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Evolutionary strategies behind maternal investment in mammalian reproduction

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Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans at Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research
Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
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Evolutionary strategies behind
maternal investment in
mammalian reproduction
Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
Evolutionary strategies behind maternal investment in mammalian reproduction I Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
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Evolutionary strategies behind maternal
investment in mammalian reproduction
Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
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Promoters
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© Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
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Members of the jury
Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Ann van Soom, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ECAR, promoter
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Prof. Dr. Katrien Smits, DVM, PhD, promoter
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Dr. Jella Wauters, DVM, PhD, promoter
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Prof. Dr. Thomas B. Hildebrandt, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ECZM, promoter
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Prof. Dr. Ann Martens, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ECVS, chairman
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Prof. Dr. Frank Pasmans, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ECZM, secretary
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Prof. Dr. Bruno Levecke, DVM, PhD
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Prof. Dr. Tom Stout, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ECAR
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Prof. Dr. Ruth Appeltant, DVM, PhD
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Dr. Cyriel Ververs, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ECAR
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Table of contents
List of abbreviations
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List of evolutionary biology definitions
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List of figures
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List of tables
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Chapter 1
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 6
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Summary
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Samenvatting!
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Acknowledgements
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Curriculum vitae!
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Addendum 1
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Chapter 1
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General introduction
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5Didelphis virginiana,6!/09!43'!H''&@/4!5Suricata suricatta,!5V4'/9!'4!/1)6!EWEE,)!!
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MONOTREME
Tachyglossus aculeatus
METATHERIAN
Didelphis virginiana
EUTHERIAN
Suricata suricatta
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Monotremata: T.a. = Tachyglossus aculeatus (Short-beaked echidna), O.a. = Ornithorhynchus anatinus (Platypus); Metatheria: S.m. =
Sminthopsis macroura (Stripe faced dunnart), T. v. = Trichosurus vulpecula (Common brushtail possum), D.v. = Didelphis virginiana
(Virginia opossum); Eutheria: M.m. = Mus musculus (mouse); O.c. = Oryctolagus cuniculus (European rabbit), E.m. = Elephantulus
myurus (Eastern rock elephant shrew).
!
1.2.1.1 Monotremata
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1 Trends Desk, 2022. Here’s ‘the oldest & the only elephant to be living beyond 100 years’
https://indianexpress.com/article/trending/trending-in-india/heres-the-oldest-the-only-elephant-to-be-
living-beyond-100-years-7993390/, Visited 21/12/2023
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Chapter 3
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Quantifying maternal investment in
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./>!;.'4(5S9QD!#$"#m!E35Q.D!"OO"m!7.'4(/!94!.=*D!#$$fl*!79!4I85!'9=39>!(/!53e!.=49'/.43K9!
'9M'9553(/!1(>9=5!4(!95431.49!4I9!=3449'!1.55!.4!]9./3/M*!0@9C3aC.==GD!]9!859>!.!531@=9!
=3/9.'! '9M'9553(/!k0RElD! .! =3/9.'! kI949'(5C9>.543Cl!13e9>c9Y9C45! 1(>9=! .CC(8/43/M! )('!
@IG=(M9/943C!3/9'43.! k&RBBlD!.!54./>.'>359>! 1.g('!.e35! '9M'9553(/!k0B,lD! .! 1.g('!.e35!
'9M'9553(/! kB,lD! .! 18=43@=9! =3/9.'! '9M'9553(/! 1(>9=! '9@'959/43/M! ./! 9e49/53(/! ()! 4I9!
1(>9=! 0RE! kB0RElD! ./>! .! 18=43@=9! =3/9.'! '9M'9553(/! '9@'959/43/M! ./! 9e49/53(/! ()! 4I9!
1(>9=! &RBB! kB&RBBl*! W/! 4(@! ()! 4I9! 9Y9C4! ()! 4I9! .>8=4! 1.55! (/! 4I9! =3449'! 1.55! .4!
]9./3/M!C(/53>9'9>! 3/!4I9!?3K.'3.49! 1(>9=5!k0RED! &RBBD!0B,!./>!B,lD!4I9! B0RE!./>!
B&RBB!1(>9=5!.=5(!.CC(8/4!)('!.!@(553?=9!9Y9C4!()!3/K95419/4!>8'.43(/*!:I9!'.43(/.=9!
?9I3/>!4I959!18=43@=9!=3/9.'!'9M'9553(/!1(>9=5!k3*9*!B0RE!./>!B&RBBl!35!4(!.CC(8/4!)('!
! ! !
ON!
!
4I9!@(553?3=34G!4I.4!./!9e49/>9>!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!3/!(Y5@'3/M!C(8=>!'958=4!3/!M'9.49'!
(Y5@'3/M!M'(]4I*!:I35!@(553?3=34G!35!/(4!a priori (?K3(85!53/C9!4I9!9Y9C4!()!4I9!3/K95419/4!
>8'.43(/! 1.G! .='9.>G! ?9! .CC(8/49>! )('! 3/! 4I9! 531@=9'! 1(>9=5D! K3.! 4I9! .>8=4! 1.55!
@'9>3C4('D!>89!4(!4I9!.==(194'3C!'9=.43(/5I3@!?94]99/!?(>G!1.55!./>!4I9!@.C9!()!=3)9*!:I9!
'.43(/.=9!?9I3/>!4I9!1(>9=5!&RBB!./>!B&RBB!35!4I.4D!)('!.!M3K9/!.>8=4!1.55D!4I9!=3449'!
1.55!.4!]9./3/M!1.G!>3Y9'!?94]99/!4.e.!>89!4(!4I9!3/d89/C9!()!).C4('5!C(''9=.49>!]34I!
@IG=(M9/G! 58CI! .5! 4I9! M9/943C! 1.Q9c8@! ()! 3/>3K3>8.=5! ('! 4I93'! 9C(=(MG*! :I9'9)('9D!
.CC(8/43/M!)('!4I9! @IG=(M9/943C!>354./C95!?94]99/! 5@9C395!]I3=9!a443/M! 4I9!.==(194'3C!
'9=.43(/5I3@!>9C'9.595!4I9! 31@.C4!()!K.'3.43(/!3/!4I9! >9/534G!()!(?59'K.43(/5! .=(/M!4I9!
1.11.=3./!@IG=(M9/943C!4'99!(/!95431.495!@'(>8C9>!?G!'9M'9553(/!194I(>5*!
79!a449>! 4I9!=3/9.'!'9M'9553(/5! (/!.! 53/M=9!58?594!()!(8'!>.4.! k[!z! _NPl!4I.4D!)('! 9.CI!
5@9C395D!C(/4.3/9>!3/)('1.43(/!.?(84!4I9!=3449'! 1.55!.4!]9./3/MD!4I9!.>8=4!?(>G!1.55D!
4I9!3/K95419/4!>8'.43(/!./>!@IG=(M9/943C!@(5343(/!kJ@I.1!94!.=*D!#$"Ol*!:I9!95431.495!()!
4I9!.==(194'3C!'9=.43(/5I3@!(?4.3/9>!)('!4I9!>3Y9'9/4!'9M'9553(/!194I(>5!.'9!>9@3C49>!3/!
