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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory

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  • Simply Psychology

Abstract

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory posits that an individual's development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the immediate surroundings (e.g., family) to broad societal structures (e.g., culture). These systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem, each representing different levels of environmental influences on an individual's growth and behavior. The theory views child development as a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Bronfenbrenner divided the environment into five systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The microsystem is the most influential level, encompassing the child's immediate environment such as family and school. The theory has significant implications for educational practice and understanding diverse developmental contexts.
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Bronfenbrenners Ecological
Systems Theory
simplypsychology.org/bronfenbrenner.html
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory posits that an individual’s development is
influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the
immediate surroundings (e.g., family) to broad societal structures (e.g., culture).
These systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and
chronosystem, each representing different levels of environmental influences on an
individual’s growth and behavior.
The theory views child development as a complex system of relationships affected by
multiple levels of the surrounding environment.
Bronfenbrenner divided the environment into five systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
The microsystem is the most influential level, encompassing the child’s immediate
environment such as family and school.
The theory has significant implications for educational practice and understanding
diverse developmental contexts.
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Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory – developed by SimplyPsychology
The Five Ecological Systems
Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the child’s environment is a nested arrangement of
structures, each contained within the next. He organized them in order of how much of an
impact they have on a child.
He named these structures the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem
and the chronosystem.
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Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a child’s
development depends on its relationship with the others.
1. The Microsystem
The microsystem is the rst level of Bronfenbrenner’s theory and is the things that have
direct contact with the child in their immediate environment.
It includes the child’s most immediate relationships and environments. For example, a child’s
parents, siblings, classmates, teachers, and neighbors would be part of their microsystem.
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning other people can influence the
child in their environment and change other people’s beliefs and actions. The interactions the
child has with these people and environments directly impact development.
The child is not just a passive recipient but an active contributor in these bidirectional
interactions.
Example: Supportive parents who read to their child and provide educational activities may
positively influence cognitive and language skills. Or, children with friends who bully them at
school might develop self-esteem issues.
2. The Mesosystem
The mesosystem is where a person’s individual microsystems do not function independently
but are interconnected and assert inuence upon one another.
The mesosystem involves interactions between different microsystems in the child’s life.
These interactions can have significant impacts on the child’s development.
Example: A child whose parents are actively involved in their school life, such as attending
parent-teacher conferences and volunteering for school events, may perform better
academically.
This is because the interaction between the family microsystem and the school microsystem
(forming the mesosystem) creates a supportive environment for learning.
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Another example could be the interaction between a child’s peer group and family. If a child’s
friends value academic achievement, this attitude might influence the child’s behavior at
home, leading to more time spent on homework and studying.
3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie
Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s.
It incorporates other formal and informal social structures such as local governments, friends
of the family, and mass media.
While not directly interacting with the child, the exosystem still influences the microsystems.
Example: A parent’s workplace policies can significantly affect a child’s development. If a
company offers flexible working hours or work-from-home options, parents might have more
time to spend with their children, positively impacting the child’s emotional development and
family relationships.
Another example could be local government decisions. If a city council decides to close
down a community center or library due to budget cuts, this could limit a child’s access to
educational resources and after-school activities, potentially affecting their academic and
social development.
4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem focuses on how cultural elements affect a child’s development, consisting
of cultural ideologies, attitudes, and social conditions that children are immersed in.
Beliefs about gender roles, individualism, family structures, and social issues establish
norms and values that permeate a child’s microsystems.
The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as it does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child but the already established society and culture in
which the child is developing.
Example: In a society that highly values individual achievement, children might be
encouraged to be more competitive and self-reliant.
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This could influence parenting styles in the microsystem, with parents focusing more on
personal accomplishments and independence.
Conversely, in a culture that emphasizes collective harmony, children might be raised to
prioritize group needs over individual desires.
This could manifest in the microsystem as parents encouraging more cooperative play and
shared decision-making among siblings.
5. The Chronosystem
The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem.
