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Physical Activity Opportunities During School Recess
Abstract
This chapter highlights the crucial importance of recessing during a child’s school day, providing a necessary break from the structured academic environment. The specific benefits of recess are explored, such as its positive influence on physical activity (PA), body mass index, academic performance, and socioemotional health, underscoring the need for thoughtful interventions to maximize recess experience. Key considerations, such as space design and layout, are addressed, and interventions to increase PA during recess are detailed, emphasizing unstructured, structured, and multicomponent strategies. Finally, the chapter underscores the multifaceted benefits of recess and the importance of thoughtful interventions and policies to optimize this essential period for student well-being, identifying challenges and areas for future research. Creating safe and positive recess environments is crucial for ensuring that students make the most of this vital aspect of their school day.
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Purpose
It is aimed to assess whether school uniforms are associated with population-level gender inequalities in physical activity, and whether associations differ by school level, country/region income, and assessment method.
Methods
An ecological study design was employed. We collected data about global uniform practices using an online survey. We searched for country/region-level estimates of school-aged youth meeting physical activity guidelines from international surveillance studies. Study selection was conducted in duplicate using a systematic process, and a random sample of all data was checked to ensure extraction and pooling processes were accurate. We calculated absolute and relative gender inequalities in physical activity for each country. Linear regression examined associations between country/region-level uniform practices (binary yes/no exposure variable) and country/region-level gender inequalities in physical activity guideline compliance (absolute and relative inequalities). We investigated moderation by school level, stratified analyses by income group, and repeated primary analyses using device-measured data.
Results
Pooling data from 135 countries/regions (n = 1,089,852), we found no association between population-level uniform practices and gender inequalities in physical activity across all ages (absolute: β = –0.2; 95% confidence interval (95%CI): –1.7 to 1.3, p = 0.74; relative: β = 0.1; 95%CI: –0.1 to 0.2, p = 0.51). Subgroup analysis suggested a positive association in primary school settings (absolute: β = 4.3; 95%CI: –0.0 to 8.6, p = 0.05). Among high-income countries, absolute inequalities were significantly greater in countries/regions with uniform practices (N = 37) compared to those without (N = 48) (9.1 (SD = 3.6) vs. 7.8 percentage points (SD = 4.3)). Repeating analyses using device-measured data (n = 32,130; N = 24) did not alter our primary finding. From initial descriptive statistics, we found that in countries/regions where a majority of schools (>50%) reportedly use uniforms, there was lower compliance with physical activity guidelines among all genders (median: 16.0%, interquartile range: 13.2%–19.9%, N = 103) compared to generally non-uniform countries/regions (median: 19.5%, interquartile range: 16.4%–23.5%, N = 32) (z = 3.04, p = 0.002). (N = countries, regions and studies represented; n = sample size or participants included).
Conclusion
School uniforms are associated with greater gender inequalities in physical activity in primary school settings and in high-income countries. Our population-level findings warrant testing using individual-level data across contexts.
Purpose:
School recess provides a valuable opportunity for children's daily moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA). This study aimed to quantify MVPA during school recess in a representative sample of Scottish children and examine whether recess MVPA varied by gender, socioeconomic status, season, urban/rural residency, and recess length.
Method:
Five-day accelerometry MVPA data were analyzed from 773 children (53.9% girls, 46.1% boys, 10- to 11-y-olds) from 471 schools. Binary logistic regression explored associations between meeting/not meeting the recommendation to spend 40% of recess time in MVPA and the aforementioned risk factors. Descriptive recess data were also analyzed.
Results:
Participants spent an average of 3.2 minutes (SD 2.1) in MVPA during recess. Girls engaged in 2.5 minutes (SD 1.7) of MVPA compared with 4.0 minutes (SD 2.2) for boys. Only 6% of children met the recess MVPA recommendation. The odds of girls (odds ratio 0.09; 95% confidence interval, 0.04-0.25) meeting the recommendation was lower (P < .001) compared with boys. No statistically significant differences were observed in meeting the recommendation for the other risk factors.
Conclusion:
Levels of MVPA during school recess are very low in Scottish children, and interventions aimed at increasing MVPA during recess are needed.