Figure 3.1!./>!5811.'359>!3/!Table 3.1*!
!
N/D1'! L)(*! ?04'&.'248! /09! /11:H'4&#.! 8./1#0$! .:'O#.#'048! :-! 8#I! 9#O'&'04! 1#0'/&! &'$&'88#:0! H:9'18!
Y44'9!4:!43'!8/H'!9/4/8'4!:-!H/HH/1#/0!82'.#'8!5c!f!JLa,)!Ha!&'2&'8'048!43'!9'-/%14!/9%14!H/88!/09!
9!43'!#0G'84H'04!9%&/4#:0)!+11!&'$&'88#:0!H'43:98!1'9!4:!/!$::9!/9h%84H'04!:-!43'!9/4/!5&E!i!W)MXJ6!2!
j!W)WW(,)!c:4'!43/4!#04'&.'248!$#G'0!3'&'!.:&&'82:09!4:!43'!'84#H/4'8!9#&'.41>!$#G'0!D>!H:9'1!Y48)!N3'>!
43%8!.:&&'82:09!4:!43'!1:./4#:0!A3'&'!43'!&'$&'88#:0!1#0'!A:%19!.%4!43'!1:$10R4&/08-:&H'9!>R/I#8)!
Model
Intercept (CI95%)
Scaling ma (CI95%)
Scaling d (CI95%)
0RE!
c$*"Of!kc$*#"fD!c$*"_fl!
$*__P!k$*_f^D!$*_O"l!
c!
&RBB
!
c$*"O#!kc$*^N%D!$*"_Nl
!
!$*P$f!k$*_P#D!$*PNNl
!
c
!
0B,!
c$*"O$!kc$*#"$D!c$*"_$l!
$*_OO!k$*_PfD!$*P"Nl!
c!
B,!
c$*"O#!kc$*#"#D!c$*"_#l!
!$*_O^!k$*_P"D!$*P$Pl!
c!
B0RE!
$*ff%!k$*^$PD!$*P"Ol!
$*Pf_!k$*P%_D!$*PP_l!
c$*NOP!kc$*%_$D!c$*N#_l!
B&RBB!
$*#$%!kc$*#^^D!$*f#Pl!
$*PNf!k$*P$%D!$*P_$l!
c$*"OO!kc$*NN%D!!
c$*$_$"l!
!
O%!
!
J53/M!4I9!53e!a449>!1(>9=5D!4I9!9e@9C49>!=3449'!1.55!.4!]9./3/M!)('!.!M3K9/!5@9C395!C./!
?9! @'9>3C49>! ?.59>! (/! 4I9! .>8=4! 1.55D! ./>! 3/! C.59! ()! 4I9! 18=43@=9! =3/9.'! '9M'9553(/!
1(>9=5D! ?.59>! (/! 4I9! .>8=4! 1.55! ./>! 3/K95419/4! >8'.43(/D! )('! 4I.4! 5@9C395*! ;G!
C(1@.'3/M!4I9!.C48.=! =3449'!1.55! .4!]9./3/M!4(! 4I9!@'9>3C49>!=3449'! 1.55!.4!]9./3/MD! .!
194'3C!C./! ?9!@'(>8C9>!4(! .==(]!)('! 4I9!(?g9C43K9!C(1@.'35(/! ()!1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4!
?94]99/!5@9C395*!79!@'(@(59!4I9!)(==(]3/M!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!194'3C5!?.59>!(/!4I9!
'.43(! ?94]99/! 4I959! Z8./434395`! 𝑀𝐼 =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&"'!()*+),-."//)*-0#((-#/ -1)#2"23
."//)*-0#((-#/-1)#2"23-4*),"$/),-!5-#..'0)/*5D!
]I9'9!MI!35! 4I9! 1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!k.! 8/34=955! /81?9'!53/C9!•QMŽ×•QMŽ-1z•"Žl*! :I9! 53e!
1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4! 194'3C5! 549113/M! )'(1! (8'! 53e! =3/9.'! '9M'9553(/! 1(>9=5! .'9!
@'959/49>!3/!Table 3.2*!!
!
N/D1'! L)E*! FG'&G#'A! :-! 43'! H/4'&0/1! #0G'84H'04! H'4&#.8! #0! H/HH/18! /..:&9#0$! 4:! 8#I! /14'&0/4#G'!
&'$&'88#:0!H:9'18!Y44'9!4:!43'!8/H'!9/4/8'4!5c!f!JLa!82'.#'8,)!N3'!#04'&.'24!.:&&'82:098!4:!43'!1:$10!
4&/08-:&H'9!#04'&.'24!#0!N/D1'!L)()!V''!1'$'09!N/D1'!L)(!-:&!H:&'!9'4/#18)!
Model
Metric
0RE!
𝑀𝐼678 =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&
𝑚.1
0.637 × 𝑚#
&9::;"
&RBB!
𝑀𝐼<7== =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&"𝑚.1
0.643 × 𝑚#
&9;&>"
0B,!
𝑀𝐼6=? =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&
𝑚.1
0.645 × 𝑚#&9:@@"
B,!
𝑀𝐼=? =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&"𝑚.1
0.643 × 𝑚#&9:@A"
B0RE!
𝑀𝐼=678 =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&
𝑚.1
4.61 × 𝑚#&9;>: × 𝑑B&9C@; "
B&RBB!
𝑀𝐼=<7== =𝑙𝑜𝑔%&"𝑚.1
1.60 × 𝑚#&9;C> × 𝑑B&9%@@ "
!
:I9!MI!194'3C5!>3'9C4=G!C(''95@(/>!4(!4I9!'953>8.=5!.55(C3.49>!]34I!4I9!'9M'9553(/!=3/95!
5I(]/!3/!Figure 3.1*!F('!?3K.'3.49!1(>9=5!853/M! (/=G!.!53/M=9! @'9>3C4('!k.>8=4!1.55lD! .!
5@9C395!CI.'.C49'359>!?G!MI!K.=89!()!$!35!4I85!.!5@9C395!4I.4!>(95!/(4!>9K3.49!)'(1!4I9!
'9M'9553(/!=3/9! )('! 4I9! .==(194'3C!'9=.43(/5I3@! ?94]99/! 4I9!=3449'! 1.55! .4! ]9./3/MD!4I9!
! ! !
O^!
!
.>8=4!1.55D!./>!3/!C.59!()!B0RE!./>!B&RBB!4I9!3/K95419/4!>8'.43(/*!B('9!M9/9'.==GD!
./!MI K.=89!()!$!C(''95@(/>5!4(!.!5@9C395!)('!]I3CI!4I9!=3449'!1.55!.4!]9./3/M!9Z8.495!4(!
]I.4!35!9e@9C49>!)('!./!.K9'.M9!5@9C395!]34I!4I9!5.19!.>8=4!1.55!./>!k3)!.@@=3C.?=9l!4I9!
5.19! 3/K95419/4! >8'.43(/*! ,! 5@9C395! ]34I! .! @(5343K9! ('! /9M.43K9! MI!K.=89! 4I85!
C(''95@(/>5!4(!.! 5@9C395!)('!]I3CI!4I9! =3449'!1.55!.4! ]9./3/M!35!'95@9C43K9=G!I3MI9'!('!