The chronosystem relates to shifts and transitions over the child’s lifetime. These
environmental changes can be predicted, like starting school, or unpredicted, like parental
divorce or changing schools when parents relocate for work, which may cause stress.
Aging itself interacts with shifting social expectations over the lifespan within the
chronosystem.
How children respond to expected and unexpected life transitions depends on the support of
their ecological systems.
Example: The introduction of widespread internet access and social media represents a
significant chronosystem change for many children.
This technological shift has altered how children interact with peers, access information, and
spend their leisure time, potentially affecting their social skills, cognitive development, and
even sleep patterns.
Another example could be a major historical event like a global pandemic.
Children growing up during such a time might experience disruptions in their education (shift
to online learning), changes in family dynamics (parents working from home), and altered
social interactions (social distancing), all of which can have long-lasting effects on their
development.
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Microsystem • Immediate family (parents, siblings, grandparents)
• School environment (teachers, classmates)
• Peer group and close friends
• Extracurricular activities (sports teams, clubs)
• Healthcare providers (pediatrician, dentist)
• Neighborhood playmates
• Childcare arrangements
Mesosystem • Parent-teacher communication
• Family-peer group interactions
• School-neighborhood connections
• Family-healthcare provider relationships
• Interactions between different friend groups
• Family-extracurricular activity connections
• Religious community-family interactions
Exosystem • Parents’ workplaces and policies
• Extended family networks
• Local community organizations
• School board decisions
• Social services and support systems
• Mass media and social media
• Local government policies
• Public transportation systems
Macrosystem • Cultural norms and expectations
• Socioeconomic factors
• Educational policies and standards
• Healthcare systems
• Technological advancements
• Environmental attitudes and policies
• Gender roles and expectations
• Religious or philosophical ideologies
Chronosystem • Major historical events (e.g., pandemics, wars)
• Technological shifts (e.g., rise of internet, social media)
• Changes in family structure (e.g., divorce, remarriage)
• Educational reforms
• Economic cycles (booms and recessions)
• Climate change and environmental shifts
• Generational cultural changes
• Personal life transitions (e.g., puberty, starting school)
Examples of what is included in the five ecological systems.
The Bioecological Model
It is important to note that Bronfenbrenner (1994) later revised his theory and instead
named it the ‘Bioecological model’.
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Bronfenbrenner became more concerned with the proximal development processes,
meaning the enduring and persistent forms of interaction in the immediate environment.
His focus shifted from environmental influences to developmental processes individuals
experience over time.
‘…development takes place through the process of progressively more complex
reciprocal interactions between an active, evolving biopsychological human organism
and the persons, objects, and symbols in its immediate external environment.’
(Bronfenbrenner, 1995).
Bronfenbrenner also suggested that to understand the effect of these proximal processes on
development, we have to focus on the person, context, and developmental outcome, as
these processes vary and affect people differently.
While his original ecological systems theory emphasized the role of environmental systems,
his later bioecological model focused more closely on micro-level interactions.
The bioecological shift highlighted reciprocal processes between the actively evolving
individual and their immediate settings. This represented an evolution in Bronfenbrenner’s
thinking toward a more dynamic developmental process view.
However, the bioecological model still acknowledged the broader environmental systems
from his original theory as an important contextual influence on proximal processes.
The bioecological focus on evolving person-environment interactions built upon the
foundation of his ecological systems theory while bringing developmental processes to the
forefront.
Classroom Application
The Ecological Systems Theory has been used to link psychological and educational theory
to early educational curriculums and practice. The developing child is at the center of the
theory, and all that occurs within and between the five ecological systems is done to benefit
the child in the classroom.
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According to the theory, teachers and parents should maintain good communication
with each other and work together to benefit the child and strengthen the development
of the ecological systems in educational practice.
Teachers should also understand the situations their students’ families may be
experiencing, including social and economic factors that are part of the various
systems.
According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good relationship, this should
positively shape the child’s development.
Likewise, the child must be active in their learning, both academically and socially.
