Evaluation of indoor daylighting performance changes in a historical khan building in Istanbul

Abstract

The daylighting feature of historical buildings can be accepted as an intangible heritage since it contributes to the unique atmosphere of the buildings. However, with the change of the built environment and the change of the historical building itself, the level of daylight intake of historical buildings changes. This study contributes to the field by revealing the daylighting performance changes of a historical khan building which has a unique architectural characteristics. The changes in the daylighting levels of Buyuk Yeni Khan, one of the largest historical khans in Istanbul, are examined through its modifications. Using 3D Lidar scanning technology, the current state of the khan is scanned. The daylight intake and glare analyzes of the khan for its current and original states are made through simulations, and the values found are compared. DA, cDA, UDI, sDA and DGP metrics are used in the simulations. As a result, due to the changes such as enlargements along the arcades, additional overhangs and the change of window ratios of the facades of the rooms on the ground floor, the rooms of the khan have different daylighting values compared to its original state.

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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-024-01409-9
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Heritage Science
Evaluation ofindoor daylighting
performance changes inahistorical khan
building inIstanbul
Asli Agirbas1* and Ayse Ozlem Dal1
Abstract
The daylighting feature of historical buildings can be accepted as an intangible heritage since it contributes
to the unique atmosphere of the buildings. However, with the change of the built environment and the change
of the historical building itself, the level of daylight intake of historical buildings changes. This study contributes
to the field by revealing the daylighting performance changes of a historical khan building which has a unique
architectural characteristics. The changes in the daylighting levels of Buyuk Yeni Khan, one of the largest historical
khans in Istanbul, are examined through its modifications. Using 3D Lidar scanning technology, the current state
of the khan is scanned. The daylight intake and glare analyzes of the khan for its current and original states are made
through simulations, and the values found are compared. DA, cDA, UDI, sDA and DGP metrics are used in the simula-
tions. As a result, due to the changes such as enlargements along the arcades, additional overhangs and the change
of window ratios of the facades of the rooms on the ground floor, the rooms of the khan have different daylighting
values compared to its original state.
Keywords Daylighting analysis, 3D Lidar scanning, Khans, Historical buildings, Buyuk Yeni Khan
Introduction
Changes in the urban built environment are typically
manifested through variations in morphological char-
acteristics, such as alterations in building heights, the
shapes of building blocks and the dimensions of plots
[1, 2]. Institutional factors such as formal organisations,
and natural factors such as natural disasters can lead to
change in built environment [3]. As a result of the modifi-
cations of the built environment, the indoor environment
quality (IEQ) of buildings can change. is situation
can greatly affect the IEQ of historical buildings as well.
Also, historical buildings may undergo various modifi-
cations or restorations [4] that can effect their IEQ. IEQ
parameters are accepted as thermal comfort, air quality,
lighting and acoustics [5–7]. As Che etal. [8] and Ridolfi
etal. [9] have done, there are studies that examine how
the indoor environmental quality changes as a result of
the modifications in buildings and make inferences for
future studies. In addition, as Balocco and Calzolari [10],
Zhang etal. [11] and Marzouk etal. [12] have done, stud-
ies are also carried out on improving IEQ of heritage
buildings.
In addition to the studies on improving the energy
efficiency and thermal comfort of historical buildings
within the scope of IEQ [13], the studies on daylighting
analysis and daylight intake control in historical build-
ings have also accelerated in recent years. For example,
there are studies on the suitability of the daylighting
level in the new use of historical buildings originally
designed for a different purpose [14, 15]. Studies are
also carried out to provide light control in order to pro-
tect the light sensitive valuable artifacts in the interiors
*Correspondence:
Asli Agirbas
asliagirbas@gmail.com
1 Department of Architecture, Ozyegin University, Nisantepe, Orman Sk.
No: 13, 34794 Cekmekoy, Istanbul, Turkey
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
of historical buildings [16–18]. ere are also studies
on the use of daylighting as a design strategy in histori-
cal buildings [19–21]. In addition, analyzes are made on
historical buildings whose daylight intake levels have
changed due to the change in the built environment
around them [22]. is study also focuses on the day-
lighting performance change of a historical building.
Daylight intake in buildings affects the visual comfort,
productivity and well-being of the occupants [23–27].
In addition, the proper intake of daylight into the space
reduces electricity consumption and prevents unneces-
sary energy consumption [28, 29]. Besides, as Al-Mai-
yah and Elkadi [30] mentions, daylighting performance
is rarely considered when renovating historical build-
ings. Because if the renovated building takes on a new
function, the new daylighting performance of the inte-
rior is shaped according to the lighting required by the
new function. Also, other performance metrics such as
thermal performance and energy performance may be
shaped according to a new function or energy retrofit
regulations. However, daylighting performance of his-
torical buildings is actually a part of the visual character
of these buildings. Daylighting parameters of a building
can be defined as the combination of sunlight, skylight
and the reflected light from the facades and the ground,
and these parameters affect visual perception and the
identity of the place, so that it forms visual character
of the building [31]. Original visual characteristic of a
historical building is a part of its identity. erefore,
this feature can be accepted as an intangible cultural
heritage and should be preserved. Additionally, with
the advances of UNESCO’s Safeguarding of Intangible
Heritage adoption, digitalisation and documentation of
intangible cultural heritage is important [32].
e interior space performance changes of historical
buildings that have changed over time can be observed
by comparing the old and new states of the buildings.