=(]9'!4I./!@'9>3C49>!)'(1!.!M3K9/!'9M'9553(/!1(>9=*!\(1@843/M!4I9!MI!)('!.==!_NP!5@9C395!
)('!]I3CI!4I9!>9).8=4!.>8=4!1.55D!4I9!3/K95419/4!>8'.43(/D!./>!4I9!@(5343(/!()!./G!M3K9/!
5@9C395!]34I3/! 4I9! @IG=(M9/943C!4'99! ]9'9! Q/(]/!'958=49>! 3/! 5@9C395c=9K9=!@'9>3C43(/5!
'9=.43K9=G! C(/53549/4! .C'(55! 4I9! 53e! '9M'9553(/! 194I(>5*! B(>9=5! /(4! .CC(8/43/M! )('!
@IG=(M9/943C!3/9'43.!'958=49>! 3/! MI! 95431.495!5313=.'! ?94]99/! 9.CI! (4I9'!k.==! '! }! $*O#D!
b8.>9!4954`! F3,2211!z! $*f%#D!@! z!$*^Ol*! <(]9K9'D!4I9! a4!()! 4I9!@IG=(M9/943C! =3/9.'!13e9>!
1(>9=5!k3*9*!1(>9=5!&RBB!./>!B&RBBl!'9K9.=9>!.!54'(/M!@IG=(M9/943C!53M/.=!3/!4I9!>.4.!
4I.4! 35! /(4! C.@48'9>! ?G! 4I9! .==(194'3C! '9=.43(/5I3@5*! A/>99>D! ?(4I! @IG=(M9/943C! =3/9.'!
13e9>! 1(>9=5! a449>! 4I9! >.4.! 53M/3aC./4=G! ?9449'! 4I./! 4I93'! /(/c@IG=(M9/943C!
C(8/49'@.'45!k&RBB!K5!0RE`!R3Q9=3I((>!E.43(!:954!kRE:l!z!ONND!>)!z!ND!@!~!$*$$"m!B&RBB!
K5!B0RE`!RE:!z!P#_D!>)!z!ND!@!~!$*$$"l*!
A/! 4I9! 1(>9=! B&RBBD! 4I9! C(/a>9/C9! 3/49'K.=! )('! 9Y9C4! ()! 3/K95419/4! >8'.43(/! k.5!
'9@'959/49>!?G!4I9!5C.=3/M!C(9Y3C39/4!()!4I9!.==(194'3C!'9=.43(/5I3@!?94]99/!3/K95419/4!
>8'.43(/!./>!4I9!=3449'!1.55!.4!]9./3/Ml!].5!53M/3aC./4=G!/9M.43K9!kTable 3.1l*!:I35!>(95!
/(4!31@=G!4I.4!.!=(/M9'!3/K95419/4!>8'.43(/!19./5!.!=(]9'!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4*!A/!).C4D!
3)! 3/K95419/4! >8'.43(/! ?9C(195! 4I9! 5(=9! @'9>3C4('! 3/! 4I9! 1(>9=D! 4I9! 9Y9C4! 35! C=9.'=G!
@(5343K9!k5C.=3/M! >!z! "*P#m!\A95%!z! "*f$!c!#*$%m! [!z! _NPl*!:I9! /9M.43K9!9Y9C4! ()!4I9! =(M10!
3/K95419/4!>8'.43(/!3/!4I9!1(>9=!B&RBB!3/549.>!31@=395!4I.4!4I9!=(/M9'!1(4I9'5!3/K954!
3/!4I93'!(Y5@'3/M!4I9!=955!4I9!=3449'!1.55!.4!]9./3/M!3/C'9.595!]34I!.>8=4!1.55*!:(M94I9'D!
4I9! .>8=4! 1.55! ./>! 4I9! 3/K95419/4! >8'.43(/! 4I9'9)('9! @'9>3C49>! 1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4!
53M/3aC./4=G!?9449'D!=9.>3/M!4(!.!1('9!19./3/M)8=!>9/(13/.4('!)('!4I9!MI!K.=89*!F('!4I959!
'9.5(/5D! ]9! CI(59! 4(! @9')('1! .==! 58?59Z89/4! 549@5! ()! (8'! ./.=G535! 853/M! 4I9! 1(>9=!
B&RBBD! ]I3CI! C.@48'95! ?(4I! 4I9! 9Y9C4! ()! 4I9! @IG=(M9/G! ./>! 4I.4! ()! 4I9! 3/K95419/4!
>8'.43(/*!
!
!
Of!
!
3.3.1.3. Sensitivity of the allometric relationship to adult mass definition
:I9!a'54! 59'395! ()!1(>9=5! ].5! ?.59>!(/! 4I9!>9).8=4!.>8=4! 1.55!k3*9*! C(1@849>! ?G!4I9!
>.4.?.59! @'(K3>9'! •! ,1/3(49! kBGI'K(=>! 94! .=*D! #$"^l! •! .5! q4I9! ?(>G! 1.55! ()! ./! .>8=4!
3/>3K3>8.=! 3/! M'.15rD! /(4! 4.Q3/M! 59e! 3/4(! .CC(8/4l*! 03/C9D! 3/! 1.11.=5D! 4I9! 1.49'/.=!
3/K95419/4! 5I(8=>! ?9! '9=.49>! 4(! 4I9! ?(>G! 1.55! ()! 4I9! )91.=9! 5@9C3aC.==GD! ]9! 859>! .!
58?594!()!4I9!>.4.!)('!]I3CI!95431.495!()!.>8=4!1.55!]9'9!.K.3=.?=9!)('!?(4I!59e95!k[!z!
"$^l!./>!'9a449>!4I9!1(>9=!B&RBB!59@.'.49=G!)('!4I9!4](!@'(e395!)('!.>8=4!1.55!kFigure
3.2l*!:I9!@'9>3C49>!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!194'3C5!'91.3/9>!'9=.43K9=G!5313=.'!)('!4I9!5.19!
5@9C395!3''95@9C43K9!()!4I9!4G@9!()!.>8=4!1.55!@'(eG!859>!k9e.C4!73=C(e(/c&'.44!53M/9>c
'./Q!4954D!S!z!"*ffD!@!z!$*$O_$l*!:I9!>3Y9'9/C9!?94]99/!4I9!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!194'3C!
C(1@849>!853/M!4I9!>9).8=4!.>8=4!1.55!./>!4I9!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!194'3C!C(1@849>!
853/M! 4I9! )91.=9! .>8=4! 1.55! >3Y9'9>! ?G! 1('9! 4I./! $*"! )('! (/=G! "^*#v! ()! 4I9! 5@9C395!
kFigure 3.3l*!,!>3Y9'9/C9!()!$*"!3/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!.CC(8/45! )('!C.*!$*%$!0+!3/!4I9!
K.'3.43(/!3/!4I9!MI 194'3C5*!:I959!'958=45!>91(/54'.49!4I.4!4I9!CI(3C9!()!4I9!.>8=4!1.55!
@'(eG!I.>!=344=9!3/d89/C9!8@(/!3/)9'9/C95!(/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!.C'(55!.!]3>9!'./M9!()!