They must collaborate with their peers and participate in meaningful learning
experiences to enable positive development.
There are lots of studies that have investigated the effects of the school environment
on students. Below are some examples:
Lippard et al. (2017) conducted a study to test Bronfenbrenner’s theory. They investigated
the teacher-child relationships through teacher reports and classroom observations.
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They found that these relationships were significantly related to children’s academic
achievement and classroom behavior, suggesting that these relationships are important for
children’s development and supports the Ecological Systems Theory.
Wilson et al. (2002) found that creating a positive school environment through a school ethos
valuing diversity has a positive effect on students’ relationships within the school.
Incorporating this kind of school ethos influences those within the developing child’s
ecological systems.
Langford et al. (2014) found that whole-school approaches to the health curriculum can
positively improve educational achievement and student well-being. Thus, the development
of the students is being affected by the microsystems.
Critical Evaluation
Strengths
Bronfenbrenner’s model quickly became very appealing and accepted as a useful framework
for psychologists, sociologists, and teachers studying child development.
The ecological systems theory is thought to provide a holistic approach that includes all the
systems children and their families are involved in, reflecting the dynamic nature of actual
family relationships.
Paat (2013) considers how Bronfenbrenner’s theory is useful when it comes to the
development of immigrant children. They suggest that immigrant children’s experiences in
the various ecological systems are likely to be shaped by their cultural differences.
Understanding these children’s ecology can aid in strengthening social work service delivery
for these children.
Limitations
A limitation of the Ecological Systems Theory is that there is limited research examining the
mesosystems, mainly the interactions between neighborhoods and the family of the child.
Therefore, the extent to which these systems can shape child development is unclear.
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Another limitation of Bronfenbrenner’s theory is that it is difficult to empirically test the theory.
The studies investigating the ecological systems may establish an effect, but they cannot
establish whether the systems directly cause such effects.
Furthermore, this theory can lead to assumptions that those who do not have strong and
positive ecological systems lack in development.
Whilst this may be true in some cases, many people can still develop into well-rounded
individuals without positive influences from their ecological systems.
For instance, it is not true to say that all people who grow up in poverty-stricken areas of the
world will develop negatively. Similarly, if a child’s teachers and parents do not get along,
some children may not experience any negative effects if it does not concern them.
As a result, people should try to avoid making broad assumptions about individuals using this
theory.
Evolution and Relevance of Bronfenbrenner’s Theory in the 21st
Century
Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development has undergone significant evolution since its
inception in the 1970s, raising questions about its current relevance and application.
Initially conceptualized as an ecological model focused primarily on contextual influences, it
matured into a more sophisticated bioecological model emphasizing the critical role of
proximal processes in development.
The mature version of the theory, often referred to as the bioecological model, places
proximal processes at its core.
These processes are defined as “enduring forms of interaction in the immediate
environment” and are considered the primary engines of development.
Central to the mature theory is the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model. This model
emphasizes the interplay between four key elements:
1. Process: The core proximal processes driving development
2. Person: Individual characteristics that influence these processes
3. Context: The environmental systems in which development occurs
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4. Time: The temporal aspect of development, including both individual life course and
historical time
Despite these advancements, the theory’s relevance in the 21st century has been a subject
of debate. Kelly and Coughlan (2019) found significant links between Bronfenbrenner’s
ecological systems theory and contemporary frameworks for youth mental health recovery.
Their research suggests that the components of mental health recovery are embedded in an
“ecological context of influential relationships,” aligning with Bronfenbrenner’s emphasis on
the importance of interconnected environmental systems.
However, the rapid technological advancements of the 21st century have raised questions
about how well Bronfenbrenner’s theory accommodates these changes.
The theory’s relevance is further challenged by common misapplications in contemporary
research.
Many scholars continue to apply outdated versions or misinterpret key concepts when
claiming to use Bronfenbrenner’s theory, as pointed out by other scholars.
These misapplications often involve focusing solely on contextual influences without
considering proximal processes, or failing to account for the time dimension in research
designs.
