end”.
This passage reflects the elusive nature of quantum systems, where the act of approaching or
measuring a particle alters its state. The idea of not seeing the beginning or end of the system
corresponds to the quantum principle that a particle's position and momentum cannot be
precisely known simultaneously, as articulated in the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
(Crease & Goldhaber, 2014). When we attempt to ‘approach’ or measure a particle’s position
(the beginning), we lose certainty about its momentum (the end), and vice versa. Thus, the
beginning and end of a quantum process remain indeterminate, depending on what aspect of
the system is being observed. The observer effect in quantum mechanics highlights how
measurement fundamentally alters the system being observed (Baclawski, 2018). Before
observation, particles exist in a probabilistic state, and their behaviour cannot be definitively
tracked regarding a clear origin or endpoint. Similarly, in the reinterpreted passage, the
inability to perceive a beginning or an end reflects the non-deterministic nature of quantum
states before observation. Once an observer interacts with the system, the wave function
collapses, and a specific outcome is realized, but until then, the trajectory or evolution of the
system remains indeterminate.
In quantum terms, this passage underscores the fluidity and unpredictability of quantum
systems, where measurement determines the reality we observe but leaves the unmeasured
aspects of the system undefined. The ‘beginning’ and ‘end’ metaphorically represent the
indeterminacy and uncertainty inherent in quantum phenomena. Without observation, the
system remains in a state of potential, where its path cannot be fully traced or predicted,
much like the elusive nature of the Dao described in the Daodejing.
6. 執古之道，以御今之有。能知古始，是謂道紀is reinterpreted as: “Hold fast to the
ancient Dao to manage present affairs. Knowing the ancient beginning is the essence of the
Dao”.
This final section speaks to the timeless and unchanging nature of the Dao, which governs
both past and present. In quantum mechanics, the fundamental principles that govern particles
and forces are considered constant and timeless, applying equally to the early universe and
the present day. The Dao governs current affairs; the laws of quantum mechanics, which
were in effect from the moment of the Big Bang, continue to govern the universe’s
behaviour. Understanding these principles, much like the Dao, provides insight into the
deepest workings of reality.
Chapter 14 of the Daodejing describes an imperceptible, undefinable, and elusive reality—
qualities that resonate deeply with the counterintuitive nature of quantum mechanics. Just as
quantum theory challenges our classical notions of existence, time, and space, Laozi’s
depiction of the Dao highlights the limits of human perception and understanding in grasping
the whole nature of reality. Through the lens of quantum mechanics, we can see that
the Dao philosophy of the unseen and the ungraspable aligns with the scientific revelation
that much of what constitutes reality exists beyond the reach of our senses and
comprehension, accessible only through the abstract, probabilistic language of quantum
theory.
This divergence between sensory experience and quantum reality has been a central theme in
the philosophical and scientific exploration of reality. Quantum mechanics challenges our
intuitive notions of space, time, and causality, presenting a fundamentally probabilistic and
interconnected universe. As Mohrhoff (2014) emphasized, the quantum world does not lend
itself to direct visualization or representation because its phenomena cannot be described in
terms of classical physical concepts. Instead, quantum mechanics offers a mathematical
framework to describe particles' behaviour and interactions, leaving us to reconcile this with
the world we experience through our senses.
The Nature of
無
as Nonbeing and Nothingness
The Dao’s concept of 無 (wu), often interpreted as ‘nothingness’ or ‘nonbeing’, transcends
conventional notions of void or absence, embodying a dynamic, generative principle within
the Dao metaphysics (Liu & Berger, 2014). Unlike the Western philosophical tradition,
where nothingness is frequently associated with emptiness or negation, the Dao posits
that wu is the foundational state from which all existence (有, you) arises (Michael, 2020).
This interpretation is illustrated in chapter 42 of Daodejing: “The Tao produced One; One
produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced All things. All things leave behind
them the Obscurity (out of which they have come) and go forward to embrace the Brightness
(into which they have emerged), while they are harmonized by the Breath of Vacancy”
(Legge, 1891). Here, Dao is depicted as the source of all phenomena. Yet, it is crucial to
understand that you emerges from wu—the primordial state of nonbeing that precedes and
enables the manifestation of existence.
Wu is not a mere absence or a static void; it is a fertile and dynamic state, the precursor to all
forms of being. This view challenges the binary opposition between being and nonbeing by
suggesting their interdependence and mutual co-creation within the overarching framework
of Dao (Feynman, 2013), the ultimate principle of the universe. The Daounderstanding
of wu as an active, creative force aligns with cosmological principles that emphasize the
cyclical nature of existence, where creation emerges from states of apparent emptiness or
potential (Brindley, 2013). The relationship between wu and you is not one of simple
negation but of profound interconnectedness and interdependence. In Chapter 40 of
the Daodejing:
The movement of the Tao
By contraries proceeds;
And weakness marks the course
Of Tao's mighty deeds.
All things under heaven sprang from It as existing (and named);
that existence sprang from It as non-existent (and not named) (Legge, 1891).
This statement reflects the Dao’s belief in the cyclical and complementary processes that
govern the universe, where nonbeing ‘wu’ gives rise to being ‘you’, and being returns to
nonbeing in an ongoing, dynamic flow. This cyclical interaction parallels certain
cosmological models that propose a universe in which expansion is followed by contraction,
leading to new cycles of creation—a concept reminiscent of the Dao’s advocacy of endless
cycles of birth, transformation, and renewal (Girardot, 1988).
Chapter 11 of the Daodejing further emphasized ‘wu’:
The thirty spokes unite in the one nave; but it is on the empty
space (for the axle), that the use of the wheel depends. Clay is
fashioned into vessels; but it is on their empty hollowness, that
their use depends. The door and windows are cut out (from the walls)
to form an apartment; but it is on the empty space (within), that its
use depends. Therefore, what has a (positive) existence serves for
profitable adaptation, and what has not that for (actual) usefulness (Legge, 1891).
This metaphor underscores the essential role of emptiness or nonbeing in the functionality
and existence of things. The empty space within the hub is crucial for the wheel’s
operation, wu provides the necessary potential for the emergence of you. The creative power
of nothingness is thus integral to the existence and utility of all forms. This perspective aligns
with certain interpretations in contemporary cosmology, where the vacuum of space, far from
being empty, is seen as a field of potential energy that can give rise to particles and fields
(Overduin & Fahr, 2001)—an echo of the Dao idea that nonbeing is pregnant with the
possibility of being.
The mutual dependence of wu and you also finds a parallel in the interrelationship between
matter and energy in modern physics, particularly as described by Einstein’s mass-energy
equivalence principle (Okun, 2009). The concept of wutranscends simple notions of
emptiness or nonbeing, embodying a dynamic and generative principle that is foundational to
the emergence of existence. This view challenges binary distinctions between being and
nonbeing, suggesting that they are interdependent within the broader framework of Dao.
The Dao understanding of wu as an active source of creation aligns with modern
cosmological theories that explore the vacuum's creative potential and the universe's cyclical
nature. Through metaphors such as the hub and the spokes, Dao highlights the essential role
of nonbeing in the functionality and existence of all things, offering a profound vision of the
universe as a dynamic, interconnected whole.