1.11.=5*!:I35!a/>3/M! g8543a95!(8'!>9C353(/! 4(!./.=G59!>9).8=4! .>8=4!1.55!'.4I9'! 4I./!
)91.=9!.>8=4!1.55D!.5!34!.==(]5!85!4(!?9/9a4!)'(1!.!18CI!=.'M9'!5.1@=9!53S9*!
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-:&!A3#.3!D:43!43'!9'-/%14!/9%14!H/88!/09!43'!-'H/1'!/9%14!H/88!A'&'!/G/#1/D1'!5c!f!(W\!82'.#'8,)!N3'!
8./44'&!21:4!83:A8!43/4!43'! /11:H'4&#.! &'1/4#:083#2! D'4A''0! /9%14! H/88! /09! 1#44'&!H/88! /4! A'/0#0$!
/$'! 9#O'&'9! 1#441'! 9'2'09#0$! :0! 43'! /9%14! H/88! 2&:I>! .:08#9'&'9)! T/&@'&! 2:#048! /&'! 43'! &'8%14! :-!
:G'&1/22#0$!:D8'&G/4#:08! -:&! 9#O'&'04! 82'.#'8)! N3'! 4A:! &'$&'88#:0! 1#0'8! &'2&'8'04! 43'! 2&'9#.4#:08!
84'HH#0$!-&:H!/!H%14#21'!23>1:$'0'4#.!1#0'/&!H#I'9!H:9'1!5Q=_QQ,)!
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"#$%&'! L)L*! V./44'&! 21:4! :-! 43'! H/4'&0/1! #0G'84H'04! H'4&#.! 5MIMPLMM,! #0! H/HH/18! 2&'9#.4'9! %8#0$!
9'-/%14!:&!-'H/1'!/9%14!H/88!5c!f!(W\!82'.#'8,)!=&'9#.4#:08!84'H!-&:H!/!H%14#21'!23>1:$'0'4#.!1#0'/&!
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3.3.2.1 E?ect of mammalian subclasses on maternal investment
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Species
Scientific name
Subclass
Order
MIMPLMM
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Tenrec ecaudatus
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musculus
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L84I9'3.
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L84I9'3.!
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Aepyceros
melampus
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Halichoerus
grypus
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Pan troglodytes
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L84I9'3.!
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Macropus rufus
B94.4I9'3.!
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latifrons
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Tachyglossus
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B(/(4'9c
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?'.3/! 1.55D! kAAAl! 5(C3.=! M'(8@! 53S9D! kA-l! 4'(@I3C! =9K9=D! k-l! >394! ?'9.>4ID! ./>! k-Al! I.?34.4!
?'9.>4I*!:I9!'958=45!()!4I9!a449>!1(>9=!.'9!@'959/49>!3/!Table 4.2*!!
!
N/D1'!X)E*!FG'&G#'A! :-! 43'! :%42%4! 5&'$&'88#:0! .:'O#.#'04!/09! 2RG/1%',! -:&!43'! 8#I!2&'9#.4:&8! %8#0$!/!
H%14#21'!23>1:$'0'4#.!1#0'/&!H#I'9!H:9'1!4:!2&'9#.4!H/4'&0/1!#0G'84H'04!5c!f!(XK,)!
Predictors
Regression coefficient
p-value
B.e3181!=(/M9K34G!
c$*$$"PP!
$*NP%!
;'.3/!1.55!
f*NP9c$^!
$*$f$N!
0(C3.=!M'(8@!53S9!
$*$$"N^!
$*"O"!
:'(@I3C!=9K9=!(1/3K('G!k'9)*!I9'?3K('Gl!
c$*$$##_!
$*O^$!
:'(@I3C!=9K9=!C.'/3K('G!k'9)*!I9'?3K('Gl!
c$*"$^!
$*$NO^!
+394!?'9.>4I!
c$*$$_Nf!
$*_"%!
<.?34.4!?'9.>4I!
$*$"N%!
!$*#""!
!
W/=G!4I9!4'(@I3C! =9K9=!C.'/3K('GD!]34I!I9'?3K('G!.5! .!'9)9'9/C9D!'958=49>! 3/!.!53M/3aC./4!
9Y9C4!(/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4*!<(]9K9'D!.5!.!'958=4!()!4I9!=31349>!5.1@=9!53S9!)('!5(C3.=!
M'(8@!53S9!k[!z!"P"lD!4I9!4(4.=!/81?9'!()!5@9C395!3/!4I9!./.=G535!].5!(/=G!"%f*!:I9'9)('9D!
./(4I9'!B&RBB!].5!a449>D!9eC=8>3/M!4I9!@'9>3C4('!5(C3.=!M'(8@!53S9D!'958=43/M!3/!.!=.'M9'!
5.1@=9! 53S9! k[! z! %%Nl*! :I35! 1(>9=! >3>! /(4! '958=4! 3/! .! 53M/3aC./4! 9Y9C4! ()! ./G! ()! 4I9!
@'9>3C4('5*! F8'4I9'1('9D! @IG=(M9/943C! =3/9.'! 13e9>! 1(>9=5! 853/M! .! 53/M=9! @'9>3C4('!
k&RBB5l!.4!.!4319!]9'9!859>D!4(!1.e31359!4I9!5.1@=9!53S9!)('!4I9!3/>3K3>8.=!@'9>3C4('5!
k1.e3181!=(/M9K34G!k[!z!fO#lD!?'.3/!1.55!k[!z!%P_lD!5(C3.=!M'(8@!53S9!k[!z!"P"lD!4'(@I3C!
=9K9=!k[!z!_#OlD!>394!?'9.>4I!k[!z!ffOlD!./>!I.?34.4!?'9.>4I!k[!z!_"NllD!]I3CI!.==!'958=49>!
.M.3/!3/!4I9!.?59/C9!()!53M/3aC./C9*!A/!.CC('>./C9!]34I!4I9!'958=45!@'959/49>!3/!Table
4.2D!/(!C=9.'!9Y9C45!()!4I9!@'9>3C4('5! (/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!.'9!K353?=9!3/!Figure 4.1D!
]I3CI! >9@3C45! 4I9! '9=.43(/5I3@! ?94]99/! 9.CI! ()! 4I9! 53e! @'9>3C4('5! ./>! 4I9! 1.49'/.=!
3/K95419/4!194'3C!.4!4I9!5C.=9!()!4I9!'.]!>.4.*!!
!
"N%!
!
!
!
"#$%&'!X)(*!FG'&G#'A!:-!8#I!2&'9#.4:&8!21:44'9!/$/#084!H/4'&0/1!#0G'84H'04)!N3'!21:48!83:A!H/4'&0/1!
#0G'84H'04!G'&8%8!5+,!H/I#H%H!1:0$'G#4>!5c!f!KME,6!57,!D&/#0!H/88!5c!f!XaJ,6!5;,!8:.#/1!$&:%2!8#Z'!5c!f!
(a(,6!5T,!4&:23#.!1'G'1!5c!f!JEM,6!5<,!9#'4!D&'/943!5c!f!KKM,6!/09!5",!3/D#4/4!D&'/943!5c!f!J(L,)!N3'!1/&$'!