Despite these challenges, Bronfenbrenner’s theory remains a valuable framework for
understanding human development in the 21st century.
Its comprehensive nature allows for the examination of development in various contexts and
across different life stages.
The theory’s emphasis on the interplay between individual characteristics, environmental
influences, and temporal factors provides a nuanced approach to understanding the
complexities of modern human development.
To maintain its relevance, researchers and practitioners must understand the theory’s
evolution and apply it correctly.
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This involves recognizing the centrality of proximal processes, considering the role of
technology in developmental contexts, and designing studies that capture the dynamic
nature of development over time.
By adapting the theory to include modern contexts while maintaining its core principles,
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model can continue to provide valuable insights into human
development in the 21st century and beyond.
Neo-ecological theory
Navarro & Tudge (2022) proposed the neo-ecological theory, an adaptation of the
bioecological theory. Below are their main ideas for updating Bronfenbrenner’s theory to the
technological age:
1. Virtual microsystems should be added as a new type of microsystem to account for
online interactions and activities. Virtual microsystems have unique features compared
to physical microsystems, like availability, publicness, and asychnronicity.
2. The macrosystem (cultural beliefs, values) is an important influence, as digital
technology has enabled youth to participate more in creating youth culture and norms.
3. Proximal processes, the engines of development, can now happen through complex
interactions with both people and objects/symbols online. So, proximal processes in
virtual microsystems need to be considered.
Background On Urie Bronfenbrenner
Urie Bronfenbrenner was born in Moscow, Russia, in 1917 and experienced turmoil in his
home country as a child before immigrating to the United States at age 6.
Witnessing the difficulties faced by children during the unrest and rapid social change in
Russia shaped his ideas about how environmental factors can influence child development.
Bronfenbrenner went on to earn a Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the University of
Michigan in 1942.
At the time, most child psychology research involved lab experiments with children briefly
interacting with strangers.
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Bronfenbrenner criticized this approach as lacking ecological validity compared to real-world
settings where children live and grow. For example, he cited Mary Ainsworth’s 1970 “Strange
Situation” study, which observed infants with caregivers in a laboratory.
Bronfenbrenner argued that these unilateral lab studies failed to account for reciprocal
influence between variables or the impact of broader environmental forces.
His work challenged the prevailing views by proposing that multiple aspects of a child’s life
interact to influence development.
In the 1970s, drawing on foundations from theories by Vygotsky, Bandura, and others
acknowledging environmental impact, Bronfenbrenner articulated his groundbreaking
Ecological Systems Theory.
This framework mapped children’s development across layered environmental systems
ranging from immediate settings like family to broad cultural values and historical context.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective represented a major shift in developmental
psychology by emphasizing the role of environmental systems and broader social structures
in human development.
The theory sparked enduring influence across many fields, including psychology, education,
and social policy.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the main contribution of Bronfenbrenner’s theory?
The Ecological Systems Theory has contributed to our understanding that multiple levels
influence an individual’s development rather than just individual traits or characteristics.
Bronfenbrenner contributed to the understanding that parent-child relationships do not occur
in a vacuum but are embedded in larger structures.
Ultimately, this theory has contributed to a more holistic understanding of human
development, and has influenced fields such as psychology, sociology, and education.
What could happen if a child’s microsystem breaks down?
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If a child experiences conflict or neglect within their family, or bullying or rejection by their
peers, their microsystem may break down. This can lead to a range of negative outcomes,
such as decreased academic achievement, social isolation, and mental health issues.
Additionally, if the microsystem is not providing the necessary support and resources for the
child’s development, it can hinder their ability to thrive and reach their full potential.
How can the Ecological System’s Theory explain peer pressure?
The ecological systems theory explains peer pressure as a result of the microsystem
(immediate environment) and mesosystem (connections between environments) levels.
Peers provide a sense of belonging and validation in the microsystem, and when they
engage in certain behaviors or hold certain beliefs, they may exert pressure on the child to
conform. The mesosystem can also influence peer pressure, as conflicting messages and
expectations from different environments can create pressure to conform.