Maintaining physical activity habits is important for long-term health benefits. Many children do not achieve the World Health Organization (WHO) benchmark of 60 min Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) daily. Comprehensive school physical activity programs (CSPAP) target all opportunities at school for children to be physically active. The purpose of this intervention study was to investigate boys' and girls' voluntary participation and MVPA in physical activity recess sessions during and after these were connected with the content of physical education. 147 (55 girls, 92 boys; mean age = 8 years) second grade children from seven different schools received a 10-lesson parkour unit in physical education and were concurrently offered five parkour recess sessions. After the parkour unit in physical education (i.e., maintenance) another five parkour sessions in which children could voluntarily participate were organized. Systematic observation tools were used to assess children's MVPA. Overall participation in parkour recess was 64% for both boys and girls. Participation decreased from intervention to maintenance phase for both boys (75% vs 54%; p < .001) and girls (80% vs 49%; p < .001). MVPA was higher for boys compared to girls in parkour recess (64% vs 58%; p = .002) and traditional recess (49% vs 39%; p = .006), but not in physical education (40% vs 37%). One aspect of physical activity promotion is to connect recess activities with the content taught in physical education, which could contribute up to 20% of the daily recommended MVPA. Positive effects maintained when the connection between physical education and recess stopped.
The purpose of this study was to explore the different policies, practices, and procedures that are used on weather and recess in the Canadian context. Fifty school websites were examined, and ten key informants were interviewed. Policies, practices, and procedures from school websites were downloaded, and interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using a qualitative content analysis. Fourteen schools had an outwardly facing policy, practice, or procedure for weather and recess. Cold temperatures were the most often cited reason for modifying recess to be indoors, with temperatures ranging from −20 to −40 for complete indoor recess. Precipitation was only found in four online documents but was mentioned as a reason to modify recess by all key informants. Additionally, key informants discussed variability in how recess policies, practices, and procedures were followed. The findings of this study illustrate inconsistencies in both formal and informal school weather and recess policies. With outdoor recess providing numerous opportunities to improve various domains of well-being, it is pertinent to understand the conditions on which it is being modified.
Background:
Extreme heat may discourage physical activity of children while shade may provide thermal comfort. The authors determined the associations between ambient temperature, shade, and moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of children during school recess.
Methods:
Children aged 8-10 (n = 213) wore accelerometers and global positioning system monitors during recess at 3 school parks in Austin, Texas (September-November 2019). Weather data originated from 10 sensors per park. The authors calculated shade from imagery using a geographic information system (GIS) and time-matched physical activity, location, temperature, and shade data. The authors specified piecewise multilevel regression to assess relations between average temperature and percentage of recess time in MVPA and shade.
Results:
Temperature ranged 11 °C to 35 °C. Each 1 °C higher temperature was associated with a 0.7 percentage point lower time spent in MVPA, until 33 °C (91 °F) when the association changed to a 1.5 lower time (P < .01). Each 1 °C higher temperature was associated with a 0.3 percentage point higher time spent under shade, until 33 °C when the association changed to a 3.4 higher time (P < .001). At 33 °C or above, the direct association between shade and MVPA weakened (P < .05), with no interaction effect above 33 °C (P > .05). Children at the park with the most tree canopy spent 6.0 percentage points more time in MVPA (P < .01).
Conclusions:
Children engage in less MVPA and seek shade during extreme heat and engage in more MVPA in green schoolyards. With climate change, schools should consider interventions (eg, organizing shaded play, tree planting) to promote heat safe MVPA.
Objectives
The aim of the study was to quantify and compare potential energy expenditure associated with school recess in the U.S. based on four scenarios: professional recommendations and state policies for the conduct of recess, previous studies that measured physical activity intensity during recess (i.e., reality), and no daily recess.
Methods
Estimated energy expenditure (kcal) was modeled over six years of elementary school for boys and girls using a standard formula: Intensity x duration x frequency x mass using secondary data.
Results
Boys and girls would expend similar energy under the professional recommendation (boys, 69,146 kcal; girls, 63,993 kcal) and state policy (boys, 69,532 kcal; girls, 64,351 kcal) scenarios. These values are significantly greater than a no recess scenario (boys, 26,974 kcal; girls, 24,821 kcal). The greatest energy expenditure was found for the reality scenario, based on actual studies that measured physical activity intensity (boys, 82,208 kcal; girls, 75,628 kcal).
Conclusions
Professional recommendations and state policies for recess duration may be overly conservative and recommendations for percentage of MVPA may be overly liberal compared to the reality of energy expended during recess. Both potential and real estimates dwarf a scenario of withholding recess (i.e., no recess), which is discouraged in only six state policies. Mandated reporting with “groundtruthing” is needed to determine true recess frequency/duration and state policy compliance.