The Cosmological Role of Dao as a ‘Negatively Creative’
靜陰
jingyin Source
The Dao is conceived as the ultimate source of existence. Still, its creative power is described
as ‘negatively creative’ because it operates not through direct intervention or assertive action
but through wuwei (無為), or ‘non-action’. This notion of creation aligns with the principle
that the Dao does not impose will or intention upon the cosmos. Instead, it allows things to
emerge naturally from the primordial state of wu (無), the foundational nothingness or
nonbeing. This passive or non-assertive form of creativity is central to Dao thought,
emphasizing that creation is not a purposeful act but a spontaneous, self-generating process
that arises from the interplay of being, you, and nonbeing, wu. This interpretation rejects the
nihilistic notion of nothingness as absolute absence, presenting 無 instead as a dynamic,
generative principle. Unlike the existentialist view of ontological nothingness (Chai,
2014), Dao’s nonbeing is understood as an essential precursor to creation. Nonbeing is
integral to bringing forth the multiplicity of universe forms. According to Ames and Hall
(2003), wu is better understood as plenitude, a state of fertile potential where all things
originate and emerge. This contrasts with Western metaphysical traditions, which often
equate nothingness with a lack of existence or meaning.
In quantum field theory, the vacuum is not an empty void but a state of fluctuating energy
filled with virtual particles that constantly appear and disappear. This seemingly ‘empty’
space is, in fact, a rich source of potential, capable of generating material existence through
spontaneous quantum fluctuations (Hawking, 1976). Similarly, wu is not an inert absence but
a creative force that allows a multiplicity of forms to arise. The quantum vacuum provides the
preconditions for the emergence of particles and energy, and wu serves as the primordial
ground from which the cosmos is generated. Both the quantum vacuum and wu challenge
traditional notions of emptiness, highlighting the hidden potential within what appears to be
nothing.
Moreover, the Dao conception of wu finds resonance in modern scientific theories such as the
quantum vacuum, further underscoring the generative potential within apparent emptiness.
Ultimately, the Dao cosmology presents a non-dualistic and cyclical understanding of the
universe, where being and nonbeing are inextricably linked, each giving rise to the other
within the broader framework of Dao.
Correspondences with Modern Cosmology
The correspondences between Dao’s cosmology, as articulated in the Daodejing, and modern
scientific theories such as the Big Bang, cosmological inflation, and quantum mechanics offer
a rich field of exploration that bridges ancient philosophy and contemporary science. Though
distinct in their ontological and epistemological underpinnings, both systems provide
profound insights into the origins and nature of the universe. In cosmology, the Big Bang
theory posits that the universe began from a singular point of infinite density and
temperature, known as a singularity (Smith, 1988), and from this singularity, space, time,
matter, and energy emerged, marking the birth of the universe (Hawking & Penrose, 1970).
This concept finds a remarkable parallel in the Dao’s cosmology, where the Dao is described
as the undifferentiated source of all things. The Daodejing suggests that before the existence
of heaven and earth, there was a formless, undifferentiated entity, often identified as the Dao,
from which all things arise (Daodejing, Chapter 25).
There was something undefined and complete, coming into
existence before Heaven and Earth. How still it was and formless,
standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in
no danger (of being exhausted)! It may be regarded as the Mother of
all things (Legge, 1891).
The singularity represents a unified origin from which the cosmos unfolds; the Dao is the
source of all differentiation, the One gives rise to the multiplicity of forms in the universe
(Ames & Hall, 2003).
The cosmological model of inflation describes a rapid expansion of the universe from this
initial singularity, during which the universe grew exponentially in a fraction of a second
(Guth, 1981). Guth (1981) asserted that a “huge expansion factor would then result from a
period of exponential growth, and the entropy of the universe would be multiplied by a huge
factor when the latent heat is released. Such a scenario is completely natural in the context of
grand unified models of elementary- particle interactions” (p. 347). The inflationary
expansion mirrors Dao’s conception of the universe’s emergence from a compact,
undifferentiated state into a complex, structured system. Both frameworks reject the notion of
creation ex nihilo, instead emphasizing an emergence from a primordial, unified
potential. Dao gives birth to the One, giving rise to a myriad of things (Daodejing, Chapter
42).
The Dao produced One; One produced Two;
Two produced Three; Three produced All things.
All things leave behind them the Obscurity out of which they have come, and go forward to
embrace
the Brightness into which they have emerged, while they are harmonized by the Breath of
Vacancy (Legge, 1891).
This cosmological vision mirrors the concept of singularity in modern cosmology, where the
universe begins from an undifferentiated point of infinite density (Kragh, 2021). The Dao is
an undifferentiated source from which all things spontaneously emerge. In modern
cosmology, the Big Bang singularity represents the moment when space, time, and matter
came into existence, not through a traditional causal chain but as a spontaneous event where
the known laws of physics break down (Hawking & Penrose, 1970).
Einstein’s (1916) General Theory of Relativity and subsequent quantum cosmological models
provide a framework for understanding the universe’s origins as emerging from a vacuum
fluctuation. The notion of a vacuum is reinterpreted as a field filled with potential energy
rather than as an empty void (Overduin & Fahr, 2001). This field allows for the spontaneous
creation of particles and forces, radically challenging traditional ideas of causality and the
necessity of a specific origin event for the universe (Feynman & Brown, 2005; Hawking &
Penrose, 1970). In this model, quantum fluctuations within the vacuum serve as the seeds for
the universe’s expansion, aligning with the Dao as an origin point from which all phenomena
arise without a deliberate cause. Dao is formless and infinite, giving rise to the cosmos
through a spontaneous and self-generating process known as ziran (自然), or ‘natural
spontaneity’ (Ames & Hall, 2003).
The Quantum Cosmological Models propose that the universe emerged from a vacuum
fluctuation, a concept rooted in quantum field theory (Calzetta & Hu, 1995). In these models,
the vacuum is not an empty void but a dynamic field filled with potential energy, where
fluctuations can spontaneously give rise to particles, forces, and spacetime (Aitchison, 1985).
This idea fundamentally challenges traditional notions of causality, where events are
expected to have specific, traceable causes (Turner & Tyson, 1999). Instead, it suggests that
the universe could have arisen spontaneously from this quantum vacuum, without a preceding
cause, echoing the Dao’s principle of ziran (自然), or spontaneous self-arising.
Yang’s (2024) framework introduces a novel interpretation of cosmic inflation, where
inflation is not merely the exponential expansion of pre-existing spacetime but the dynamic
generation of space and time itself. This model suggests that inflation is triggered by the
condensation of Planck-scale energy into a vacuum, leading to the emergence of spacetime as
a dynamical entity. Unlike traditional inflationary models that depend on an inflaton field,
Yang’s (2024) approach is background-independent, meaning it does not assume a pre-
existing spacetime or rely on predefined structures or forces. This conceptualization has
significant parallels with Dao thought, particularly as articulated in the Daodejing, positing
that the cosmos is governed by spontaneous, self-generating processes that do not require
external causes or predefined structures—an idea encapsulated in the principle of wuwei (無
為), or non-action, where actions are natural, effortless, and in harmony with
the Dao (Daodejing, Chapter 37).
The Tao in its regular course does nothing for the sake of doing it, and so there is nothing
which it does not do.
If princes and kings were able to maintain it, all things would of themselves be transformed
by them.
If this transformation became to me an object of desire, I would express the desire by the
nameless simplicity.
Simplicity without a name
Is free from all external aim.
With no desire, at rest and still,
All things go right as of their will (Legge, 1891).