References
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of
childhood. Child development, 45 (1), 1-5.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development.
American psychologist, 32 (7), 513.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and
design. Harvard University Press.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental ecology through space and time: A future
perspective.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Evans, G. W. (2000). Developmental science in the 21st century:
Emerging questions, theoretical models, research designs and empirical findings . Social
development, 9 (1), 115-125.
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. J. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualised: A bio-ecological
model. Psychological Review, 10 (4), 568–586.
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Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W.
Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human
development (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Hayes, N., O’Toole, L., & Halpenny, A. M. (2017). Introducing Bronfenbrenner: A guide for
practitioners and students in early years education. Taylor & Francis.
Kelly, M., & Coughlan, B. (2019). A theory of youth mental health recovery from a parental
perspective. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24 (2), 161-169.
Langford, R., Bonell, C. P., Jones, H. E., Pouliou, T., Murphy, S. M., Waters, E., Komro, A. A.,
Gibbs, L. F., Magnus, D. & Campbell, R. (2014). The WHO Health Promoting School
framework for improving the health and wellbeing of students and their academic
achievement. Cochrane database of systematic reviews, (4).
Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: the effects of
neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126 (2),
309.
Lippard, C. N., La Paro, K. M., Rouse, H. L., & Crosby, D. A. (2018, February). A closer look
at teacher–child relationships and classroom emotional context in preschool. In Child &
Youth Care Forum 47(1), 1-21.
Navarro, J. L., & Tudge, J. R. (2022). Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: neo-ecological
theory. Current Psychology, 1-17.
Paat, Y. F. (2013). Working with immigrant children and their families: An application of
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social
Environment, 23 (8), 954-966.
Rosa, E. M., & Tudge, J. (2013). Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development: Its
evolution from ecology to bioecology. Journal of family theory & review, 5(4), 243-258.
Rhodes, S. (2013). Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory [PDF]. Retrieved from
http://uoit.blackboard.com
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Tudge, J. R., Mokrova, I., Hatfield, B. E., & Karnik, R. B. (2009). Uses and misuses of
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory of human development. Journal of family theory &
review, 1(4), 198-210.
Wilson, P., Atkinson, M., Hornby, G., Thompson, M., Cooper, M., Hooper, C. M., & Southall,
A. (2002). Young minds in our schools-a guide for teachers and others working in schools.
Year: YoungMinds (Jan 2004).
Further Information
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of
childhood. Child Development, 45.
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(Rhodes, Theories of child development, 2013)
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This chapter presents the Estonian case to analyse the social ecology of the development of students in the case of the risk of dropping out from IVET (Initial Vocational Education and Training). The persistence of the interrelated problems, such as early school-leaving and drop out from vocational education, leaving education without qualifications, being vulnerable in the labour market and the risk of social exclusion, refer to the existence of a “wicked” or complex set of interrelated problems that are approached from the perspective of social ecology. Two key aspects of social ecology are discussed: the main institutional developments of the Estonian VET system with a specific emphasis on the institutional and macro-contextual factors that could affect vulnerable youth groups in VET, and the micro-level empirical research to better understand the proximal processes of learning and development of students that risk drop-out. The sample of students interviewed consisted of 20 students (14 female and 6 male) aged between 16 and 22 years, from different vocational schools and regions in Estonia and studying different specialities. The empirical analysis identified three clusters of students, representing three separate ecologies of vulnerable students. The ecologies reflect the different experiences in getting help, or not, in the surrounding environment, in the case of emerging problems, and the consequences of their self-agency capacities and their perspectives for their future life.