8>HD:18!#0!43'!.'04&'!:-!43'!G'&4#./1!1#0'8!#0!21:48!T6!<6!/09!"!&'2&'8'04!43'!H'9#/0!G/1%'8)!N3'!8H/11'&!
8>HD:18!1:./4'9!&#$34!-&:H!43'!G'&4#./1!1#0'8!#09#./4'!#09#G#9%/1!82'.#'86!A#43!>RG/1%'8!.:&&'82:09#0$!
4:!43'!2&'9#.4'9!H/4'&0/1!#0G'84H'04)!N3'8'!8>HD:18!/&'!82&'/9!:%4!/1:0$!43'!IR/I#8!-:&!43'!2%&2:8'!
:-!G#8%/1#8/4#:0)
!
:I9!.?59/C9!()!53M/3aC./4!9Y9C45!()!4I9!@'9>3C4('5!(/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!3/!4I9!B&RBB!
./>! &RBB5! 31@=395! 4I.4! 1(54! ()! 4I9! >3Y9'9/C95! 3/! 1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4! ./>! 4I9!
! ! !
"N^!
!
@'9>3C4('5!.'9!5I.@9>!?G! @IG=(M9/G!./>!/(4!?G! >3Y9'9/C95!3/!4I9!@'9>3C4('5!@9'!59*!:(!
4954!4I9!9Y9C4!)'(1!4I9!@'9>3C4('5!(/!.!=(]9'!4.e(/(13C!=9K9=D!3*9*!4I9!4.e(/(13C!('>9'D!
)(==(]3/M!4I9!'.43(/.=9!4I.4!.!>9C'9.59!3/!4.e(/(13C!K.'394G!13MI4!'9K9.=!4I9!9Y9C4!()!4I9!
@'9>3C4('5! (/! 1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4D! ]9! 59=9C49>! .! 58?594! ()! E(>9/43.! k[! z! #f#D!
'9@'959/43/M!Nfv!()! 4I9!5@9C395!3/!4I9!>.4.594lD!4I9!1(54! 5@9C3(59!1.11.=3./!('>9'D!
9/C(1@.553/M!NOv!()!.==!1.11.=3./!5@9C395!k;8'M3/!94!.=*D!#$"Pl*!:I9!B&RBB!853/M!4I9!
E(>9/43. 58?594!'9K9.=9>!/(!53M/3aC./4!31@.C4!()!./G!()!4I9!53e!@'9>3C4('5!(/!1.49'/.=!
3/K95419/4D!I(]9K9'D!5(19!&RBB5!>3>!kTable 4.3l*!
!
N/D1'!X)L*!FG'&G#'A!:-!43'!:%42%4!5&'$&'88#:0!.:'O#.#'046!2RG/1%'6!/09!c,!-:&!43'!8#I!2&'9#.4:&8!%8#0$!
23>1:$'0'4#.!1#0'/&!H#I'9!H:9'18!5=_QQ8,!4:!2&'9#.4!H/4'&0/1!#0G'84H'04!:0!/!8%D8'4!:-!S:9'04#/!5c!
f!EKE,)!
Predictors
Regression coefficient
p-value
N
B.e3181!=(/M9K34G!
c$*$"$%!
$*$$_P_!
#NP!
;'.3/!1.55!
$*$$#$"!
$*%#O!
"N_!
0(C3.=!M'(8@!53S9!
c$*$$$%f$!
$*Of_!
%"!
:'(@I3C!=9K9=!(1/3K('G!k'9)*!I9'?3K('Gl!
$*$N^O!
$*$_NN!
#f"!
!
:'(@I3C!=9K9=!C.'/3K('G!k'9)*!I9'?3K('Gl!
$*"$^!
$*$P^N!
+394!?'9.>4I!
c$*$N_%!
$*$N#"!
##P!
<.?34.4!?'9.>4I!
$*$$$^^$!
$*ON%!
#^_!
!
:I9!&RBB5!'9K9.=9>!.!53M/3aC./4D!I(]9K9'!51.==!9Y9C4!()!1.e3181!=(/M9K34G!./>!>394!
?'9.>4I!(/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4*!B.e3181!=(/M9K34G!./>!>394!?'9.>4I!>9C'9.59>!]34I!./!
3/C'9.59!3/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!kFigure 4.2l*!
\(/53>9'3/M!4I9!4'(@I3C!=9K9=!.5!.!@'9>3C4('!()!4I9!'953>8.=!K.'3./C9!3/!4I9!kBl&RBB!1(>9=!
31@'(K9>! 4I9! M((>/955! ()! a4! ()! 4I9! 1(>9=! ./>! '9K9.=9>! 4I.4! 4I9! '953>8.=! K.'3.43(/! 3/!
1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4! ?94]99/! 5@9C395! ].5! I3MI9'! )('! C.'/3K('95! k'953>8.=! K.'3./C9! z!
$*$#N_l! 4I./! 34! ].5! )('! 934I9'! I9'?3K('95! k'953>8.=! K.'3./C9! z! $*$"N$l! ('! (1/3K('95!
k'953>8.=!K.'3./C9!z!$*$$O$fl*!
!
"Nf!
!
!
!
"#$%&'!X)E*!FG'&G#'A!:-!8#I!2&'9#.4:&8!21:44'9!/$/#084!H/4'&0/1!#0G'84H'04!%8#0$!/!8%D8'4!:-!S:9'04#/!
5c! f! EKE,)! N3'! 21:48! 83:A! H/4'&0/1! #0G'84H'04!G'&8%8! 5+,! H/I#H%H! 1:0$'G#4>6! 57,! D&/#0! H/886! 5;,!
8:.#/1!$&:%2!8#Z'6!5T,!4&:23#.!1'G'16!5<,!9#'4!D&'/9436!/09!5",!3/D#4/4!D&'/943)!N3'!1/&$'!8>HD:18!#0!43'!
.'04&'! :-! 43'! G'&4#./1! 1#0'8! #0! 21:48! T6! <6! /09! "! &'2&'8'04! 43'! H'9#/0! G/1%'8)! N3'! 8H/11'&! 8>HD:18!
1:./4'9!&#$34! -&:H! 43'! G'&4#./1! 1#0'8! #09#./4'! #09#G#9%/1!82'.#'86!A#43!>RG/1%'8!.:&&'82:09#0$!4:!43'!
2&'9#.4'9! H/4'&0/1! #0G'84H'04)! N3'8'! 8>HD:18! /&'! 82&'/9! :%4! /1:0$! 43'! IR/I#8! -:&! 43'! 2%&2:8'! :-!
G#8%/1#8/4#:0)
!
="=#$%)47))%1-#
:I9!'9M'9553(/!./.=G595! C(/>8C49>!3/!4I35!548>G! .319>!4(!3/K9543M.49!4I9!'9=.43(/5I3@5!
?94]99/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4! ./>! 1.e3181! =(/M9K34GD!?'.3/! 1.55D! 5(C3.=! M'(8@!53S9D!
4'(@I3C! =9K9=D! >394! ?'9.>4ID! ./>! I.?34.4! ?'9.>4I! .C'(55! >3Y9'9/4! 4.e.! 4(! 9/I./C9! (8'!