All things go right as of their will or wuwei (
無為
), and the Spontaneous Cosmological
Processes
In Chapter 37, Laozi presents the Dao operating without deliberate action but facilitating the
manifestation of all things. This aligns with modern cosmological models, such as those in
quantum cosmology, where the universe is said to arise from spontaneous quantum
fluctuations in a vacuum. In these models, space, time, and matter emerge naturally from an
undifferentiated state of potential energy without an external cause or predefined structure
(Barad, 2007). The cosmological implications of wuwei are evident in the way Dao describes
the origin and evolution of the cosmos. According to Chapter 42 of the Daodejing, the Dao
gives birth to the One, which in turn gives rise to the Two, and from the Two come the
myriad things. This cosmological sequence reflects a spontaneous process of creation that
requires no external cause. The universe unfolds naturally from the Dao, much as space, time,
and matter emerge from the quantum vacuum in contemporary cosmological theories
(Wesson, 2007). Wesson’s (2007) space-time-matter explores how higher-dimensional
theories can unify space, time, and matter, positing that the universe may be structured across
more dimensions than those observable in our current understanding of relativity. In
Wesson’s (2007) higher-dimensional cosmology, space, time, and matter are not separate
entities but are intricately connected through the fabric of the universe. This reflects
the Dao’s role as the underlying unity from which all things emerge. In the Daodejing,
the Dao is described as formless and eternal, giving rise to the structured world of form and
phenomena (Daodejing, Chapter 25). Wesson’s (2007) view of higher-dimensional spacetime
implies that our observable universe manifests a more profound, multi-dimensional reality
that is formless and beyond direct observation—an idea that resonates with Dao.
The idea that spacetime and matter are interconnected and arise from a deeper, underlying
reality is also compatible with Chapter 16 of the Daodejing, which emphasizes the cyclical
nature of existence:
“All things alike go through their processes of activity, and (then) we see them return (to their
original state). When things have displayed their luxuriant growth, we see each of them return
to its root. This returning to their root is what we call the state of stillness; and that stillness
may be called a reporting that they have fulfilled their appointed end” (Legge, 1891). In
Wesson’s (2007) higher-dimensional universe, matter and energy emerge and evolve from
hidden dimensions; the Dao’s view sees all things returning to their source in the Dao,
indicating a cyclical, dynamic relationship between the manifest and the unmanifest.
Dao and the Unification of Spacetime and Matter
In the quest for a unified theory that reconciles the gravitational framework of general
relativity with the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, Wesson’s (2007) work on
higher-dimensional cosmology offers significant contributions. General relativity, governing
the macroscopic behaviour of spacetime and gravity, and quantum mechanics, describing the
subatomic world of particles and forces, have long been treated as distinct domains due to
their differing laws and scales. Wesson’s (2007) approach—exploring the role of additional
dimensions beyond the familiar four—mirrors broader scientific efforts to develop a theory of
quantum gravity that would unify these two descriptions of reality under a comprehensive
framework.
Wesson (2007) envisioned the universe as embedded in multiple, imperceptible dimensions
that could critically explain the forces and particles governing both the macrocosmic and
microcosmic realms. String theory and M-theory also incorporate extra dimensions in their
attempts to unify gravity with the other fundamental forces (Green et al., 1987). Wesson’s
(2007) cosmology contributes to this broader theoretical landscape, suggesting that gravity,
spacetime, and quantum forces are interconnected facets of a larger, multidimensional reality.
This scientific pursuit of unity in the natural world resonates with the Dao philosophy, which
emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things and the universe as a unified whole, with all
phenomena arising from the Dao—a formless, generative source.
The challenging notions of time discussed by Hawking and Penrose (1970) find parallels in
both Dao’s thought and modern cosmology. In classical physics, time is viewed as a linear
progression (Zeh, 1989); however, general relativity and quantum mechanics introduce more
complex concepts where time can curve or even cease altogether near singularities (Bruce &
Giblin, 1992). This disruption of linear time is akin to the Dao’s view, which perceives time
not as a straight line with a clear beginning and end but as a cycle of birth and return. Chapter
16 of the Daodejing: “All things alike go through their processes of activity, and (then) we
see them return (to their original state). When things have displayed their luxuriant growth,
we see each of them return to its root” (Legge, 1891). This cyclical understanding of time
corresponds with modern cosmological models, such as Penrose’s (2011) theory of
Conformal Cyclic Cosmology (CCC), where the universe undergoes infinite cycles of
expansion and contraction, with each Big Bang marking the transition from one ‘aeon’ to the
next.
The Dao philosophy and Penrose’s (2011) CCC challenge the traditional view of time as a
linear trajectory from past to future, proposing a more fluid, dynamic understanding of
existence instead. The integration of these perspectives highlights a profound correspondence
between ancient metaphysical concepts and cosmological theories, where space, time, and
matter are seen not as isolated entities but as interconnected aspects of a unified, cyclical
reality. Hawking and Penrose’s (2010) “The Nature’s of Space and Time” provides a
profound exploration of the conceptual foundations of spacetime, particularly in the context
of general relativity and quantum mechanics. Their work grapples with the ultimate nature of
the universe, especially regarding whether the classical models of space and time can be
reconciled with the unpredictable behaviour observed in quantum systems. Hawking and
Penrose (2010) discussed the singularities that appear in Einstein’s (1916) General Theory of
Relativity, notably in the context of the Big Bang and black holes, and how these singularities
challenge our understanding of causality, time, and the structure of reality. Singularities, such
as those predicted in the Big Bang and black holes under Einstein’s (1916) General Theory of
Relativity, mark points where the known laws of physics break down, leading to the cessation
of time as we understand it and a state where the spacetime curvature becomes infinite. These
singularities provide a window into the limitations of our understanding of reality and prompt
questions about the nature of existence itself. This scientific discourse on singularities has
intriguing parallels with the Dao cosmology, particularly the notion of returning to
the Dao and the concept of 歸根 (guigen)—“returning to the root,” a principle that is crucial
in understanding Dao’s view of cosmological cycles.
In Einstein’s (1916), black holes represent regions of space where gravitational forces
become so extreme that not even light can escape. At the core of a black hole is the
singularity, a point of infinite density where spacetime collapses.
The image of huge insatiable mouths that devour everything and return nothing has become,
no exaggeration, a part of human culture, from science fiction to folklore. Modern
astrophysics considers black holes as quite real objects in space, emerging as a result of the
gravitational collapse of massive stars, while many phenomena in the cores of galaxies and
quasars are well explained by the existence of supermassive black holes of billions of solar
masses (Bronnikov & Rubin, 2021, p. 11).
Hawking and Penrose (2010) discussed how this singularity acts as an event horizon for the
laws of physics, challenging our understanding of the universe’s fundamental structure. In
the Dao’s cosmology, black holes can be metaphorically associated with the concept of 歸根
(guigen)—the return to the root, an idea that refers to the cyclical return to the Daofrom
which all things emerge and to which they ultimately return. Much like this Dao principle,
the black hole signifies a return to the most fundamental state. At this singularity, spacetime
and matter dissolve into their most basic form, beyond the comprehension of classical
physics. This return to the root mirrors the Dao’s view of wu (無), or non-being, as a state of
potential from which all things are born and into which they ultimately dissolve. Near a
singularity, the concept of time ceases to have meaning in the conventional sense because the
curvature of spacetime becomes infinite. The return to the Dao is an essential part of
existence, a process in which all beings and phenomena inevitably partake. Singularities,
therefore, can be viewed as physical manifestations of this metaphysical principle—events in
which the universe’s structure returns to a primordial state, where the conventional
distinctions between time, space, and matter dissolve.
In Chapter 40 of the Daodejing, the reversal and yielding are the movements of the Dao.
The movement of the Tao
By contraries proceeds;
And weakness marks the course
Of Tao's mighty deeds.
All things under heaven sprang from It as existing (and named);
that existence sprang from It as non-existent (and not named) (Legge, 1891).
