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Understanding the prospects of human-wildlife coexistence: a conceptual framework

Authors:
Avantika Thapa at Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment
Avantika Thapa
Tanoy Mukherjee at Indian Statistical Institute
Tanoy Mukherjee
Aditya Pradhan at Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment
Aditya Pradhan
Joydev Chattopadhyay
Joydev Chattopadhyay
Joydev Chattopadhyay
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Abstract and Figures

Human-wildlife interactions can range from reverence to extreme conflict. Conservationists have come to the realization that humans and wildlife have always coexisted together in shared landscapes across the globe. Thus, understanding and acting upon the prospects of human-wildlife coexistence (HWCo) is now a crucial component of biodiversity conservation to sustain it. HWCo is a state where humans and wildlife share spaces by exposing each other to tolerable levels of risks and disadvantages. HWCo transpires as a result of interplay between a number of perceived and behavioral factors, some of which are interdependent on one another. Through this framework, we find ways to identify these factors, which can then be used to evaluate HWCo and understand the drivers of HWCo. Therefore, the current article focuses on changing this paradigm in HWCo research. We suggest three continuums involving three crucial factors viz., space-use by wildlife, daily activity pattern of wildlife, and human attitude towards wildlife, be used to obtain a cumulative value signifying HWCo for a particular species/taxon in a shared landscape. We propose that these factors be measured simultaneously on a predefined scale, which will allow it to become relative, and will further allow cross-site comparisons. This preliminary framework is expected to enable scientists and researchers to visualize the complexity and dynamicity embedded within human-wildlife interactions through modeling. The evaluation on a continuum is especially effective when positive or negative interactions between humans and wildlife are not obvious.
The left and the right extremities represent negative coexistence and positive coexistence/conflict. The continuums in the grey box are wildlife spatial and temporal continuums and the continuum in the beige box represents human behavior towards wildlife. The inverted triangle (movable along the continuum) represents a situation wherein an animal might display positive or negative occupancy of a shared landscape in a continuum. It may change its natural activity pattern in a shared landscape to a varying degree, here, negative signifies no change and positive signifies significant change. Similarly, human behavior towards an animal may range from stewardship, neutral to non-lethal, and lethal from positive to negative
The left and the right extremities represent negative coexistence and positive coexistence/conflict. The continuums in the grey box are wildlife spatial and temporal continuums and the continuum in the beige box represents human behavior towards wildlife. The inverted triangle (movable along the continuum) represents a situation wherein an animal might display positive or negative occupancy of a shared landscape in a continuum. It may change its natural activity pattern in a shared landscape to a varying degree, here, negative signifies no change and positive signifies significant change. Similarly, human behavior towards an animal may range from stewardship, neutral to non-lethal, and lethal from positive to negative
… 
A conceptual illustration of the three continuums viz., animal space use, shift in animal time use and human attitude towards wildlife (clockwise) in shared landscape, that helps in understanding the possibility of human-wildlife coexistence (HWCo). Here, the area within the dashed lines on either side of zero demarcate a neutral space. The + 1s represent high use of shared landscapes, increase in diurnal activity and positive attitude of humans towards wildlife. While − 1s represent low use of shared landscapes, increase in nocturnal activity and negative attitude of humans towards wildlife
A conceptual illustration of the three continuums viz., animal space use, shift in animal time use and human attitude towards wildlife (clockwise) in shared landscape, that helps in understanding the possibility of human-wildlife coexistence (HWCo). Here, the area within the dashed lines on either side of zero demarcate a neutral space. The + 1s represent high use of shared landscapes, increase in diurnal activity and positive attitude of humans towards wildlife. While − 1s represent low use of shared landscapes, increase in nocturnal activity and negative attitude of humans towards wildlife
… 