C(1@'9I9/53(/!()!3/K95419/4!54'.49M395!./>!4I93'!9K(=843(/.'G!>9K9=(@19/4!4I'(8MI(84!
! ! !
"N_!
!
1.11.=3./!5@9C395*!H3K9/! 4I9!>(C819/49>! 9Y9C4!()!4I959! 53e!@'9>3C4('5!(/! ./.4(1G!
k+8/?.'D!#$$Om! +8Z89c\(''9.!94!.=*D! #$#"m!González‐Lagos et al., 2010; 0134I! 94!.=*D!
#$"_m!7.=>1./!94!.=*D!#$#NlD!@IG53(=(MG!k\=844(/c;'(CQD!#$#"m!<()1./D!"OPNm!<(@@9!94!
.=*D!#$#"lD!./>!?9I.K3(8'!kHämäläinen et al, 2022; Henke-von Der Malsburg and Fichtel,
2018; Silk, 2007; Zhu et al., 2023)D!]9!IG@(4I95359>!4I959!@'9>3C4('5!4(!I.K9!./!9Y9C4!
(/! 1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4*! A/! C(/4'.>3C43(/! 4(! (8'! IG@(4I9595D! 4I9! 54.43543C.=! ./.=G595!
1.e313S3/M! 5.1@=9! 53S9! >3>! /(4! '9K9.=! .! 53M/3aC./4! '9=.43(/5I3@! ?94]99/! 1.49'/.=!
3/K95419/4!./>!./G!()!4I9!53e!@'9>3C4('5!49549>!(/!4I9!=9K9=!()!4I9!4.e(/(13C!C=.55D!3*9*!
4I9! B.11.=3.D! I(]9K9'! 5313=.'! ./.=G595! (/! 4I9! 5C.=9! ()! 4I9! ('>9'D! 853/M! .! 58?594! ()!
5@9C395!)'(1!4I9!?3MM954!1.11.=3./!('>9'D!3*9*!4I9!E(>9/43.D!'9K9.=9>!.!53M/3aC./4!9Y9C4!
()! 1.e3181! =(/M9K34G! ./>! >394! ?'9.>4I! (/! 1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4*! :I9! .?59/C9! ()!
/(43C9.?=9!C(''9=.43(/5!(/!4I9!=9K9=!()!4I9!4.e(/(13C!C=.55D!58MM954!4I.4!>3Y9'9/C95!3/!
1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!./>!4I9!@'9>3C4('5!.'9!1(54=G!C.@48'9>!?G!).C4('5!'9d9C49>!?G!4I9!
@IG=(M9/G*!!
B.e3181! =(/M9K34G! 35! 439>! 4(! 4I9! @.C9! ()! =3)9! kj8./! 94! .=*D! #$#Nl*! :I9! 5I('4954! =3K9>!
1.11.=5D!3*9*!C9'4.3/!5@9C395!()!5I'9]!./>!13C9D!I.K9!.!=3)95@./!()!.?(84!.!G9.'D!>8'3/M!
]I3CI!4I9G!.'9!?('/D!?9C(19!59e8.==G!1.48'9D!M3K9!?3'4ID!'.359!(Y5@'3/MD!./>!>39*!:I35!).54!
@.C9!()!=3)9!35!CI.'.C49'359>!?G!.!I9.'4!'.49!()!P$$c"$$$!?9.45!@9'!13/849!k0CI13>4!94!.=*D!
#$"fl*!W/!4I9!(@@(5349!9/>! ()!4I9!5@9C4'81D!4I9!?(]I9.>! ]I.=9!kBalaena mysticetusl!
I.5!.!1.e3181!=(/M9K34G!()!#""!G9.'5!k0931!94!.=*D!#$"%l*!:I9!I9.'4!'.49!()!C9'4.3/!5@9C395!
()!]I.=9!35!Q/(]/!4(!?9!.'(8/>!"^!?9.45!@9'!13/849D!'9@'959/43/M!.!K9'G!5=(]!@.C9!()!=3)9!
kH(=>?(M9/!94!.=*D!#$"Ol*!+95@349!4I9!'./M9!()!4I35!=(/M9K34G!./>!@.C9!()!=3)9!5@9C4'81D!/(!
3/d89/C9!(/!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4!].5!>949C49>!.4!4I9!=9K9=!()!4I9!4.e(/(13C!C=.55*!W/!
4I9!C(/4'.'GD!3/!4I9!E(>9/43.!1.e3181!=(/M9K34G!I.>!.!53M/3aC./4D!?84!51.==D!31@.C4!(/!
1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4*!:I9!>3'9C43(/!()!4I9!9Y9C4!(/!?(4I!4.e(/(13C!=9K9=5!].5!3/!=3/9!]34I!
4I.4!@'9>3C49>!?G!4I9!>35@(5.?=9!5(1.!4I9('G!()!.M93/M!k<.119'5!94!.=*D!#$"Nl*!:I35!'958=4!
5I(8=>!I(]9K9'!?9! 3/49'@'949>!]34I!C.843(/! M3K9/!4I9!51.==!5=(@9!k95431.49!z!c$*$"$%l!
./>! 4I9! ./43cC(/59'K.43K9! /.48'9! ()! 49545! 853/M! 1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4! 194'3C5! .5! .!
'95@(/59! K.'3.?=9! k3*9*D! ).=59! @(5343K9! '.495! I3MI9'! 4I./! /(13/.=! =9K9=5m! 599! 194I(>5l*!
H3K9/! 4I.4! '9@'(>8C43K9! 54'.49M395! ?94]99/! 4I9! (@@(5349! 9/>5! ()! 4I35! @.C9! ()! =3)9!
5@9C4'81!.'9!C(1@=949=G!>3Y9'9/4D!4I9!'9M8=.4('G!19CI./3515!)('!3/K95419/4!.'9!=3Q9=G!
!
"NP!
!
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'9=9K./C9!()! 4I9! @'9>3C4('! I.5!4(! ?9! C(/53>9'9>*!,=4I(8MI! 1.e3181! =(/M9K34G! M3K95!.!
M9/9'.=!3>9.!()!4I9!=3)95@./!()!.!5@9C395D!(/=G!.!)9]!3/>3K3>8.=5!'9.CI!1.e3181!=(/M9K34G*!
:I9!1.e3181!=(/M9K34G!.=5(!@'959/45!.!I3MI!5.1@=3/M!K.'3./C9!]I3CI!1.Q95!95431.495!
8/'9=3.?=9! 8/=955! 5.1@=9! 53S95! .'9! =.'M9*! :I9'9)('9D! 4I9! O$v! =(/M9K34G! 194'3C! ('! 4I9!
.K9'.M9! =(/M9K34G! ](8=>! ?9! .! ?9449'! @'(eG! )('! =3)95@./! kE(/M94! ./>! H.3==.'>D! #$#$l*!
J/)('48/.49=GD!(/=G!1.e3181!=(/M9K34G!35!]3>9=G!.K.3=.?=9!3/!>.4.5945*!!