This cyclical perspective of reality closely parallels the cosmological phenomena associated
with singularities (Turok & Steinhardt, 2005), where time itself either reverses or collapses
into a point of infinite density, marking the boundaries of spacetime and the limits of classical
physical laws (Machamer & Silberstein, 2002). Singularities, such as those found at the
centres of black holes or posited in the Big Bang, represent moments of extreme conditions
where conventional conceptions of time, space, and matter cease to function as expected
(Wald, 1992). This notion of a collapse or reversal resonates with the Dao’s concept of
cyclical transformation, where the Dao moves in a pattern of return, constantly folding back
upon itself to restore balance and initiate new phases of existence. In cyclic cosmological
models, the universe is theorized to undergo repeated expansion and contraction phases, an
endless loop of creation and destruction (Steinhardt & Turok, 2002). Following a period of
expansion, these models suggest that the universe may eventually reverse course, contract,
and collapse back into a singularity, from which a new phase of expansion could begin
(Smolin, 1992). This cosmological rhythm mirrors Dao’s principle of reversal as an intrinsic
aspect of cosmic flow, where every movement toward growth or expansion is
counterbalanced by a return or contraction, maintaining a dynamic equilibrium as described
in chapter 16: “All things alike go through their processes of activity, and (then) we see them
return (to their original state). When things have displayed their luxuriant growth, we see
each of them return to its root” (Legge, 1891).
Moreover, Dao’s idea of yielding as a functional principle can be expanded upon by
observing natural systems’ tendency to evolve through processes of adaptation and energy
efficiency rather than resistance. Yielding, in this context, can be seen in how organisms and
ecosystems adapt to changing environmental conditions by conserving energy and resources,
maximizing survival through flexibility. Thus, reversal, in this sense, refers to the perpetual
return to a primordial state—an acknowledgement of cyclical patterns that echo across the
natural and cosmic order. The return to the Dao is an essential part of existence, a process in
which all beings and phenomena inevitably partake. Singularities, therefore, can be viewed as
physical manifestations of this metaphysical principle—events in which the universe’s
structure returns to a primordial state, where the conventional distinctions between time,
space, and matter dissolve.
Black Holes as a Metaphor for the Dao’s Infinite Depth
As discussed by Hawking and Penrose (1970), black holes offer a metaphorical lens through
which to understand the Dao’s infinite depth. In Chapter 4 of the Daodejing, the Dao is
described as something that is “empty yet inexhaustible” (Lin, 2017), a description that
mirrors the way black holes are viewed in contemporary physics—as regions that seem
devoid of matter and energy yet contain boundless gravitational pull (Joslin, 2018). Black
holes are both ‘empty’ and ‘full’ in that they contain a singularity, a point of infinite density,
even though they appear to be voids in space (Grotstein, 1990).
The Daoist understanding of nothingness as the infinite ground for presence. With that
understanding and within the limits of language, she proposes the metaphor of porous
existent. The existent is porous in the sense that boundaries are always permeable where the
unfathomable depth, or nothingness, is implicated. The nothingness penetrates existence, yet
it is also the ground upon which existence is perched. The existent is porous also in the sense
that there are heterogeneous dimensions and intensities, slipping in at every instant of
duration (Zhao, 2020, P. 77).
This paradox of emptiness and fullness in black holes parallels Dao’s concept of wu (無), or
nothingness, which is not a void in the conventional sense but a fertile potential from which
all things arise. With their gravitational singularities, black holes represent a place where our
understanding of space and time dissolves, transcending human comprehension and linguistic
description, as expressed in Chapter 1 of the Daodejing: “The Dao that can be spoken is not
the eternal Dao”. The Chinese text in Chapter 4:
道冲，而用之或不盈。渊兮，似万物之宗；挫其锐，解其纷，和其光，同其尘，湛兮
，似或存。吾不知谁之子，象帝之先。
Here, this paper re-contextualizes and re-interprets Chapter 4 through the lens of cosmology
as a reflection of the inherent nature of the universe and its fundamental principles of
emptiness, balance, and the primordial origin of all things.
1. 道冲，而用之或不盈 is reinterpreted as the Dao is empty, yet its use is inexhaustible.
When applied to black hole physics, "道冲" (dao chong) reflects the behaviour of spacetime
and matter as they interact with the gravitational pull of a black hole (Oriti, 2014). A black
hole, as described by general relativity, is a region of spacetime where gravity is so intense
that the escape velocity exceeds the speed of light (Penrose, 1972). This creates an event
horizon, a boundary beyond which no information or matter can escape (Punsly & Coroniti,
1989). The 冲 (chong) or ‘rushing in’ can be metaphorically linked to how matter and energy
are drawn into the black hole, accelerating as they approach the event horizon. The ‘rushing’
aspect of the Dao mirrors the rapid pull of matter towards the event horizon of a black hole.
As an object approaches this boundary, time dilation and gravitational forces increase
exponentially, effectively ‘rushing’ the object towards the singularity. This behaviour aligns
with the description of the Dao as an inexorable force pulling all things inward without filling
or becoming exhausted—a perfect analogy for the event horizon, which constantly absorbs
matter and light but remains unchanged in its form and function.
As objects approach the event horizon, they experience time dilation due to the intense
gravitational field of the black hole (Wald, 1992). To an external observer, it appears as
though the infalling object slows down, asymptotically freezing at the edge of the event
horizon. In contrast, from the object’s perspective, it continues to fall towards the singularity.
This paradox of simultaneous rushing and stillness reflects the Dao’s dual nature as both
dynamic and tranquil. In this sense, ‘道冲’ not only represents the rush of matter into the
black hole but also the stillness that accompanies it from the perspective of an external
observer. This stillness aligns with the Dao’s enigmatic, paradoxical qualities.
2. ‘渊兮，似万物之宗’ is reinterpreted as deep like the gravitational well, with the origin of
all things.
This ‘deepness’ refers to the gravitational well drawing all things into the singularity
(Penrose, 1969). The singularity, a point of infinite density and zero volume, represents the
ultimate source of all matter, energy, and spacetime (Misner, 1969). The passage’s reference
to the Dao as ‘the origin of all things’ mirrors this cosmological understanding, where from
the ‘depth’ of the singularity, the entire universe emerged in a process of rapid expansion,
giving birth to galaxies, stars, and planets.
3. ‘挫其锐，解其纷’ is reinterpreted as dulling sharpness, resolving its complexity.
In black hole physics, ‘dulling its sharpness’ here can metaphorically be referred to as how
matter and energy are smoothed out as they fall into a black hole (Rossi et al., 2010). As
matter is drawn toward the event horizon, it undergoes extreme tidal forces due to the black
hole’s immense gravitational gradient (Gezari, 2021). This gravitational stretching, often
called spaghettification, reduces objects' structural integrity, smoothing them out into
elongated streams of matter (Moored, 2017; Viththani et al., 2024). This process effectively
‘dulls’ the sharpness or distinctiveness of objects, reducing them to simpler forms as they
approach the black hole. The concept of ‘dulling sharpness’ also mirrors the homogenizing
effects seen within accretion disks around black holes (Balbus & Hawley, 1998). Accretion
disks consist of gas, dust, and other matter spiralling inward toward the black hole
(Abramowicz & Straub, 2014). The intense gravitational and frictional forces within the disk
dissipate the energy of this material, causing it to lose its sharp, chaotic distinctions and
instead form a relatively smooth, uniform disk of matter. Over time, this process results in a
balanced, stable inflow of matter—akin to how the Dao ‘dulls’ the extremities of sharpness
and brings about balance.