Background
Previous research has shown that school recess can provide children with physical, social and cognitive benefits; yet, recess opportunities and experiences may be different for different groups of children, specifically for children living in lower income environments, children of different racial groups other than white, and for children with disabilities. Parent perceptions of recess are important to consider as they serve as advocates for their children’s access and opportunities at school as well as an additional informant for children’s experiences at recess that may be useful for policymakers and school boards to consider.
Objective
To examine parent perceptions of recess by children’s disability status, children’s race and ethnicity, and family household income.
Method
Participants included 473 parents from the U.S.A. stratified across six household income levels. Data were collected through an online survey using Prolific in May of 2020]. Confirmatory factor analyses were run for measures assessing parents’ perception of belonging and victimization at recess, recess policies, and recess procedures. Regression analyses were run to examine if parents’ perception of recess were predicted by race, income, or child disability status.
Results
Results revealed that parents’ perceptions of recess were predicted by child disability status but not race or income. Specifically, parents’ perceptions were significantly predicted by child disability status regarding victimization ( b = .13, SE = .06, p = .05), recess policies about withholding recess ( b = .171, SE = .07, p = .01), and finally, student engagement at recess ( b = .165, SE = .07, p = .02).
Conclusion
Results show that parents of children with a disability perceive a different recess experience for their child that involves more instances of victimization compared to parents of typically developing children. Based on these findings, school, district, and state policy makers could consider ensuring that recess includes multiple activities, is supervised by adults, and is a space where conflict resolution occurs, for creating a more inclusive environment for children with disabilities.
School recess represents one of the few opportunities during the school day where children can typically engage in freely chosen leisure activities with their peers. An effective way to promote high levels of physical activity and increase the time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity during the recess is in the availability of the sports equipment; however, it is not known if this is effective also in shorter (e.g. < 15-minute) recess periods. Therefore, we aimed to determine the contribution of 15-minute free-play recess, with available sport equipment, in 91 children (6-8 years) to daily physical activity. Physical activity was monitored by an accelerometer to determine the amount of overall, low, moderate, vigorous and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Children were randomised in control (CG; N=32) and experimental (EG; N=59) groups. CG followed usual recess while EG had available various but familiar sports equipment. During the recess EG were less inactive, and spend more time in overall, low, moderate, vigorous and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (p < 0.001) than CG and spend 57.2 (18.0) % of recess time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. This was reflected also at daily levels, where EG reached higher overall (7.5 %; p=0.048), low (14.2 %; p=0.010), vigorous (22.3 %; p=0.034) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (15.6 %; p=0.024) than CG. Further, 92 % of EG achieved > 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity while only 69 % of CG. We confirmed a positive transfer of recess and daily moderate physical activity levels in a pooled sample and EG (p<0.001) with ~20 % of shared variance. A 15-minute school recess is a valuable contribution to the daily amounts of the children's physical activity. Even more, active recess periods could contribute also to the most recent (2020) WHO physical activity guidelines in limiting sedentary behaviour. Teachers supervising children during school recess should be encouraged to incorporate a range of different sports equipment to encourage children to play freely and to increase the intensity of physical activities during the school recesses.
Interest in analyzing physically active behaviors during school recesses has grown in recentyears as the school environment has consolidated (recess, physical education classes, lunch-time,before and after school) as a crucial space to bring these levels towards those recommended throughintervention programs and improvements in the school environment. Unfortunately, in most ofthese studies, children do not achieve the 60 min a day of moderate to vigorous physical activity(MVPA) recommended by the World Health Organization. The aim of this systematic review isto analyze the cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention studies objectively measured withaccelerometers that have emerged in recent years to determine the amount of MVPA of childrenat recess.This systematic review followed the PRISMA guidelines. The extraction process for thestudies included in this systematic review yielded a total of 43 articles. The studies were classifiedaccording to the methodological nature of the research: cross-sectional (n= 34), longitudinal (n= 3)and quasi-experimental (n= 6). The results of the studies confirm that during the recess periodyounger children are physically more active than older ones and that in general, boys are morephysically active than girls. In addition, the data show that the school contributes to more than 40% of the total MVPA. The intervention programs led to an increase in MVPA of up to 5%. Providing schools with equipment and facilities shows that intervention programs are beneficial for raising children’s levels of physical activity.