In this study, it is focused on the changes of daylight-
ing performance of khan buildings. is paper aims
to examine indoor daylighting performance change of
Buyuk Yeni Khan by comparing its current and original
states. By detecting the changes in daylighting perfor-
mance of the khan, actions can be taken to improve IEQ
in a possible restoration or renovation work. is paper
not only emphasizes and quantifies the atmosphere cre-
ated by daylighting in the khan buildings which have
unique architectural characteristics, but also defines
the changes of daylighting performance through the
time. is study contributes to the literature by pro-
viding an analysis of the changes in daylighting perfor-
mance of historical khan buildings, a topic that has not
been previously explored.
Materials andmethods
e function of closed areas of the khan and the height
of the surrounding buildings have been examined (Fig.1).
en, the parts of the khan such as semi-open areas
(arcades), courtyard and the rooms have been scanned
with Lidar 3D scanning technology. After collecting the
data from the site, the 3D modeling and daylighting anal-
ysis have been done. e model created with Lidar tech-
nology was used as a base for 3D modeling. 3D modeling
was done in Rhinoceros [33] programme. Daylighting and
glare analysis were performed using Grasshopper [34]
and Honeybee + Ladybug tools [35]. Honeybee + Lady-
bug tool uses Radiance, EnergyPlus/OpenStudio, erm/
Window and OpenFOAM programs in the background.
For the sensitivity analysis Colibri [36] add-on for Grass-
hopper was used. Since this study utilizes Rhinoceros
for 3D modeling, Grasshopper, which is compatible with
Rhinoceros, was chosen as daylighting analysis platform.
Additionally, a script was created with the help of add-
ons added to Grasshopper. Another reason for choosing
the Grasshopper platform for daylighting analysis is its
capability to integrate additional IEQ parameters, such
as acoustics and thermal comfort, into the script. How-
ever, it is important to note that other programs, such
Fig. 1 Framework of the study
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as VELUX Daylight Visualizer and LightStanza, can also
perform daylighting analysis through modeling.
Daylight Autonomy (DA), Continous Daylight Auton-
omy (cDA), Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA), Use-
ful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) and Daylight Glare
Probability (DGP) metrics were used in the daylighting
and glare analysis. DA measures annual (climate-based)
indoor daylighting performance based on the location
of the buildings and is defined as the percentage of the
time that a particular daylight level is exceeded a speci-
fied illuminance [37, 38]. When the illuminance level in
the space drops below the required threshold, partial
credit is allocated to time intervals based on the cDA
metric [39, 40]. sDA reports the percentage of floor area
in a building that exceeds a specified illuminance level for
a specified amount of annual hours [41, 42]. is met-
ric helps understand the distribution of daylight within
a space, ensuring that a substantial portion of the area
receives adequate natural light for a significant part of
the day. UDI defines the percentage of time that daylight
levels fall within a “useful” range for a given space [43,
44]. If daylight illuminance falls below 100lx at a given
time, it is insufficient for proper lighting, resulting in an
undersupply UDI bin. If it exceeds 2000lx, it likely causes
visual or thermal discomfort, leading to an oversupply
UDI bin. If the illuminance is between 100 and 2000lx, it
offers useful lighting levels, resulting in a useful UDI bin.
DGP metric is used to measure daylight comfort level
of the spaces. DGP levels are as follows: imperceptible
(< 0.35), perceptible (0.35–0.40), disturbing (0.40–0.45),
intolerable (> 0.45) [45, 46].
Daylighting simulations are done with grouping the
rooms according to their sides. e groups are named as
the rooms at the North side, the rooms at the South side,
the rooms at the West side, the rooms at the East side
and the rooms at the Transition area. Glare simulations
are done by selecting a room from each side. Sensitivity
analyses are also done by taking account of the selected
rooms for glare simulations.
Case study
City khans are the places that have been used as shops,
warehouses, offices, manufacturing and trade spaces
from the past to the present. ere could also be city
khans with accommodation functions. City khans that
did not provide accommodation were called commercial
khans [47]. e historical khans include courtyards which
are surrounded by semi-open spaces (arcades/revak) and
closed rooms. ey usually have rectangles or squares in
the plans. is building type referred as khans [48–50],
han [51] or inns [52] in the literature. However, since
the word “khan” is used in the UNESCO’s “Bursa and
Cumalıkızık: the Birth of the Ottoman Empire” [53]
description, the word “khan” used in this study as well.
It is known that in the Ottoman Period, from the fif-
teenth century to the first quarter of the twentieth cen-
tury, approximately 300 khans were built and 110 of them
are still standing [52, 54]. ere are many khans in the
Fig. 2 The location of Buyuk Yeni Khan and the neighbourhood area
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historical peninsula of Istanbul, which has been a trade
center for many years in the Ottoman period. Since there
are many khans located as clusters around the Grand
Bazaar in Eminonu, this area is called the khans dis-
trict [55]. Buyuk Yeni Khan is also located in this region
(Fig.2). Buyuk Yeni Khan is a busier khan compared to
other khans in Eminonu district of Istanbul. As Yaşar
[56] mentioned, this khan is the one of the largest khan
in Istanbul. In this khan, almost all the rooms are in use
today. erefore, Buyuk Yeni Khan has been selected to
be examined in this study.