The phrase 解其纷 ‘resolving its complexity’ can be linked to the black hole’s capacity to
reduce complex systems into simpler, more ordered states through entropy and energy
dissipation. In thermodynamics, black holes are known to increase entropy, as matter and
energy that fall into the black hole lose their detailed structure and become part of the black
hole’s overall mass and energy distribution (Hayward, 2004). This loss of complexity can be
viewed as the black hole ‘resolving’ the chaotic and disordered states of infalling matter,
leading to a simplified state characterized by the black hole’s mass, charge, and spin, as
described by the No-Hair Theorem1 in black hole physics (Tang & Xu, 2022). Additionally,
as the black hole absorbs matter, it loses its unique properties hidden behind the event
horizon (Hawking, 1976). This corresponds to Dao’s principle of resolving complexity by
breaking down distinctions and unifying disparate elements into a singular, undifferentiated
whole. In black hole dynamics, once matter crosses the event horizon, it is no longer
distinguishable from other matter—the overall gravitational system of the black hole
subsumes its complexity (James et al., 2015). This mirrors how the Dao reduces complexity
and confusion by harmonizing and simplifying diverse elements into a unified flow.
The tidal forces at play near a black hole, which cause spaghettification and the breakdown of
matter, serve as the ‘sharpness-dulling’ aspect of the Dao. These forces strip matter of its
original form and reduce it to fundamental components, erasing any irregularities or distinct
shapes. Similarly, the increase in entropy as the matter is absorbed by the black hole reflects
the ‘resolution of complexity’ inherent in the Dao. As matter is drawn into the black hole, its
internal complexity is lost, and the system as a whole moves towards greater disorder while at
the same time becoming more unified in terms of its mass-energy distribution.
In both the Dao and cosmological contexts, ‘挫其锐，解其纷’ represents a natural process
of harmonization. The black hole, like the Dao, simplifies and unifies. Matter that falls into a
black hole is stripped of its complexity and reduced to fundamental properties, as
the Dao ‘dulls sharpness’ and ‘resolves confusion’ to bring about balance and order. This
ongoing simplification mirrors the Dao's continuous function of regulating and balancing all
things, drawing them into a state of unity.
4. ‘和其光，同其尘’ is reinterpreted as harmonizing its light with the dust.
The phrase "和其光，同其尘," traditionally interpreted as ‘harmonizing its light with the
dust’, is reinterpreted in this paper through a cosmological and relativistic lens, particularly in
the context of Einstein’s (1905) equation E=mc2, where energy (E) is equated to mass (m)
multiplied by the speed of light squared (c2). In this interpretation, ‘光’ (light) corresponds to
energy, while ‘尘’ (dust) symbolizes mass or matter. Therefore, the idea of harmonizing light
and dust resonates with the fundamental unity between energy and mass, as articulated by
Einstein’s (1905) theory of relativity.
Einstein’s (1905) equation E=mc2 expresses the profound equivalence of mass and energy,
asserting that mass can be converted into energy and vice versa. The phrase ‘和其光，同其
尘’ can, therefore, be re-interpreted as describing the process by which mass and energy
interact and transform, particularly under the extreme conditions near a black hole. In black
hole environments, this equivalence becomes particularly significant. As matter (dust) is
drawn into the black hole, its mass-energy content is transformed—potentially releasing
radiation (light) in electromagnetic emissions as the matter accelerates and heats up in the
accretion disk before crossing the event horizon. This process exemplifies the harmonization
of light and dust, or the transformation of mass into energy, according to the principles of
E=mc2. In the context of black holes, the accretion disk is a region of matter spiralling inward
toward the event horizon. As the matter (dust) accelerates due to the black hole’s intense
gravitational field, it undergoes friction and collisions, converting its gravitational potential
energy into radiation (light) (Balbus & Hawley, 1998). This process of energy emission from
the accretion disk is a direct manifestation of the equivalence of mass and energy, where the
infalling matter releases photons, particularly in the form of X-rays (Abramowicz & Straub,
2014). The light emitted from the accretion disk symbolizes the ‘光’ harmonizing with the ‘
尘’ of the matter as it is transformed and radiated away. This phenomenon can be described
by relativistic models of energy conversion, where the intense gravitational forces near the
black hole accelerate matter to relativistic speeds, allowing for a highly efficient conversion
of mass into energy (Amaro-Seoane, 2018). According to astrophysical models, up to 10% of
the mass of matter falling into a black hole can be converted into radiation (Adams &
Laughlin, 1997), making black holes some of the brightest objects in the universe despite
their reputation for being invisible (Shapiro & Teukolsky, 2008).
As light and dust approach the event horizon, they interact in complex ways. Photons (light)
experience gravitational redshift, where their wavelengths stretch as they climb out of the
black hole’s gravitational well, while particles (dust) may be stretched and compressed
through tidal forces (James et al., 2015). This interaction can be seen as a metaphorical
‘harmonization’ of light and matter, where both entities are subject to the same gravitational
effects, unifying their behaviour as they approach the singularity. The redshift of photons
near the event horizon signifies the alteration of energy as it interacts with the gravitational
field (Mottola, 2011), further illustrating how the black hole environment harmonizes mass
and energy.
A deeper cosmological implication of ‘和其光，同其尘’ is found in black hole
thermodynamics, particularly through Hawking radiation. According to Hawking’s (1976)
theory, black holes can emit radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon.
Hawking radiation arises from quantum effects near the event horizon of a black hole.
According to quantum field theory, the vacuum of space is not truly empty but is filled with
fleeting pairs of virtual particles that continuously form and annihilate. Near the event
horizon of a black hole, one of these virtual particles can fall into the black hole while the
other escapes, appearing as radiation to an outside observer (Freivogel, 2014). This process
produces thermal radiation from the black hole, known as Hawking radiation, which causes
the black hole to lose mass over time (Hawking, 1974). Hawking radiation implies that black
holes are not entirely ‘black’ but emit radiation due to quantum processes. This radiation
slowly depletes the black hole’s mass, meaning that, over incredibly long timescales, a black
hole can evaporate completely (Hawking, 1974). Hawking radiation directly embodies the
equivalence of mass and energy expressed by Einstein’s equation E=mc2. In this process,
mass from the black hole is transformed into radiation. Thus, ‘harmonizing its light with the
dust’ can be interpreted as the black hole's intrinsic ability to convert its mass (尘) into light (
光) through the mechanism of Hawking radiation. As the black hole emits this radiation, it
diminishes in size and mass, demonstrating the dynamic interplay between these two
fundamental properties of the universe.
In the previous discussion of ‘挫其锐，解其纷’ (dulling its sharpness, resolving its
complexity), in the context of Hawking radiation, this phrase takes on an additional layer of
meaning. The quantum processes near the event horizon resolve the complexity of virtual
particles and matter into simple radiation, allowing the black hole to release energy
(Hawking, 1974). This conversion reflects the Dao’s concept of resolving and harmonizing
opposing forces—as mass and energy are reconciled in the radiation process. Another
example of the harmonization of light and dust is the relativistic jets2 emitted from
supermassive black holes (Blandford, 2001; Blandford & Rees, 1974). These jets are highly
energetic outflows of particles and radiation emitted perpendicular to the accretion disk.
Launching these jets involves the interaction between the black hole’s magnetic fields and the
matter (dust) in the accretion disk. As the dust spirals inward, some of its energy is
channelled into these powerful beams of light and radiation extending far into space, again
illustrating the harmonization of light (energy) and dust (mass).
The phrase "和其光，同其尘" in the context of black hole physics, when reinterpreted using
Einstein’s E=mc2, speaks to the integral connection between light (energy) and dust (mass).