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Ang pag-aaral na ito ay naglalayong masuri ang antas ng integrasyon ng Green Education sa Elementarya ng Talban P. Bitayan sa pamamagitan ng pagtatanong sa mga guro ng kanilang karanasan. Layunin ng pag-aaral na ito na matukoy ang mga environmental concepts ang isinasama sa mga leksyon, mga pamamaraan o estratehiya na ginagamit upang maipakilala ang Green Education sa klase, at mga aktibidad o gawain para sa mas epektibong implementasyon ng mga programang pagkakaisa sa paaralan para sa pagpapalawak ng kamalayan ng mga mag-aaral sa kalikasan. Ang pananaliksik ay isinagawa sa Paaralang Elementarya ng Talban P. Bitayan sa taong panuruan 2024 hanggang 2025 na may kabuuang bilang na tatlong (3) kalahok na mga guro. Ang pag-aaral ay isinagawa gamit ang pamaraang kwalitatibo sa tulong ng mga gabay sa pakikipanayam at convenience sampling, para mapag- aaralan ang mga paraan ng integrasyon ng Green Education sa curriculum at extracurriculum activities ng paaralan. Pangunahing tinutukoy ng pag-aaral ang mga hamon at oportunidad sa pagpapalalim ng Green Education sa Elementarya upang makamit ang layunin ng pagpapalawak ng kaalaman at kamalayan ng mga mag-aaral sa pangangalaga ng kalikasan. Napag-alaman sa pananaliksik na mahalaga ang pagtuturo ng mga environmental concepts sa iba’t ibang asignatura tulad ng Science, Araling Panlipunan, Health, TLE, at Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao upang mapalaganap ang kamalayan sa kalikasan, responsableng pag-uugali, at sustainable practices. Ang paggamit ng mabisa at epektibong pamamaraan sa pagtuturo ay nagdudulot ng aktibong pagkatuto, habang ang pagpapatuloy at pagpapalakas ng mga programa sa Green Education ay nagiging daan sa mas malawak na epekto sa mga mag-aaral. Inasahang ang resulta ng pananaliksik na ito ay makapagpapalawak ng kaalaman at kamalayan ng mga guro at mag-aaral tungkol sa Green Education, na magdudulot ng mas malalim na pag-unawa at pagmamalasakit sa kalikasan. Dahil sa kinalabasan nabuo ang mga sumusunod na konklusyon: 1) Ang mga guro na nagtuturo ng mga iba’t-ibang Environmental concepts at ang integrasyon ng Green Education ay mahalagang ituro sa mga mag-aaral. 2) Ang paggamit ng mabisa at epektibong pamamaraan at estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng Green Education ay makakatulong sa pagpapalaganap ng aktibong pagkatuto. 3) Pag-aanyaya ng mga eksperto sa programang Green Education.
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South Africa’s rural communities face significant disparities, marked by high poverty and unemployment, which threaten social cohesion and inclusion. Residents often lack access to essential services and economic opportunities, while social issues like crime, unemployment, and substance abuse further strain these low-resource communities. While extensive research exists on social cohesion in urban settings, there is a notable gap in understanding how social issues such as unemployment, limited access to basic services, and housing insecurity uniquely impact social cohesion in low-resource communities. Therefore, this study seeks to explore the perceptions and experiences of social issues affecting social cohesion in low-resource communities in South Africa, and how one could facilitate the promotion of cohesive communities. This study adopts a qualitative methodological approach to gain a deep understanding of the participants and their lived experiences in low-resource communities. The current study was conducted in four communities within South Africa including Philippolis, Lamberts Bay, Caledon, and Grabouw. The study utilised a qualitative approach, with a phenomenological design, to interview 25 participants which included family members and community stakeholders. In-depth interviews were used for data collection and thematic data analysis. The findings highlight the disruption of societal unity in low-resource communities due to complex family dynamics, pervasive violence, substance abuse, and significant barriers to education. Dysfunctional family structures, historical factors like apartheid, and modern challenges such as urban migration and high unemployment contribute to social disintegration. Also, crime and violence, deeply intertwined with the lack of social cohesion, are exacerbated by historical and socio-economic factors. This highlights the need for comprehensive interventions which requires a multifaceted approach to tackle the underlying drivers of violence and inequality (SDG10) to achieve social cohesion in the face of entrenched inequalities is a formidable challenge, necessitating concerted efforts from both the government and civil society to bridge divides and foster a more inclusive and equitable society. This research emphasises the importance of addressing these complex social issues to build cohesive communities in South Africa’s rural areas.