Buyuk Yeni Khan is located in Taya Hatun district of
Eminonu. e location is at the intersection of Cakmakci-
lar Yokusu Street, Sandalyeciler Street and Carkcilar
Street. It is known that Buyuk Yeni Khan was constructed
during the period of Sultan Mustafa III [57]. According
to the date written in a script on the façade of the khan,
it is thought that the built date of the building could be
around 1763–1764 [58]. It is also thought that the archi-
tect of the khan could be Mehmet Tahir Aga [47].
Buyuk Yeni Khan has a rectangular-like plan shape, and
it has three floors covering 5180 m2 [54]. e khan has
two courtyards. e main entrance to the khan is from
Cakmakcilar Yokusu Street. e first courtyard is 42m in
length, while the second courtyard in the south is 25m
in length. Widths vary between 12–15m [58]. e build-
ing is situated on sloping terrain. According to Goad’s
map (1904) and Pervititch’s map (1942) (Fig.3), there is
one more courtyard at the Southern side. However, this
part has lost its original character, so that this part was
not taken into consideration in this study. ere are also
materialistic differences between floors. For example,
stone material was used for the ground floor, and mixed
technique with the use of stone and brick materials was
applied for the other two floors [57, 59]. Unlike the other
façades, there are six cantilevers at the north façade. As
Fig. 3 Buyuk Yeni Khan drawing in Charles Edouard Goad’s map (1904) [63] and Jacques Pervititch’s map (1942) [64]
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
noted by Yasar [58], it is assumed that this façade typol-
ogy has been designed to receive more daylight to the
interior space. Today, the functions of ground floor level
Fig. 4 3D Lidar interior scanning results of the khan’s current state
Fig. 5 The North facade of Buyuk Yeni Khan [65]
Fig. 6 The additional floors on the surrounding building have been
marked with red color
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rooms of Buyuk Yeni Khan are based on textile. Textile-
based shops, handicraft shops for silver and copper are
common on the first floor. e functions of the rooms on
the second floor are mainly related to the handicrafts for
silver, copper, and beads. Since some of the rooms were
locked, the functional definitions of the rooms could not
be made.
Fig. 7 A comparison of the original state with the current state of Buyuk Yeni Khan. a The original state of the North façade of the khan [67]. b The
original state of the courtyard of the khan [68]. c The original state of the East façade of the khan [69]
Fig. 8 The vault coverings of the rooms (extracted from 3D scanning)
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Manufacturing businesses, which were once densely
located in the khans area, have now begun to be replaced
by wholesale and retail businesses [60]. In particular,
craftsmanship as manufacturing businesses in the region
is covered within the scope of intangible cultural heritage
[61]. While manufacturing businesses in khans decrease
and wholesale and retailing come to the fore, spaces of
the khans also transforming. is transformation also
changes daylighting needs. However, in the original state
of the khan buildings, there were ateliers (such as spaces
for silver and copper handicrafts) where daylighting was
important. Today, ateliers are still exist mostly on the
upper floors of the khans. Although Buyuk Yeni Khan has
lost its importance in the last decade, it is still considered
one of the most important centers of silver craftsmanship
in Istanbul [62]. In addition to being a necessity in these
spaces, daylight also creates the visual characteristics of
the spaces. e architectural design of the khan is shaped
to receive light from both the facade and the courtyard.
3D scanning andmodelling
e scanning of the interior side of the khan was done
with 3D Lidar scanning technology (Fig.4). An iPhone 13
Pro Max device was used for this process. 3D Lidar is a
remote sensing scanning method that measures distances
by illuminating a target with laser light. Scans made
with 3D Lidar technology generate accurate measure-
ments. With the help of the precise measurements of the
scanned building, the 3D model created for daylighting
analysis also features accurate dimensions. As a result,
realistic daylighting simulations results can be found.
e scanning has been done part by part. For the scan of
the interior rooms, reference rooms from different sides
were selected for each floor (because every room was
Fig. 9 Exploded perspective of the modeling of Buyuk Yeni Khan (a) the current state and (b) the original state
Table 1 Modelling details
No Changes Current state modelling Original state modelling
1 The surrounding building at North was increased
(3 m higher) Included Not included
2 The semi-open spaces (arcades/revak) were trans-
formed to the rooms in the ground floor level Transformed rooms have been included Semi-open spaces included
3 The vaults in some of the rooms were covered
and ceilings were transformed to flat surfaces
(mainly in ground floor level)
Flat ceilings observed in the accessible rooms
have been included. Others have been left
as vaulted ceiling
Vaulted ceiling included
4 Arches at the shop facades were transformed
to rectangular frames (by coverings) Rectangular shop facades have been used
in the model Arches have been included to the model
5 Overhangs were added to the interior and exterior
parts of the ground floor level Included Not included
6 Additional closed rooms can be seen in courtyards Included Not included
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
not open). After completing the scanning of the parts,
the scans were combined and saved as an fbx file. Photos
of the site were used for the details of the exterior side.