Mass is regularly converted into energy in the extreme environments around black holes,
demonstrating the principle of mass-energy equivalence. This harmonization of light and dust
can be seen in the processes of accretion, relativistic jets, and Hawking radiation, where
matter is transformed into radiation through the immense gravitational forces of the black
hole. The Dao’s imagery of harmonizing light with dust resonates deeply with the relativistic
and cosmological understanding of black hole behaviour, further bridging ancient
philosophical insights with modern astrophysical discoveries.
5. ‘湛兮，似或存’ is reinterpreted as still, as if barely existing.
In this context, the Dao is portrayed as tranquil and nearly imperceptible, a characterization
that parallels the elusive yet fundamental nature of dark matter and dark energy. These
mysterious forces, which remain invisible to direct observation, constitute most of the
universe’s mass-energy composition (Spergel, 2015). Much like the Dao, their existence is
inferred indirectly through their gravitational effects on visible matter and the large-scale
structure of the cosmos (Rees, 2008). Despite being undetectable through conventional
means, dark matter and dark energy exert a profound influence, shaping the universe’s
formation and driving its accelerated expansion (Sen, 2024). This analogy underscores the
concept of an unseen but crucial element that governs the underlying mechanics of reality,
highlighting the depth of their role in maintaining cosmic order while remaining beyond
ordinary perception.
6. ‘吾不知谁之子，象帝之先’ is reinterpreted as not knowing how this arises, but it seems
to be the precedent process.
The Dao is described as timeless and beyond origin, much like the notion of a pre-Big Bang
state, which eludes conventional understanding. Modern cosmology struggles with questions
about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang, as our current theories break down at the
singularity. This line alludes to the mystery of the Dao’s origin, paralleling the cosmological
challenge of understanding the universe’s ultimate beginnings. The phrase ‘precedent
process’ could signify the Dao’s primacy over all creation, similar to how cosmologists view
the singularity or even quantum fields as predating the observable universe. The passage from
the Daodejing weaves together philosophical ideas that align with cosmological principles.
The Dao’s emptiness and inexhaustibility resonate with the vacuum of space, which, though
empty, serves as the arena for cosmic phenomena. Its ‘deepness’ reflects the singularity at the
heart of the Big Bang, the mysterious source of all existence. The processes of entropy, the
interplay between light and matter, and the imperceptible presence of dark matter and dark
energy all serve as cosmological counterparts to the Dao’s action, reinforcing the text’s
depiction of the Dao as the invisible, all-encompassing force behind the universe's formation
and operation.
Conclusion
The research presented here bridges the ancient philosophical insights of Dao, as articulated
in the Daodejing, with contemporary cosmological theories, offering a profound
interdisciplinary dialogue that enhances our understanding of the universe. By exploring the
correspondences between the Dao concepts of wu (nonbeing), ziran (natural spontaneity),
and modern scientific principles such as quantum mechanics, relativity, and higher-
dimensional cosmology, this study illuminates how ancient metaphysical frameworks can
inform and enrich contemporary scientific inquiry.
The primary objective of this research was to establish connections between the Dao’s
worldview, particularly the concept of Dao as the formless, generative source of all existence,
and modern scientific challenges in understanding the nature of reality. The study sought to
demonstrate how Daodejing anticipates key themes in quantum indeterminacy, non-linearity,
and the emergence of complex systems, proposing that these ancient insights provide
valuable interpretive frameworks for addressing some of the most fundamental questions in
contemporary science. By comparing the Dao principles of cyclical existence, non-action
(wuwei), and the interdependence of being and nonbeing with modern theories such as
quantum cosmology, the Big Bang, and black hole physics, the research highlights the
relevance of Dao thought in the context of modern scientific exploration.
This research contributes to a broader interdisciplinary understanding by showing how
ancient philosophical doctrines, particularly those of the Daodejing, intersect with and inform
modern scientific and social theories. The comparison between Dao cosmology and
contemporary scientific models enriches our understanding of both fields and opens new
pathways for exploring the dynamic and often elusive nature of reality. By framing
the Daodejing as an early philosophical reflection on concepts relevant to today's scientific
paradigms, this study demonstrates how ancient wisdom can offer profound insights into
modern challenges, particularly in cosmology, quantum physics, and social science.
In conclusion, the Daodejing provides a holistic perspective integrating metaphysical
understanding with scientific and social exploration. This research underscores the value of
interdisciplinary dialogue in uncovering the deep parallels between ancient and modern
thought, ultimately bridging the gap between philosophical traditions and contemporary
scientific inquiry. This study enhances our understanding of the universe by revisiting and
reinterpreting the Daodejing in light of modern science. It offers practical guidance for
addressing complex social and political issues, advocating for a more harmonious and
adaptive approach to governance and human-nature relations.
Statements and Declarations
Conflict of Interest Statement
The author declares that the research was conducted without any commercial or financial
relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.
About the Authors
David Leong, Ph.D., is an entrepreneurship theorist with more than two and a half decades of
experience as an entrepreneur. He started his entrepreneurial ventures early after graduating
from the National University of Singapore in 1994 with a Bachelor of Business
Administration degree. He has two PhDs – one from Charisma University and the other from
the University of Canberra. He has founded at least fifteen ventures spanning corporate
finance, business and marketing consultancy, technology solutions, asset management, and
human resources (HR). He is widely regarded as an expert resource and a leader in the
business field. In addition, local media, such as The Straits Times, Business Times, Lianhe
Zaobao, and Channel News Asia, often seek his views on economics, politics, and HR issues.
His research is in entrepreneurship. His other research interest is the Chinese Yijing (Book of
Changes). He draws the relationship between Yijing and modern science, particularly
quantum physics. He is the author of several scientific and professional articles, as well as
chapters in books. He also published a book “Uncertainty, Timing and Luck on Quantum
Terms in Entrepreneurship”. ORCID: 0000-0002-9440-3606.
• https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9440-3606
• https://canberra.academia.edu/DavidLeong
• https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per_id=4694278
• http://straitstrades.com/david/
Footnotes
1 The no-hair theorem posits that all stationary black hole solutions within the Einstein-
Maxwell equations of gravitation and electromagnetism in general relativity are fully
described by three independent, externally observable classical parameters: mass, electric
charge, and angular momentum. Other properties, such as geometry and magnetic moment,
are determined by these parameters, while any additional information (referred to
metaphorically as "hair") about the matter that formed or is falling into the black hole
becomes inaccessible beyond the event horizon. Once the black hole stabilizes—emitting
gravitational and electromagnetic waves—this extraneous information is lost to external
observers. The term "black holes have no hair" was popularized by physicist John Archibald
Wheeler to capture this concept.
2 Relativistic jets are narrow, highly collimated streams of plasma that are ejected from the
regions surrounding compact objects like black holes at velocities approaching the speed of
light. These jets are typically observed in systems such as active galactic nuclei (AGN),
quasars, and X-ray binaries. Relativistic jets are believed to be powered by the rotational
energy of a black hole or by the magnetic fields associated with its accretion disk. The
material in these jets is accelerated to near-light speeds, and the jets often extend for vast
distances, sometimes thousands of light-years, interacting with the surrounding medium. This
phenomenon is central to understanding high-energy astrophysics and the mechanisms of
black hole accretion and feedback (Blandford & Rees, 1974).
References
• Abramowicz, M., & Straub, O. (2014). Accretion discs. Scholarpedia, 9(8),
2408. https://doi.org/10.4249/scholarpedia.2408
• Adams, F. C., & Laughlin, G. (1997). A dying universe: the long-term fate and
evolution of astrophysical objects. Reviews of Modern Physics, 69(2), 337–
372. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337
• Aerts, D. (2014). Quantum theory and human perception of the macro-
world. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00554
• Aitchison, I. J. R. (1985). Nothing’s plenty the vacuum in modern quantum field
theory. Contemporary Physics, 26(4), 333–
391. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107518508219107
• Amaro-Seoane, P. (2018). Relativistic dynamics and extreme mass ratio
inspirals. Living Reviews in Relativity, 21(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41114-018-
0013-8
• Ames, R., & Hall, D. (2003). Dao de jing: A philosophical translation. Ballantine
Books.