The diagram illustrates the gradient of cumulative scores that can be formulated in a space. The cumulative score will be a culmination of individual scores obtained from positioning humans and wildlife along the three continuums. The red zone signifies scores closer to -1s (less use of shared spaces, increase in nocturnal activity by wildlife and negative attitude of humans towards wildlife) and the green zone signifies scores closer to + 1s (more use of shared spaces, no deviation or increase in diurnal activity by wildlife and positive attitude of humans towards wildlife) and the blue zone signifies neutral scores closer to 0s (equal use of shared spaces and wilder spaces, no deviation in diurnal activity by wildlife and neutral attitude of humans towards wildlife)
The diagram illustrates the gradient of cumulative scores that can be formulated in a space. The cumulative score will be a culmination of individual scores obtained from positioning humans and wildlife along the three continuums. The red zone signifies scores closer to -1s (less use of shared spaces, increase in nocturnal activity by wildlife and negative attitude of humans towards wildlife) and the green zone signifies scores closer to + 1s (more use of shared spaces, no deviation or increase in diurnal activity by wildlife and positive attitude of humans towards wildlife) and the blue zone signifies neutral scores closer to 0s (equal use of shared spaces and wilder spaces, no deviation in diurnal activity by wildlife and neutral attitude of humans towards wildlife)
… 
A proposed conceptual framework involving the utilization of modeling techniques to test how explanatory variables influence HWCo scores. By thoroughly analyzing the impact of HWCo as positive, neutral, and negative contexts, the next step involves implementing interventions to minimize negative impact. After identifying the significant variables through modeling, interventions are devised based on insights gained from impact assessment and modeling integration (coupling technique). The intervention can also be designed to sustain the positive and neutral impact. Subsequently, HWCo scores are measured before and after the intervention to gauge its efficacy
A proposed conceptual framework involving the utilization of modeling techniques to test how explanatory variables influence HWCo scores. By thoroughly analyzing the impact of HWCo as positive, neutral, and negative contexts, the next step involves implementing interventions to minimize negative impact. After identifying the significant variables through modeling, interventions are devised based on insights gained from impact assessment and modeling integration (coupling technique). The intervention can also be designed to sustain the positive and neutral impact. Subsequently, HWCo scores are measured before and after the intervention to gauge its efficacy
… 
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Received: 17 October 2023 / Revised: 25 July 2024 / Accepted: 9 August 2024 / Published online: 27 August 2024
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2024
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Understanding the prospects of human-wildlife coexistence:
a conceptual framework
AvantikaThapa1,2,3· TanoyMukherjee4· AdityaPradhan1,3· JoydevChattopadhyay4
Biodiversity and Conservation (2024) 33:3583–3615
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-024-02922-w
Abstract
Human-wildlife interactions can range from reverence to extreme conict. Conservation-
ists have come to the realization that humans and wildlife have always coexisted together
in shared landscapes across the globe. Thus, understanding and acting upon the pros-
pects of human-wildlife coexistence (HWCo) is now a crucial component of biodiversity
conservation to sustain it. HWCo is a state where humans and wildlife share spaces by
exposing each other to tolerable levels of risks and disadvantages. HWCo transpires as a
result of interplay between a number of perceived and behavioral factors, some of which
are interdependent on one another. Through this framework, we nd ways to identify these
factors, which can then be used to evaluate HWCo and understand the drivers of HWCo.
Therefore, the current article focuses on changing this paradigm in HWCo research. We
suggest three continuums involving three crucial factors viz., space-use by wildlife, daily
activity pattern of wildlife, and human attitude towards wildlife, be used to obtain a cu-
mulative value signifying HWCo for a particular species/taxon in a shared landscape. We
propose that these factors be measured simultaneously on a predened scale, which will
allow it to become relative, and will further allow cross-site comparisons. This preliminary
framework is expected to enable scientists and researchers to visualize the complexity and
dynamicity embedded within human-wildlife interactions through modeling. The evalua-
tion on a continuum is especially eective when positive or negative interactions between
humans and wildlife are not obvious.
Keywords Human-wildlife interaction · Human-wildlife conict · Human-dominated
landscape · Human-modied landscape · Community attitude · Socio-ecological
landscape · Community perception · Wildlife response · Policy · Biodiversity
conservation
1 3
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
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