Since the model was computationally intense, the mesh
model was simplified. en, the file was transferred to
Rhinoceros 3D modeling programme. e created mesh
model from 3D scan has been used as a layout for the
creation of a 3D model in Rhinoceros. e plan in Per-
vititch’s map [64] was used as a layout in the 3D model
creation process in Rhinoceros (Fig.3). Güran’s drawing
of the North façade of Buyuk Yeni Khan was also used for
the creation of the North façade (Fig.5). e form-based
changes have been reflected in the current and original
state modelling of the khan.
e current state of the khan and the drawing of the
khan in Pervititch map [64] were compared. As men-
tioned by Sabancioglu [66], it has been known that Per-
vititch maps have been drawn between 1922–1945 by
Jacques Pervititch. According to the comparison, the
boundaries of the khan have not been changed. e
outer boundaries of the surrounding buildings have not
been changed. However, it has been obtained from the
in-situ site analysis that the surrounding building on the
Northern side has an additional floor, which is approxi-
mately 3m in height (Fig.6). is surrounding building
was originally constructed with stone and brick material.
But, the additional floor, which has been marked with red
color in Fig.6, has different material and it is obviously
not part of the original design.
e historical photos [67–69] were examined and com-
pared with the current state. As it can be seen in Fig.7,
no change was observed in the window openings on the
North façade of the first and second floors of the khan,
nor in the window openings on the east and west façades.
In the courtyard of the khan, no change was observed in
the window openings and semi-open space (arcades) on
the first and second floors. However, it has been deter-
mined that there are various changes on the ground floor
of the khan (Fig. 7). Changes on the ground floor are
reflected in Fig.7.
e semi-open spaces (arcades) were transformed to
rooms on the ground floor level. erefore, the size of
Fig. 10 Daylighting analysis script
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Fig. 11 The illumination and radiation ranges of the location
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the rooms at the ground floor level has been dramati-
cally changed. ese closed semi-open areas have been
covered with glass. erefore, the typology of the room
facades in the courtyard has been changed. e rooms
are originally covered by vaults (Fig.8). Vaults are also
shown in the plan drawing of the Buyuk Yeni Khan in
Gulenaz’s book [47]. However, some of the vaults are not
visible in the current state of the khan, and the ceilings of
the rooms look flat. In each courtyard, there is one addi-
tional closed room (tea room), which is not a part of the
original design. Accordingly, 3D models have been cre-
ated (Fig.9, Table1).
Daylighting simulations
Figure10 shows the used daylight analysis script, which
has been adopted from Ladybug Tools tutorials [35] and
the studies of Agirbas [70, 71] and Roudsari and Pak [72].
For the daylighting analysis simulation, the surrounding
buildings, walls, windows, and floors have been defined.
e weather file of Istanbul (by epw format) has been
imported to the script. e illumination and radiation
ranges of the location have been shown in Fig.11. Fig-
ure9 demonstrates the closed rooms with walls, windows
and doors, semi-open spaces, and surrounding buildings
in the 3D model. e semi-open area and the building
parts rather than the analysed room were defined as the
surrounding context, since it has an impact on the day-
lighting of the rooms. e model was oriented to the
North.
In this study, the visual character of Buyuk Yeni Khan
is defined as intangible heritage and the principle of pres-
ervation of this visual character is adopted. It is known
that Buyuk Yeni Khan in its original state included mostly
metalworking ateliers. Although not as much as before,
it still maintains this feature today. According to EN
12464–1:2011 (e Indoor Lighting Standard), the mini-
mum illumination value for handicrafts related to metal
processing varies between 300–750 lx and illuminance
requirement for “offices and writing” is 500lx. It is envis-
aged that not very fine metal processing work was carried
out in this khan. erefore, in this study, the threshold
for DA was set at 500lx. Taking into account the vari-
ous workshop equipment, the height of the sensors in
the analysis grid was set to 1m from the ground. Various
sensor heights for daylighting analysis may be preferable
for different building functions. For example Noraini [73]
used 1.5 m high sensors for performing museum day-
lighting analysis, Balocco and Volante [74] used various
luxmeter heights for different spaces (such as 0.72m for
working surfaces) of a library transformed from a his-
torical church for performing daylighting analysis. e
occupancy of the spaces has been set to all year (between
9a.m. to 5p.m.) (Table2).
In this study, the material properties are kept con-
stant in the daylighting analyzes for the current state and
original state of Buyuk Yeni Khan. e material proper-
ties of the original state of the khan is preserved as accu-
rately as possible. Limestone is used for wall, ceiling and
flooring material, and single glass material for windows.
Reflectance value for limestone is determined as 0.5
[75]. Transmittance value of single glass is adopted from
Gündoğdu and Kunduraci’s [76] study. us, solely the
effect of the change in the architectural form of the khan
building and its surrounding built environment on day-
lighting can be measured. It should also be noted that in
the current state of the khan, it is not possible to identify
Table 2 Daylighting simulation presets
Parameter Value
The surrounding buildings The surrounding buildings are included
The weather file Istanbul epw file
The height of the sensors 1 m
The threshold for DA 500 lx
The threshold for DGP 0.4
Occupancy All year (between 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.) weekdays
Grid density 1 m
Sensor heights 1 m
Sky model for daylighting simulation Tregenza
Sky model for point-in-time glare simulation CIE standard sky
Materials Material properties
Opaque materials (for wall, ceiling and floor) Limestone (reflectance: 0.5, absolute specular
reflectance: 0, roughness: 0.05)
Glass material (for windows) Single glass (transmittance: 0.9, refraction: 1.52)
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
the materials in all its rooms, as many rooms are private
property and may be closed.