• Ames, R. T. (2023). A sourcebook in classical Confucian philosophy. State University
of New York Press.
• Baclawski, K. (2018). The Observer Effect. 2018 IEEE Conference on Cognitive and
Computational Aspects of Situation Management (CogSIMA), 83–
89. https://doi.org/10.1109/COGSIMA.2018.8423983
• Balbus, S. A., & Hawley, J. F. (1998). Instability, turbulence, and enhanced transport
in accretion disks. Reviews of Modern Physics, 70(1), 1–
53. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.70.1
• Barad, K. (2007). Meeting the universe halfway: Quantum physics and the
entanglement of matter and meaning. Duke University Press.
• Blandford, R. D. (2001). Black Holes and Relativistic Jets. Progress of Theoretical
Physics Supplement, 143, 182–201. https://doi.org/10.1143/PTPS.143.182
• Blandford, R. D., & Rees, M. J. (1974). A “Twin-Exhaust” Model for Double Radio
Sources. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 169(3), 395–
415. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/169.3.395
• Bohr, N. (1928). The quantum postulate and the recent development of atomic theory
(Vol. 3). R. & R. Clarke, Limited.
• Brindley, E. F. (2013). The Cosmos as Creative Mind: Spontaneous Arising,
Generating, and Creating in the Heng Xian. Dao, 12(2), 189–
206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-013-9325-2
• Bronnikov, K., & Rubin, S. (2021). Modern ideas of gravitation and cosmology — a
brief essay. In Black Holes, Cosmology and Extra Dimensions (pp. 1–25). WORLD
SCIENTIFIC. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789811233456_0001
• Bruce, J. W., & Giblin, P. J. (1992). Curves and Singularities: a geometrical
introduction to singularity theory. Cambridge University Press.
• Bunge, M. (2012). Method, model and matter (Vol. 44). Springer Science & Business
Media.
• Bunge, M. (2013). Quantum theory and reality (Vol. 2). Springer Science & Business
Media.
• Calzetta, E., & Hu, B. L. (1995). Quantum fluctuations, decoherence of the mean
field, and structure formation in the early Universe. Physical Review D, 52(12), 6770–
6788. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.52.6770
• Čapek, M. (1991). Particles or Events? (pp. 191–218). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
94-009-2123-8_11
• Chai, D. (2014). Zhuangzi’s Meontological Notion of Time. Dao, 13(3), 361–
377. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-014-9384-z
• Chai, D. (2016). Rethinking the Daoist Concept of Nature. Journal of Chinese
Philosophy, 43(3–4), 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6253.12262
• Compagno, G., Castellini, A., & Lo Franco, R. (2018). Dealing with indistinguishable
particles and their entanglement. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A:
Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2123),
20170317. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2017.0317
• Couder, Y., & Fort, E. (2012). Probabilities and trajectories in a classical wave-
particle duality. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 361,
012001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/361/1/012001
• Crease, R. P., & Goldhaber, A. S. (2014). The quantum moment: how Planck, Bohr,
Einstein, and Heisenberg taught us to love uncertainty. WW Norton & Company.
• Dimitrova, T. L., & Weis, A. (2008). The wave-particle duality of light: A
demonstration experiment. American Journal of Physics, 76(2), 137–
142. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2815364
• Einstein, A. (1905). Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy
content. Annalen Der Physik, 18(13), 639–641.
• Einstein, A. (1916). The foundation of the general theory of relativity. Annalen
Phys, 49(7), 769–822.
• Esfeld, M. (2004). Quantum entanglement and a metaphysics of relations. Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of
Modern Physics, 35(4), 601–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsb.2004.04.008
• Falkenburg, B. (2010). Wave–Particle Duality in Quantum Optics. In EPSA
Philosophical Issues in the Sciences(pp. 31–42). Springer
Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3252-2_4
• Feng, C. (2023). The Dao of One: A New Investigation into the Relation Between
Dao and One. Philosophy East and West, 73(4), 805–
827. https://doi.org/10.1353/pew.2023.a909965
• Feynman, R. (1998). The uncertainty of science. The Meaning of It All: Thoughts of a
Citizen-Scientist, 9–
24. https://maps.unomaha.community/Maher/GEOL1010/lecture1/feynman-1.pdf
• Feynman, R. (2013). Whole in the part. In Psyche’s Veil: Psychotherapy, Fractals
and Complexity (p. 259).
• Feynman, R. P. (2005). The pleasure of finding things out: The best short works of
Richard P. Feynman. Basic Books.
• Feynman, R. P., & Brown, L. M. (2005). Feynman’s thesis: a new approach to
quantum theory. World Scientific.
• Fox, M. (2010). Optical properties of solids (Vol. 3). Oxford University Press.
• Freivogel, B. (2014). Energy and information near black hole horizons. Journal of
Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics, 2014(07), 041–
041. https://doi.org/10.1088/1475-7516/2014/07/041
• Gao, Y. (2022). Rethinking Guo Xiang’s Concept of “Nothing” in the Perspective of
His Reception of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Religions, 13(7), 593.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13070593
• Gezari, S. (2021). Tidal Disruption Events. Annual Review of Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 59(1), 21–58. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-astro-111720-030029
• Girardot, N. J. (1988). Myth and meaning in early Taoism: The theme of chaos (hun-
tun) (No. 1). Univ of California Press.
• Green, M. B., Schwarz, J. H., & Witten, E. (1987). Superstring Theory. Cambridge
University Press.
• Grotstein, J. S. (1990). Nothingness, Meaninglessness, Chaos, and the “Black Hole”
II. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 26(3), 377–
407. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107530.1990.10746668
• Guth, A. H. (1981). Inflationary universe: A possible solution to the horizon and
flatness problems. Physical Review D, 23(2), 347–
356. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.23.347
• Haroche, S. (1998). Entanglement, Decoherence and the Quantum/Classical
Boundary. Physics Today, 51(7), 36–42. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.882326
• Hasenkamp, M., & Sun, Z. (2023). Rethinking Human–Nature Relationships:
Daoism’s Contribution to Transcultural Sociotechnical Imaginaries. The Professional
Geographer, 75(2), 269–277. https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2022.2075404
• Hawking, & Penrose. (1970). The singularities of gravitational collapse and
cosmology. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. A. Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, 314(1519), 529–548. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1970.0021
• Hawking, S., & Penrose, R. (2010). The nature of space and time (Vol. 3). Princeton
University Press.
• Hawking, S. W. (1974). Black hole explosions? Nature, 248(5443), 30–
31. https://doi.org/10.1038/248030a0
• Hawking, S. W. (1976). Black holes and thermodynamics. Physical Review D, 13(2),
191–197. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.13.191
• Hayward, S. A. (2004). Energy and entropy conservation for dynamical black
holes. Physical Review D, 70(10),
104027. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.70.104027
• Heisenberg, W. (1927). Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen
Kinematik und Mechanik. Zeitschrift Für Physik, 43(3), 172–198.