This pilot study used accelerometers to investigate the effectiveness of a multiple recess school intervention on physical activity patterns in younger elementary children using a post-test only with nonequivalent groups design. First and second grade students (N = 157) participating in a larger study, the LiiNK Project® (Let’s inspire innovation ‘N Kids), wore accelerometers for the duration of the school day for two weeks to measure physical activity intensity and number of steps taken daily. Students attended either an intervention school (N = 90), participating in four 15-min unstructured, outdoor recesses and one 15-min character development lesson daily, or a control school (N = 67), participating in two 15-min unstructured, outdoor recesses daily and no character development program. The intervention students, grades 1 and 2, took more steps (p < 0.001) and time spent in moderate (p < 0.001) and vigorous (p < 0.001) physical activity (MVPA) than the control school students. Intervention students averaged approximately 900 more steps per day than the control school students. These results show young children given 60 min of recess daily continue to increase physical activity patterns over those with 30 min of recess daily. Next steps are to evaluate if children demonstrate healthier body fat levels as a result of these higher patterns of MVPA daily.
Background
The school environment is globally recognised as a key setting to promote child and adolescent physical activity. School recess contributes up to 40% of the school day and recommended physical activity levels, providing a critical physical activity promotion opportunity for children and adolescents.
Objective
To examine the effectiveness of school recess interventions on children’s and adolescents’ physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour (SED) during this time.
Design
Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Data Sources
EBSCOhost (Academic Search Complete, Education Source, ERIC, Global Health, MEDLINE complete, SPORTDiscus), Scopus, and ProQuest electronic databases with full text.
Results
Forty-three studies were included in the systematic review, trialling eight different intervention strategies including loose equipment, structured recess, and multicomponent studies. The meta-analysis included 16 studies. Overall, between group mean difference for: (i) time spent in moderate to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) for randomised controlled trials (RCTs) (n = 6) was 0.18 (95% CI − 0.00 to 0.36) with a marginal significant effect of Z = 1.93 (p = 0.05), (ii) time spent in MVPA for non-RCTs (n = 7) was 0.52 (95% CI − 0.01 to 1.03) with an overall effect of Z = 1.99 (p = 0.05), (iii) time spent in sedentary behaviour for RCTs (n = 3) was − 0.48 (95% CI − 1.38 to 0.43) with an overall effect of Z = 1.03 (p = 0.30). All outcomes had high heterogeneity.
Conclusion
School recess interventions show promise for increasing MVPA. It was difficult to draw strong conclusions due to low study numbers in the meta-analysis and varied intervention designs. Interventions may need to focus on single component strategies (e.g., loose equipment) to improve understanding of outcome effects for future studies.
Non-curricular time spent in school context might provide a potential opportunity to promote physical activity (PA) and enhance children's health. This study examined the effects of a structured recess intervention over 12 weeks on cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), PA daily levels and anthropometric characteristics, in 2nd and 3rd grade school children. This non-randomized controlled study included 100 children (age, 7.5 ± 0.5 yr, body mass 29.6 ± 6.0 kg, height, 1.25 ± 0.06 m) recruited from two primary schools, which served as intervention (INT) or control (CON). The INT school underwent a 15 min structured and physically active recess 4 times per week for 12 weeks, while the CON school maintained its usual unstructured recess routine. Steps count and PA at different intensities (Light, LPA; moderate, MPA; vigorous, VPA; moderate-to-vigorous, MVPA) during week days (WD) and weekends (WE) were assessed by accelerometry pre-and post-intervention. CRF and anthropometric parameters were also assessed in both conditions. Overall, there was a main effect of time for cardiorespiratory fitness (+ 4%, P = 0.004, pη2 =0.042), time spent in LPA (+14.3%, P = 0.015, pη2 = 0.032) and MPA (+28%, P = 0.049 , pη2 = 0.021) during WD, although, we observed no time x group interaction: P = 0.864, pη2 = 0.001, P = 0.363, pη2 = 0.005, P = 0.085, pη2 = 0.016, respectively. We observed no main effect of time for any of the anthropometric measures (P > 0.05 in all cases), steps count, VPA and MVPA during WD and PA measures during WE. Over the 12 weeks of intervention in this study, we observed higher levels of LPA and MPA during WD, and improved cardiorespiratory fitness, however, this was not different between the INT and CON schools. This may suggest that children engage in sufficient amount of PA during recess on their own, suggesting that adults' effort to increase PA levels can be focused on other parts of the children's free time spent in school. However, future in-school research may also benefit from evaluating a more precise volume, intensity and type of PA during recess to induce beneficial effects on children's fitness and anthropometrics.