Results
Daylighting analysis results forthecurrent state ofBuyuk
Yeni Khan
e results of annual DA daylight analysis for the cur-
rent state of Buyuk Yeni Khan can be found in Fig.12.
e DA, cDA, UDI and sDA results have been calcu-
lated for each room. e rooms have been grouped as the
rooms at the North side, the rooms at the South side, the
rooms at the West side, the rooms at the East side and
the rooms at the Transition area (the rooms at the court-
yard). Figure13 demonstrates the schematic grouping of
the rooms. Accordingly, Table3 shows daylighting value
of the related group.
On the ground floor, the DA result is 45.04% for the
rooms at North side; 22.46% for the rooms at the South
side; 24.00% for the room at the West side; 41.16% for the
rooms at the East side and 10.56% for the rooms at the
Transition area (Table3). On the first floor, the DA result
is 16.80% for the rooms on the North side; 2.39% for the
rooms at the South side; 11.95% for the room at the West
side; 22.15% for the rooms at the East side and 9.71%
for the rooms at the Transition area. e DA results of
the second-floor level are higher than the ground floor
level and the first-floor level. On the second floor, the
DA result is 51.35% for the rooms at North side; 12.14%
for the rooms at the South side; 50.02% for the room at
the West side; 62.02% for the rooms at the East side and
38.46% for the rooms at the Transition area. Since the
rooms at the Transition area have roof window open-
ings, the DA result values are more than the rooms at
Fig. 12 Results of the annual DA daylighting analysis for the current state and the original state
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
the Transition area in the first-floor level. e results for
cDA, UDI, sDA and season based daylighting simulations
are consistent with these findings (Tables3, 4).
Glare analysis have been conducted for selected rooms
from the each side. e simulations have been done for
the longest day of the year (21 June, Summer) and the
shortest day of the year (21 December, Winter). 12 a.m.
has been selected for the time period. At the end of the
simulations it has been found that DGP values do not
show a great difference (Table5).
Daylighting analysis results fortheoriginal state
oftheBuyuk Yeni Khan
e results of annual daylight analysis for the original
state of Buyuk Yeni Khan can be found in Fig.12. As it
has been done for the current state of the khan, the DA,
cDA, UDI and sDA results have been calculated for each
room. e rooms have been grouped as the rooms at the
North side, the rooms at the South side, the rooms at the
West side, the rooms at the East side and the rooms at
the Transition area (the rooms at the courtyard). Accord-
ingly, Table 6 shows daylighting value of the related
group.
On the ground floor, the DA result is 42.38% for the
rooms at the North side; 4.09% for the rooms at the
South side; 12.98% for the room at the West side; 40.90%
for the rooms at the East side and 8.36% for the rooms
at the Transition area. On the first floor, the DA result
is 18.08% for the rooms at the North side; 2.50% for the
rooms at the South side; 15.60% for the room at the West
side; 25.00% for the rooms at the East side and 9.76% for
the rooms at the Transition area. On the second floor,
the DA result is 50.21% for the rooms at the North side;
11.85% for the rooms at the South side; 54.06% for the
Fig. 13 Schematic demonstration of grouping the rooms
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
room at the West side; 62.03% for the rooms at the East
side and 38.45% for the rooms at the Transition area. e
results for cDA, UDI, sDA and season based daylighting
simulations are consistent with these findings (Tables6,
7).
Glare analysis have been conducted for selected rooms
from the each side. e simulations have been done for
the longest day of the year (21 June, Summer) and the
shortest day of the year (21 December, Winter). 12 a.m.
has been selected for the time period. At the end of the
simulations it has been found that DGP values values do
not show a great difference (Table8).