,5!.!59C(/>!@'9>3C4('!)('!1.49'/.=!3/K95419/4D!]9!49549>!?'.3/!1.55*!&'9K3(85!548>395!
@'(@(59>!>3Y9'9/4!@'(e395!)('! 3/49==3M9/C9D!58CI!.5!?'.3/!1.55D!?'.3/! ?(>G!1.55!'.43(D!
./>! 4I9! 9/C9@I.=3S.43(/! Z8(439/4! k,M83''9! 94! .=*D! #$"_m! 69'35(/D! "O__l*! ,=4I(8MI! 58CI!
194'3C5!C(''9=.49!]34I!3/49==3M9/C9D!4I9!.CC8'.CG!()!4I959!194I(>5!35!543==!?93/M!>9?.49>!
kCairό, 2011)*!E9C9/4!'959.'CI!@(3/45!(84!4I.4!4I9!M'(]4I!()!?'.3/!53S9!./>!?(>G!53S9!I.5!
/(4!C(/53549/4=G!)(==(]9>!@.'.==9=!@.4I5!3/!9K(=843(/!k01.9'5!94!.=*D!#$#"l*!:I9'9)('9D!]9!
.CC(8/49>!)('!.==(194'G!./>! @IG=(M9/943C!3/9'43.!?G!853/M! .!@IG=(M9/943C!13e9>!1(>9=!
]34I!?'.3/!1.55!.5!@'(eG!)('!3/49==3M9/C9*!\(/4'.'G!4(!(8'!548>GD!@'9K3(85!'959.'CI!.C'(55!
K9'49?'.495!5I(]9>!4I.4!3/C'9.59>!'9=.43K9!?'.3/!1.55!35!.55(C3.49>!]34I!.!53M/3aC./4=G!
I3MI9'!1.49'/.=! 3/K95419/4! kB8==!94! .=*D! #$#$l*!,=4I(8MI! 4I9! >3'9C43(/!()! 4I9! 9Y9C4!]9!
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Chapter 5
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Review: The role of prolactin in balancing
the parent-offspring conflict!
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Chapter 6
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Elephant gestation: insights into idiopathic
abortions and stillbirth!
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Bibliography
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Conference abstract
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Do what 99%
of the people
don’t do
!
Evolutionary strategies behind
maternal investment in
mammalian reproduction
Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
Evolutionary strategies behind maternal investment in mammalian reproduction I Tim E.R.G. Huijsmans
Do what 99%
of the people
don’t do
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Quantifying maternal investment in mammals using allometry
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2024
Maternal investment influences the survival and reproduction of both mothers and their progeny and plays a crucial role in understanding individuals’ life-history and population ecology. To reveal the complex mechanisms associated with reproduction and investment, it is necessary to examine variations in maternal investment across species. Comparisons across species call for a standardised method to quantify maternal investment, which remained to be developed. This paper addresses this limitation by introducing the maternal investment metric – MI – for mammalian species, established through the allometric scaling of the litter mass at weaning age by the adult mass and investment duration (i.e. gestation + lactation duration) of a species. Using a database encompassing hundreds of mammalian species, we show that the metric is not highly sensitive to the regression method used to fit the allometric relationship or to the proxy used for adult body mass. The comparison of the maternal investment metric between mammalian subclasses and orders reveals strong differences across taxa. For example, our metric confirms that Eutheria have a higher maternal investment than Metatheria. We discuss how further research could use the maternal investment metric as a valuable tool to understand variation in reproductive strategies.
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The macroevolutionary dynamics of mammalian sexual size dimorphism
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2023
Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is a common phenomenon across the animal kingdom. Mammals are unusual in primarily displaying male-biased SSD, where males of a species are typically larger than females. The driving factors behind the evolution of this SSD have been much debated, with popular hypotheses invoking the influence of mating system and social organization via sexual selection, dietary niche divergence and broad-scale correlations with body size (Rensch's rule). Here, we investigate the macroevolutionary origins and maintenance of SSD among mammals, using phylogenetic general mixed linear models and a comprehensive global dataset to evaluate correlations of diet, body mass, seasonality, social organization and mating system with SSD type. We find that SSD as a whole is lost at a greater rate than it is gained, with female-biased SSD being particularly unstable. Non-monogamous mating systems, vertebrate prey consumption and temperature seasonality correlate with male-biased SSD, while polyandry correlates with female-biased SSD, and both types of SSD are positively correlated with body mass. This is in partial contrast to the predictions of Rensch's rule, which predicts that female-biased SSD would correlate negatively with body size. Taken together, our results highlight the importance of considering multiple ecological and social drivers when evaluating the macroevolutionary trajectory of sex differences in body size.
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Behavioral and Physiological Differences in Female Rabbits at Different Stages of the Estrous Cycle
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2023
Simple Summary Estrus involves complex physiological signs and behavioral changes, but the exact ovulation time is difficult to determine, which is very important to improve the fertility of rabbits. This study aimed to analyze female rabbits’ changing behavior and physiology at different stages of the estrous cycle. The female rabbits showed less foraging, drinking, grooming, and biting while in estrus. Related physiological hormones (FSH, LH, P4, and E2) and follicular development at different estrous stages also differed. The number of primary follicles in estrus was significantly higher than in the other stages. Some genes, such as CYP19A1 and IGF1R, related to the estrous cycle in female rabbits were screened via ovarian transcriptome analysis. Overall, extensive information relating the behaviors, hormones, and follicle development in female rabbits at different estrus stages was investigated for appropriate postpartum re-estrus management strategies. Abstract Estrus involves a series of complex physiological signs and changes in behavior before ovulation, which play a crucial role in animal reproduction. However, there have been few studies that evaluate behaviors during the different stages of estrus cycle in female rabbits. Therefore, more detailed information is needed on distinguishing the various stages of the estrous cycle. This study explored the behavioral and physiological differences at various estrous cycle stages in female New Zealand White rabbits. The continuous recording method was employed to record the daily behaviors of twenty postpartum female rabbits during the estrous cycle. Compared with the diestrus stage, the duration of foraging and drinking behavior in estrus decreased significantly, and the frequency of grooming and biting behaviors increased (p < 0.05). Differences in reproductive hormone levels (FSH, LH, P4, and E2) and follicle development were measured at each stage via ELISA and HE staining. The FSH and LH levels showed an increasing trend and then decreased, with the lowest being in late estrus (p < 0.05). The P4 level was the lowest in estrus (p < 0.05), and E2 showed a gradually increasing trend. There was no significant difference in the number of primordial follicles at each stage, but the number of primary follicles in estrus was significantly higher than at the other stages (p < 0.05). To further understand the molecular regulation mechanism of the estrous cycle in female rabbits, we analyzed the ovarian transcription patterns of female rabbits in diestrus (D group) and estrus (E group) employing RNA-seq. A total of 967 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened from the ovaries of female rabbits between the diestrus and estrus groups. A KEGG analysis of DEGs enriched in the estrogen signaling pathway, aldosterone synthesis, and secretion pathway, such as CYP19A1 and IGF1R, was performed. The rabbits’ behavior, related physiological hormones, and molecular regulation also differed at different estrous cycle stages. The results provide recommendations for the adequate management practices of postpartum re-estrus and breeding female rabbits.