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We propose an adaptation of Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, neo-ecological theory. As bioecological theory was developed in the 20th century, it requires significant modifications to reflect some of the most ubiquitous contexts in which adolescents learn, play, and grow—the technological and virtual ones. Although several scholars have developed laudable theories related to youth development in virtual contexts, the field lacks an overarching theory to address the intersection of development and technology. In developing neo-ecological theory, we hold true to the tenets of bioecological theory, but suggest key modifications to reflect our technologized world. We delineate a key alteration to the microsystem, namely the existence of two types of microsystems—physical and virtual. In addition, we emphasize the importance of macrosystemic influences (i.e., the influences of culture and within-society subcultural variation) in understanding development in the digital age. The implications of these modifications cascade across the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model; proximal processes, person characteristics, context, and time are all reexamined. In the digital age, virtual microsystems are central contexts in which youth engage in proximal processes. As such, we believe that all scholars of development, regardless of their specific research interests, should consider the ways digital contexts influence their outcomes of interest. Without it, practitioners, policy makers, parents, and technologists will be in the dark about how best to support adolescents.
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Background Children’s early classroom experiences, particularly their interpersonal interactions with teachers, have implications for their academic achievement and classroom behavior. Teacher–child relationships and classroom interactions are both important aspects of children’s early classroom experiences, but they are not typically considered together in studies of early childhood classrooms. The bioecological model suggests that both uniquely impact children’s development. Objective The objective of this study was to examine the joint impact of individual teacher–child relationships reported by the teacher and observed classroom interactions to identify associations between these and children’s outcomes. Methods Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Birth cohort, multiple regression was employed to test the hypothesis that teacher–child relationships and classroom interactions are uniquely related to children’s classroom behavior and academic achievement. Further, a moderation model was tested to examine the moderating impact of teacher–child relationships on the association between classroom interactions and children’s outcomes. Results Teacher–child relationships were related to children’s concurrent academic achievement and classroom behavior, and to children’s classroom behavior assessed one year later. No main effects of classroom interactions were identified; however, teacher–child relationships moderated the associations between classroom interactions and children’s preschool classroom behavior. Conclusions Findings suggest that teacher–child relationships are important for children’s development in classrooms, even after accounting for classroom interactions. Professional development for teachers and measurement in classroom research should address teacher–child relationships in addition to classroom interactions.
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We describe the evolution, over three phases, of Bronfenbrenner's theory from an ecological to a bioecological theory. Phase 1 (1973–1979) culminated in the publication of The Ecology of Human Development (1979). Phase 2 (1980–1993) saw almost immediate modifications to the theory, with more attention paid to the role of the individual and greater concern with developmental processes. In Phase 3 (1993–2006), proximal processes were defined and placed at the heart of bioecological theory, and from 1998, the Process-Person-Context-Time (PPCT) model was described as the theory's appropriate research design. Given the extent of these changes, and to avoid theoretical incoherence, scholars should be cautious about stating that their research is based on Bronfenbrenner's theory without specifying which version they are using.
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In this chapter, we undertake to bring together and to integrate significant changes in the ecological model of human development that have been introduced since the most recent integrative effort, which was published in the preceding edition of this Handbook, now well over a decade ago (Bronfenbrenner & Crouter, 1983). Two considerations dictate the need for a new integration. First, the main focus of that chapter was on the empirical and theoretical roots of a model already in use that centered on the role of the environment in shaping development. By contrast, the present chapter is oriented toward the future, and data from the future are not yet available. Second, and we hope of greater consequence, the present model introduces major theoretical innovations both in form and content. The purpose of the present chapter, however, is better served by presenting the model in its current, albeit still-evolving form, now called the bioecological model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)