Discussion
According to the comparison of the current state of the
khan with the original state, it seems that the daylighting
values of the rooms at the ground floor level have been
changed. e sizes of the rooms and the window ratios
of their interior and exterior facades (together with the
enlargement) on the South side, West side and East side
have been dramatically changed. Since these rooms have
Table 3 Daylighting analysis results of the current state of Buyuk Yeni Khan
Name of the oor The location of the rooms DA500 (%) cDA (%) UDI100-2000 (%) sDA500, 50% (%)
Ground floor The rooms at the North side 45.04 68.48 77.65 0.50
The rooms at the East side 41.16 67.16 80.81 0.35
The rooms at the South side 22.46 45.12 60.55 0.23
The rooms at the West side 24.00 45.64 59.18 0.23
The rooms at the Transition area 10.56 35.17 51.69 0.09
First floor The rooms at the North side 16.80 40.11 57.23 0.18
The rooms at the East side 22.15 57.45 78.38 0.20
The rooms at the South side 2.39 20.27 31.45 0
The rooms at the West side 11.95 36.84 55.73 0.10
The rooms at the Transition area 9.71 30.35 48.43 0.10
Second floor The rooms at the North side 51.35 74.80 76.21 0.57
The rooms at the East side 62.02 83.25 80.63 0.69
The rooms at the South side 12.14 36.66 57.86 0.10
The rooms at the West side 50.02 71.26 72.99 0.53
The rooms at the Transition area 38.46 69.29 81.60 0.30
Table 4 Season based daylighting analysis results of the current state of Buyuk Yeni Khan
Name of the oor The location of
the rooms DA500 (%) cDA (%) UDI100-2000 (%) sDA500, 50% (%)
Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter
Ground floor North 32.81 29.80 52.96 49.83 62.49 60.05 0.32 0.23
East 32.19 28.58 53.60 50.13 65.19 62.68 0.19 0.13
South 17.47 16.10 36.00 33.82 48.50 45.76 0.15 0.12
West 18.93 16.98 36.47 34.03 47.38 44.81 0.14 0.11
Transition 8.18 7.37 27.91 25.75 40.90 38.09 0.05 0.04
First floor North 13.49 12.55 32.65 30.67 46.49 42.30 0.13 0.12
East 17.79 16.24 45.31 42.46 62.54 59.55 0.08 0.05
South 1.98 1.64 16.16 14.76 25.42 23.10 0 0
West 9.84 8.90 29.71 27.63 44.04 41.17 0.07 0.05
Transition 7.45 7.12 23.97 22.40 38.25 34.82 0.08 0.07
Second floor North 40.58 38.04 60.89 58.34 63.55 61.97 0.42 0.38
East 50.98 48.10 68.41 65.86 65.65 65.04 0.60 0.54
South 9.41 8.77 29.53 27.84 46.56 43.44 0.09 0.08
West 41.05 38.36 58.32 55.91 59.11 58.00 0.43 0.40
Transition 29.53 27.57 55.21 52.50 66.46 64.30 0.12 0.12
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
been enlarged in line with arcades towards the court-
yard, and the window ratios of their facades have been
enlarged, the daylight intake values in those spaces are
higher than the original state of the khan. In the cur-
rent state, despite the addition of many extra overhangs
towards the exterior side and towards the courtyard,
there is still an increase in daylighting values (Table9).
On the first floor, the rooms at the North side, East side
and West side have more daylight intake in the original
state of the khan. is may be because of the change of
the level heights of the surrounding buildings at North
(Table9). According to glare simulation results, the glare
values at the selected rooms have not greatly changed
(Tables5, 8).
Criteria were determined to measure the sensitiv-
ity of the DGP results in the simulation. Accordingly, it
was aimed to measure the sensitivity of the DGP value
according to glass transmittance. June 21 at 12 a.m. for
the selected room at the ground floor level at Western
side (current state) was chosen for the sensitivity analysis.
Table 5 Glare analysis results of the selected rooms of the current state of Buyuk Yeni Khan
* Imperceptible (< 0.35), perceptible (0.35–0.40), disturbing (0.40–0.45), intolerable (> 0.45)
Name of the oor The location of the rooms DGP*
21 June—12.00 a.m
The longest day of a year
DGP*
21
December—12.00
a.m
The shortest day
of a year
Ground floor The reference room at the North side 0.28 0.21
The reference room at the East side 0.23 0.20
The reference room at the South side 0.27 0.29
The reference room at the West side 0.20 0.15
First floor The reference room at the North side 0.23 0.22
The reference room at the East side 0.17 0.07
The reference room at the South side 0.18 0.17
The reference room at the West side 0.20 0.16
Second floor The reference room at the North side 0.23 0.25
The reference room at the East side 0.20 0.14
The reference room at the South side 0.27 0.28
The reference room at the West side 0.22 0.26
Table 6 Daylighting analysis results of the original state of Buyuk Yeni Khan
Name of the oor The location of the rooms DA500 (%) cDA (%) UDI100-2000 (%) sDA500, 50% (%)
Ground floor The rooms at the North side 42.38 63.88 67.54 0.45
The rooms at the East side 40.90 65.17 75.94 0.32
The rooms at the South side 4.09 23.77 37.57 0.03
The rooms at the West side 12.98 32.03 45.94 0.13
The rooms at the Transition area 8.36 33.23 53.14 0.05
First floor The rooms at the North side 18.08 43.07 62.29 0.20
The rooms at the East side 25.00 59.02 78.92 0.23
The rooms at the South side 2.50 20.28 32.29 0.01
The rooms at the West side 15.60 40.20 56.41 0.13
The rooms at the Transition area 9.76 30.57 49.03 0.10
Second floor The rooms at the North side 50.21 73.26 75.75 0.56
The rooms at the East side 62.03 83.21 80.58 0.68
The rooms at the South side 11.85 36.43 57.61 0.11
The rooms at the West side 54.06 74.01 72.57 0.59
The rooms at the Transition area 38.45 69.34 81.71 0.31
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
Glass transmittance value range was set between 0 and
1. According to this result, it was seen that glass trans-
mittance affected the glare results to a certain extent
(Table10).
Individual simulation of the selected Eastern side
room at the ground floor level was also carried out.
Accordingly, an increase was observed in DA, cDA and
sDA values in the current state of the khan (Table11,
Figs.14, 15). In addition to the horizontal sensor grids,
vertical sensor grids were also used for the daylighting
simulation. Vertical sensor grids were located at 2 m
behind the exterior facade. According to the results, a
decrease was observed in DA, cDA, sDA and UDI val-
ues in the current state of the khan (Table11, Fig.14).
Similar results were obtained in the seasonal simula-
tions (Table11). e change of the facade from arch to
rectangular frame and the additional overhangs mainly
caused these results.