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rphylopic: An R package for fetching, transforming, and visualising PhyloPic silhouettes
Article
Full-text available
Effective data visualisation is vital for data exploration, analysis and communication in research. In ecology and evolutionary biology, data are often associated with various taxonomic entities. Graphics of organisms associated with these taxa are valuable for framing results within a broader biological context. However, acquiring and using such resources can be challenging due to availability and licensing constraints. The PhyloPic database solves many of these issues by making organism silhouettes freely available. Tools that integrate this database with existing research workflows are needed to remove hurdles associated with data visualisation in the biological sciences. Here, we introduce rphylopic, an R package for fetching, transforming and visualising silhouettes of organisms from the PhyloPic database. In addition to making over 8000 organism silhouettes available within the R programming language, rphylopic empowers users to modify the appearance of these silhouettes for ultimate customisability when coding production–quality visualisations in both base R and ggplot2 workflows. In this work, we provide details about how the package can be installed, its implementation and potential use cases. For the latter, we showcase three examples across the ecology and evolutionary biology spectrum. Our hope is that rphylopic will make it easier for biologists to develop more accessible and engaging data visualisations by making external resources readily accessible, customisable and usable within R. In turn, by integrating into existing workflows, rphylopic helps to ensure that science is reproducible and accessible.
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Update on the Obesity Epidemic: Is the Sharp Rise of the Evil Empire Truly Levelling Off?
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2023
Purpose of Review To provide an update on current obesity prevalence trends and summarize the available evidence suggesting a possible plateau or stabilization in obesity rates after the previous sudden global rise. Recent Findings The escalating global obesity epidemic represents one of the most serious public health challenges. There have been some indications that in high-income populations, the rate of obesity increase in adults has been stabilized after the decade 2000–2010, suggesting a possible plateau. Current evidence also suggests that obesity rates have been stabilized in children and adolescents of most economically advanced countries since 2000, which is possibly related to healthier dietary habits and increased levels of physical activity. On the other hand, there is a steady uninterrupted rise in low-income nations, and the universal trend is obesity escalation rather than slowdown, mainly driven by sharp increases in the obesity prevalence of low-income populations. Furthermore, an increasing number of high- and middle-income countries are currently experiencing an epidemic of severe obesity. In high-income populations, severe obesity is expected to double its prevalence from 10 to 20% between 2020 and 2035, posing an enormous threat for healthcare systems. Even if transiently stabilized, the obesity prevalence remains globally at unacceptably high levels, and there is no guarantee that the current stability (if any) will be maintained for long. Summary In this review, we explore the underlying drivers of the global obesity epidemic; we provide possible explanations for the reported slowdown of the obesity rates in some countries; and we overall take a critical perspective on the obesity plateau hypothesis, emphasizing the urgent need for immediate effective actions at population and regional level in order to halt the alarming obesity escalation and its serious health risks.
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The Evolution of Zoos as Conservation Institutions: A Summary of the Transition from Menageries to Zoological Gardens and Parallel Improvement of Mammalian Welfare Management
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2023
Zoological institutions, which were once exclusively for entertainment, are now leaders of wildlife conservation. This centuries-long transition was punctuated by key milestones that reformed wild animal exploitation into a mission of protection. Modern zoos perform ex situ activities to preserve natural resources, which are enabled by the housing of wild species. Zoo-managed animals facilitate new scientific knowledge, public education, and strategic breeding to maintain genetic diversity. Prioritizing animal welfare management is a key advancement for modern zoos, as it lessens stress and improves quality of life. Environments enriched with sensory stimuli promote naturalistic behaviors and provide opportunities for instinctual activities like foraging and hunting. This increases resiliency by reducing stress and boredom. However, such approaches only benefit welfare when appropriately matched to the animal. Behavioral responses to environmental cues reflect how animals experience their environment, and properly documenting them informs management decisions. Other modern advancements include enclosure designs, research initiatives, public education programs, species-specific staff training, and collaborative population management among zoos. This review chronicles the milestones that shaped the role of modern zoological institutions in species and habitat preservation. It also discusses opportunities for the continued evolution of welfare management practices, which is fundamental information for zoo employees and stakeholders.
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Relationships among development, growth, body size, reproduction, aging, and longevity - trade-offs and pace-of-life
Article
  • Dec 2023
  • Biokhimiya
Relationships of growth, metabolism, reproduction, and body size to the biological process of aging and longevity have been studied for decades and various unifying “theories of aging” have been proposed to account for the observed associations. In general, fast development, early sexual maturation leading to early reproductive effort, as well as production of many offspring, have been linked to shorter lifespans. The relationship of adult body size to longevity includes a remarkable contrast between the positive correlation in comparisons between different species and the negative correlation seen in comparisons of individuals within the same species. We now propose that longevity and presumably also the rate of aging are related to the “pace-of-life.” A slow pace-of-life including slow growth, late sexual maturation, and a small number of offspring, predicts slow aging and long life. The fast pace of life (rapid growth, early sexual maturation, and major reproductive effort) is associated with faster aging and shorter life, presumably due to underlying trade-offs. The proposed relationships between the pace-of-life and longevity apply to both inter- and intra-species comparisons as well as to dietary, genetic, and pharmacological interventions that extend life and to evidence for early life programming of the trajectory of aging. Although available evidence suggests the causality of at least some of these associations, much further work will be needed to verify this interpretation and to identify mechanisms that are responsible.
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ggdist: Visualizations of Distributions and Uncertainty in the Grammar of Graphics
Article
  • Oct 2023
The grammar of graphics is ubiquitous, providing the foundation for a variety of popular visualization tools and toolkits. Yet support for uncertainty visualization in the grammar graphics—beyond simple variations of error bars, uncertainty bands, and density plots—remains rudimentary. Research in uncertainty visualization has developed a rich variety of improved uncertainty visualizations, most of which are difficult to create in existing grammar of graphics implementations. ggdist, an extension to the popular ggplot2 grammar of graphics toolkit, is an attempt to rectify this situation. ggdist unifies a variety of uncertainty visualization types through the lens of distributional visualization, allowing functions of distributions to be mapped to directly to visual channels (aesthetics), making it straightforward to express a variety of (sometimes weird!) uncertainty visualization types. This distributional lens also offers a way to unify Bayesian and frequentist uncertainty visualization by formalizing the latter with the help of confidence distributions. In this paper, I offer a description of this uncertainty visualization paradigm and lessons learned from its development and adoption: ggdist has existed in some form for about six years (originally as part of the tidybayes R package for post-processing Bayesian models), and it has evolved substantially over that time, with several rewrites and API re-organizations as it changed in response to user feedback and expanded to cover increasing varieties of uncertainty visualization types. Ultimately, given the huge expressive power of the grammar of graphics and the popularity of tools built on it, I hope a catalog of my experience with ggdist will provide a catalyst for further improvements to formalizations and implementations of uncertainty visualization in grammar of graphics ecosystems. A free copy of this paper is available at https://osf.io/2gsz6. All supplemental materials are available at https://github.com/mjskay/ggdistpaper and are archived on Zenodo at doi:10.5281/zenodo.7770984.
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