• Hopwood, N., Müller-Wille, S., Browne, J., Groeben, C., Kuriyama, S., van der Lugt,
M., Giglioni, G., Nyhart, L. K., Rheinberger, H.-J., Dröscher, A., Anderson, W.,
Anker, P., Grote, M., & van de Wiel, L. (2021). Cycles and circulation: a theme in the
history of biology and medicine. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 43(3),
89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40656-021-00425-3
• James, O., Tunzelmann, E. von, Franklin, P., & Thorne, K. S. (2015). Gravitational
lensing by spinning black holes in astrophysics, and in the movie
Interstellar. Classical and Quantum Gravity, 32(6),
065001. https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/32/6/065001
• Joslin, M. (2018). Einstein’s E= mc2 Unravelled. eBook Partnership.
• Kamamoto, Y. (2022). Zhuangzi’s concept of you
遊
: limitless transformation along
with things [Nanyang Technological
University]. https://doi.org/10.32657/10356/160978
• Kragh, H. (2021). Cosmology and controversy: The historical development of two
theories of the universe. Princeton University Press.
• Lai, K. (2007). Ziran and Wuwei in the Daodejing: An Ethical Assessment. Dao, 6(4),
325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11712-007-9019-8
• Legge, J. (1891). Tao Te Ching by Lao-tzu. Sacred Books of the East, 39.
• Lin, G. (2017). Exploring the Non-objectified Character of Dao in the Laozi: A
Modern Articulation. Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 12(3), 358–376.
• Liu, J., & Berger, D. L. (2014). Nothingness in Asian philosophy. New York:
Routledge.
• Liu, Jing. (2023). Nature Prescribes Laws to Humans: The Ziran of the Myriad Things
in Early Daoism. Religions, 14(5), 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050646
• Louis, J. (2021). The Building Blocks of Matter (pp. 13–
21). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-35850-1_3
• Machamer, P., & Silberstein, M. (Eds.). (2002). The Blackwell Guide to the
Philosophy of Science. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470756614
• Marman, D. (2018). The Lenses of Perception Interpretation of Quantum
Mechanics. Integral Review: A Transdisciplinary & Transcultural Journal for New
Thought, Research, & Praxis, 14(1).
• Michael, T. (2012). The Pristine Dao: Metaphysics in Early Daoist Discourse. State
University of New York Press.
• Michael, Thomas. (2020). Ge Hong’s Evolving Discourse on You and Wu and its
Roots in the Daodejing (pp. 457–478). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49228-
1_23
• Misner, C. W. (1969). Absolute Zero of Time. Physical Review, 186(5), 1328–
1333. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRev.186.1328
• Mohrhoff, U. (2014). Manifesting the Quantum World. Foundations of
Physics, 44(6), 641–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10701-014-9803-3
• Moleschott, J. (1857). Der Kreislauf des Lebens. Physiologische Antworten auf
Liebig’s Chemische Briefe, 3. Aufl.Zabern.
• Moored, K. W. (2017). Conservation of spatial volume and the response of inertia and
gravity. Physics Essays, 30(2), 129–135. https://doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-30.2.129
• Mottola, E. (2011). New Horizons in Gravity: Dark Energy and Condensate
Stars. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 314,
012010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/314/1/012010
• Okun, L. B. (2009). Energy and mass in relativity theory. In Energy and Mass in
Relativity Theory. https://doi.org/10.1142/6833
• Oriti, D. (2014). Disappearance and emergence of space and time in quantum
gravity. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and
Philosophy of Modern Physics, 46, 186–
199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsb.2013.10.006
• Overduin, J., & Fahr, H.-J. (2001). Matter, spacetime and the
vacuum. Naturwissenschaften, 88(12), 491–
503. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001140100258
• Penrose, R. (1969). Gravitational collapse: The role of general relativity. In Neutron
Stars, Black Holes and Binary X-Ray Sources (pp. 252–276).
• Penrose, R. (1972). Black holes. Scientific American, 226(5), 38–47.
• Penrose, Roger. (2011a). Uncertainty in quantum mechanics: faith or
fantasy? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical
and Engineering Sciences, 369(1956), 4864–
4890. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2011.0179
• Penrose, Roger. (2011b). On cosmological mass with positive Λ. General Relativity
and Gravitation, 43(12), 3355–3366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10714-011-1255-x
• Pickering, A. (1999). Constructing quarks: A sociological history of particle physics.
University of Chicago Press.
• Punsly, B., & Coroniti, F. V. (1989). Electrodynamics of the event horizon. Physical
Review D, 40(12), 3834–3857. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.40.3834
• Quigg, C. (1985). Elementary particles and forces. Scientific American, 252(4), 84–
95.
• Rees, M. (2008). Just six numbers: The deep forces that shape the universe. Hachette
UK.
• Rossi, E. M., Lodato, G., Armitage, P. J., Pringle, J. E., & King, A. R. (2010). Black
hole mergers: the first light. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 401(3), 2021–2035. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15802.x
• Sen, S. (2024). Cosmological Implications of Dark Matter and Dark Energy: Recent
Observational Constraints. Modern Dynamics: Journal of Physic, 1(1), 26–
31. https://doi.org/10.36676/mdjp.v1.i1.5
• Shapiro, S. L., & Teukolsky, S. A. (2008). Black holes, white dwarfs, and neutron
stars: The physics of compact objects. John Wiley & Sons.
• Smith, Q. (1988). The Uncaused Beginning of the Universe. Philosophy of
Science, 55(1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1086/289415
• Smolin, L. (1992). Did the Universe evolve? Classical and Quantum Gravity, 9(1),
173–191. https://doi.org/10.1088/0264-9381/9/1/016
• Spergel, D. N. (2015). The dark side of cosmology: Dark matter and dark
energy. Science, 347(6226), 1100–1102. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa0980
• Squires, E. J. (1994). The mystery of the quantum world. T CRC Press.
• Steinhardt, P. J., & Turok, N. (2002). Cosmic evolution in a cyclic universe. Physical
Review D, 65(12), 126003. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevD.65.126003
• Tang, M., & Xu, Z. (2022). The no-hair theorem and black hole shadows. Journal of
High Energy Physics, 2022(12), 125. https://doi.org/10.1007/JHEP12(2022)125
• Turner, M. S., & Tyson, J. A. (1999). Cosmology at the millennium. Reviews of
Modern Physics, 71(2), S145–S164. https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S145
• Turok, N., & Steinhardt, P. J. (2005). Beyond Inflation A Cyclic Universe
Scenario. Physica Scripta, 76. https://doi.org/10.1238/Physica.Topical.117a00076
• Van Thuan, V. (2021). A possible solution to the which-way problem by
asymmetrical double-slit experiments. Physica Scripta, 96(12),
125101. https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/ac1a4a
• Verheyen, P. (2021). From Information and Quantum Physics to Consciousness and
Reality. Sci, 3(4), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/sci3040035
• Viththani, D. P., Joshi, A. B., Bhanja, T., & Joshi, P. S. (2024). Particle motion and
tidal force in a non-vacuum-charged naked singularity. The European Physical
Journal C, 84(4), 383. https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-12746-1
• Wald, R. M. (1992). Space, time, and gravity: the theory of the big bang and black
holes. University of Chicago Press.
• Wesson, P. S. (2007). Space-time-matter: modern higher-dimensional cosmology
(Vol. 3). World Scientific.
• West, G. B. (1975). Electron scattering from atoms, nuclei and nucleons. Physics
Reports, 18(5), 263–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/0370-1573(75)90035-6
• Yang, H. S. (2024). Emergent Spacetime and Cosmic Inflation. Universe, 10(3),
150. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe10030150
• Zeh, H. D. (1989). The direction of time. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
• Zhao, G. (2020). Being or Nothingness? Infinity and the Porous Existent.
In Subjectivity and Infinity (pp. 77–83). Springer International
Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45590-3_10