Table 7 Season based daylighting analysis results of the original state of Buyuk Yeni Khan
Name of the oor The location of
the rooms DA500 (%) cDA (%) UDI100-2000 (%) sDA500, 50% (%)
Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter
Ground floor North 33.61 31.34 51.51 48.93 55.23 53.28 0.36 0.33
East 32.06 28.57 51.97 48.65 61.30 58.92 0.16 0.14
South 3.26 2.89 18.97 17.41 29.73 26.94 0 0
West 10.19 9.32 25.55 23.79 36.35 33.81 0.09 0.08
Transition 6.60 6.01 26.37 24.42 41.78 38.48 0.05 0.05
First floor North 14.67 13.68 35.11 33.16 50.33 47.27 0.15 0.13
East 27.21 24.90 53.00 49.92 64.86 62.45 0.21 0.17
South 1.87 1.70 16.17 14.89 25.64 23.14 0 0
West 12.47 11.33 32.23 30.05 44.92 42.27 0.09 0
Transition 7.50 7.21 24.03 22.61 38.43 35.01 0.08 0.07
Second floor North 40.77 38.25 60.88 58.40 63.57 62.06 0.44 0.38
East 51.18 47.91 68.46 65.77 65.61 65.02 0.60 0.55
South 9.50 8.83 29.41 27.90 46.26 43.40 0.09 0.08
West 44.03 41.28 60.48 58.08 58.87 58.12 0.49 0.46
Transition 29.65 27.77 55.19 52.79 66.33 64.39 0.14 0.12
Table 8 Glare analysis results of the selected rooms of the original state of Buyuk Yeni Khan
* Imperceptible (< 0.35), perceptible (0.35–0.40), disturbing (0.40–0.45), intolerable (> 0.45)
Name of the oor The location of the rooms DGP*
21 June—12.00a.m.
The longest day of a year
DGP*
21
December—12.00a.m.
The shortest day of
a year
Ground floor The reference room at the North side 0.28 0.21
The reference room at the East side 0.24 0.19
The reference room at the South side 0.24 0.21
The reference room at the West side 0.20 0.19
First floor The reference room at the North side 0.18 0.22
The reference room at the East side 0.17 0.07
The reference room at the South side 0.24 0.17
The reference room at the West side 0.22 0.20
Second floor The reference room at the North side 0.23 0.25
The reference room at the East side 0.20 0.14
The reference room at the South side 0.27 0.27
The reference room at the West side 0.22 0.26
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
e study has limitations as listed below:
• Measurements were obtained through simulation
rather than in-situ methods. Conducting in-situ
measurements could yield more accurate results.
Also, as Saraiva et al. [77] did, comparing simu-
lation results with in-situ measurements could
lead to determine the accuracy of the simulation
method.
• e materials for both the current and original
states were kept constant. More accurate simula-
tion results for the current state could be achieved
by specifying materials separately for each room. It
was found that different materials were used in the
current state (e.g., corridors covered with ceram-
ics). erefore, in a daylighting comparison based
on material changes, the impact on daylighting
would likely be more significant.
• Since the Lidar scanning has 5 m limitation, the
model was created part by part. Other 3D scanning
techniques that capable of long distance scanning
would create more precise models.
• is study was conducted on the basis of observable
changes in the building. ere may be other various
changes (e.g. material properties of the rooms, physi-
cal changes in the rooms) in the building.
• Other metrics such as Characteristic Daylight Illu-
minance (CDI) [20] can also be used for daylighting
performance measurements.
As Ünlü [1] mentioned, the urban environment
may change over time. is change may affect special
Table 9 A comparison of the daylighting simulation results of the current state of Buyuk Yeni Khan with the daylighting simulation
results of the original state of it
O Original state, C current state
O C O C O C O C
DA500 (%) DA500 (%) cDA (%) cDA (%) UDI100-2000 (%) UDI100-2000 (%) sDA500, 50% (%) sDA500, 50% (%)
Ground floor
North 42.38 45.04 63.88 68.48 67.54 77.65 0.45 0.50
East 40.90 41.16 65.17 67.16 75.94 80.81 0.32 0.35
South 4.09 22.46 23.77 45.12 37.57 60.55 0.03 0.23
West 12.98 24.00 32.03 45.64 45.94 59.18 0.13 0.23
Transition 8.36 10.56 33.23 35.17 53.14 51.69 0.05 0.09
First floor
North 18.08 16.80 43.07 40.11 62.29 57.23 0.20 0.18
East 25.00 22.15 59.02 57.45 78.92 78.38 0.23 0.20
South 2.50 2.39 20.28 20.27 32.29 31.45 0.01 0.00
West 15.60 11.95 40.20 36.84 56.41 55.73 0.13 0.10
Transition 9.76 9.71 30.57 30.35 49.03 48.43 0.10 0.10
Second floor
North 50.21 51.35 73.26 74.80 75.75 76.21 0.56 0.57
East 62.03 62.02 83.21 83.25 80.58 80.63 0.68 0.69
South 11.85 12.14 36.43 36.66 57.61 57.86 0.11 0.10
West 54.06 50.02 74.01 71.26 72.57 72.99 0.59 0.53
Transition 38.45 38.46 69.34 69.29 81.71 81.60 0.31 0.30
Table 10 Sensitivity analysis according to glass transmittance
value
Glass transmittance DGP
0.16 0.01
0.24 0.03
0.28 0.05
0.32 0.08
0.37 0.11
0.44 0.14
0.47 0.15
0.51 0.16
0.58 0.17
0.62 0.18
0.69 0.18
0.75 0.19
0.79 0.19
0.83 0.19
0.90 0.20
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Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
buildings that are considered as one of the constant ele-
ments of urban morphology [78]. In the study of Carlos
and Martins [22], it was observed that the daylight con-
dition of a historical building changed due to the new
urban environment. Similarly, present study found that
alterations in surrounding building height affected the
daylighting of the khan building. Additionally, Giorgi and
Matracchi [4] state that various modifications might be
made to historical buildings. Present study revealed that
this situation also affected the daylighting of the histori-
cal khan building.
Buyuk Yeni Khan is located in-between “Sultanahmet
Urban Archaeological Component Area of World Herit-
age Site” and “Suleymaniye Mosque and its Associated
Component Area of World Heritage Site” [79], both
are in Historical Peninsula of Istanbul. In line with the
conservation strategic plans, Istanbul Historical Areas
Directorate prepared “Istanbul Historic Peninsula Site
Management Plan Boundaries” [80] which includes
khans area. To preserve intangible daylighting feature of
the khans, related actions can also be added to the stra-
tegic plan. For example, restrictions can be imposed to
maintain the height of the surrounding buildings. Addi-
tionally, legal constraints should be established to pre-
vent additions to the rooms of the khan and to ensure the
preservation of their original form. Furthermore, main-
taining the IEQ of the khan would ensure a healthy work-
ing environment for the craftsmen.
Table 11 A comparison of the daylighting simulation results of the current state of the selected room (the Eastern side room at the
ground floor level) with the daylighting simulation results of the original state of it
Annual Summer (June–August) Winter (January–March)
Original state Current state Original state Current state Original state Current state
Horizontal sensor grid (1 m above ground level)
DA500 (%) 46.46 52.73 36.83 41.56 32.82 37.69
cDA (%) 71.47 74.61 56.55 58.88 53.43 55.91
UDI100-2000 (%) 84.20 83.02 66.13 65.28 64.32 63.96
sDA500, 50% (%) 0.28 0.52 0.11 0.30 0.11 0.23
Vertical sensor grid (2 m from the exterior façade)
DA500 (%) 50.29 38.97 39.66 30.77 35.40 26.70
cDA (%) 73.99 67.11 58.28 53.01 55.19 49.63
UDI100-2000 (%) 88.20 85.83 69.24 67.04 67.17 64.79
sDA500, 50% (%) 0.52 0.12 0 0 0 0
Fig. 14 The daylighting simulation results of the selected Eastern side room at the ground floor level with the use of horizontal and vertical sensor
grids
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Page 18 of 21
Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
Conclusion
e daylighting of Buyuk Yeni Khan, which is still in
active use, has been examined within the scope of this
study. e study revealed that modifications in the his-
torical khan building and the changes in the built envi-
ronment caused the daylighting performance changes,
which affects the visual characteristics of the khan and
visual comfort of the occupants. e North, South, East
and West rooms of the khan were grouped and the day-
lighting levels were examined for their original and cur-
rent states. e data and evaluations obtained in this
study can be used in the possible restoration or renova-
tion works of the khan.
e contributions of the study have been listed below.
• e current state of the khan has been scanned
with 3D Lidar technology. e 3D model of the cur-
rent state of the khan and the 3D model of the orig-
inal state of the khan have been prepared according
to the 3D scanning data and observations.
• At the end of the 3D laser scanning and observations,
it was determined that the rooms on the ground floor
Fig. 15 A graphical comparison of the DA and DGP simulation results of the current state of the selected room (the Eastern side room
at the ground floor level) with the daylighting and glare simulation results of the original state of it
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Page 19 of 21
Agirbasand Dal Heritage Science (2024) 12:313
in the current state of the khan were enlarged in line
with the arcades, the vaults of ceilings were covered,
additional rooms were added to the courtyard, façade
typology of the khan has been changed and over-
hangs to the exterior and interior facades have been
added.
• After performing daylighting simulations of the cur-
rent state of the khan and the original state of the
khan, it has been found that the changes in the khan
building caused the daylighting value changes.
Historical khan buildings, which have their own unique
architecture, are special buildings in terms of both their
function and their atmosphere. Daylighting analysis stud-
ies on historical khan buildings have not been conducted
before. is paper is the first study in which the atmos-
phere of historical khan buildings created by daylighting
is emphasized and expressed in numerical data. Although
Buyuk Yeni Khan is determined as a case study within
the scope of this study, similar daylighting analyzes, and
comparisons between the results can be made for many
other existing khan buildings. Also, in-situ daylighting
analysis can be made in order to validate the simulation
results.
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Author contributions
AA: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing,
editing, supervision, visualization; AOD: investigation, in situ analysis, experi-
mental tests and analysis, writing, visualization.
Funding
This research did not receive any funding.
Availability of data and materials
Data available at https:// doi. org/ 10. 6084/ m9. figsh are. 26204 969.
Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Received: 7 April 2024 Accepted: 8 August 2024
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