Although school has been an important intervention venue for obesity prevention, the role of school‐level factors in obesity development or prevention has not been well‐documented. This study aimed to systematically examine the current evidence on school‐level factors associated with obesity outcomes in longitudinal studies. The literature search was performed in PubMed, EMBASE, CINHAL, and PsycINFO. Peer‐reviewed articles using longitudinal study designs and published in English from 1991 to 2018 were eligible. Twelve articles met eligibility criteria for final systematic review. Nine studies reported significant long‐term associations between school‐level factors and obesity outcomes. Higher parental education, longer minutes of recess, meeting recommended recess and physical education time, higher socio‐economic status, suburban compared with rural area, higher parental involvement in school, and healthful school food environment were significantly associated with lower rates of obesity or obesity trajectory. However, due to the small number of studies and heterogeneity of measures and variables used in their analytic models, the overall level of evidence from this review suggests the importance of further, systematic study. Empirically rigorous research is needed to identify additional aspects of the school context and environment that may contribute to the risk of obesity throughout the life course.
Play is of vital importance for the healthy development of children. From a developmental perspective, play offers ample physical, emotional, cognitive, and social benefits. It allows children and adolescents to develop motor skills, experiment with their (social) behavioural repertoire, simulate alternative scenarios, and address the various positive and negative consequences of their behaviour in a safe and engaging context. Children with a chronic or life-threatening disease may face obstacles that negatively impact play and play development, possibly impeding developmental milestones, beyond the actual illness itself. Currently, there is limited understanding of the impact of (1) aberrant or suppressed play and (2) play-related interventions on the development of chronic diseased children. We argue that stimulating play behaviour enhances the adaptability of a child to a (chronic) stressful condition and promotes cognitive, social, emotional and psychomotor functioning, thereby strengthening the basis for their future health. Systematic play research will help to develop interventions for young patients, to better cope with the negative consequences of their illness and stimulate healthy development.
Several geospatial approaches have been used to characterize physical activity during recess using global positioning system (GPS) data. GPS and accelerometer data from 23 children collected during recess were analyzed using four previously used approaches: (1) dot map, (2) fishnet grid, (3) hot spot analysis, which determines clusters of high/low intensity values, and (4) zonal approach wherein the schoolyard was divided into zones to determine the time and intensity in each zone. Results from each method were compared to each other and to video observation. Hot spot analysis revealed clusters of high-intensity values, which were supported by dot and grid maps and video. However, the zonal approach revealedpatterns in where children play that were not always comparable tovideo, potentially due to missing GPS data. Recommendations for the use of these methods in future research are discussed.
Background:
Increasing the frequency of periods of outdoor free-play in childcare may represent an opportunity to increase child physical activity. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of scheduling multiple periods of outdoor free-play in increasing the time children spend in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) while attending childcare.
Methods:
The study employed a cluster randomised controlled trial design involving children aged 3 to 6 years, attending ten childcare services in the Hunter New England region of New South Wales, Australia. Five services were randomised to receive the intervention and five to a control condition. The intervention involved services scheduling three separate periods of outdoor free-play from 9 am to 3 pm per day, each at least 15 min in duration, with the total equivalent to their usual daily duration of outdoor play period. Control services implemented the usual single continuous period of outdoor free-play over this time. The primary outcome, children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) while in care per day, was measured over 5 days via accelerometers at baseline and at 3 months post baseline. Secondary outcomes included percentage of time spent in MVPA while in care per day, total physical activity while in care per day and documented child injury, a hypothesised potential unintended adverse event. Childcare services and data collectors were not blind to the experimental group allocation.
Results:
Parents of 439 (71.6%) children attending participating childcare services consented for their child to participate in the trial. Of these, 316 (72.0%) children provided valid accelerometer data at both time points. Relative to children in control services, mean daily minutes of MVPA in care was significantly greater at follow-up among children attending intervention services (adjusted difference between groups 5.21 min, 95% CI 0.59-9.83 p = 0.03). Percentage of time spent in MVPA in care per day was also greater at follow-up among children in intervention services relative to control services (adjusted difference between groups 1.57, 95% CI 0.64-2.49 p < 0.001). Total physical activity while in care per day, assessed via counts per minute approached but did not reach significance (adjusted difference between groups 14.25, 95% CI 2.26-30.76 p = 0.09). There were no differences between groups in child injury nor subgroup interactions for the primary trial outcome by child age, sex, or baseline MVPA levels.
Conclusion:
Scheduling multiple periods of outdoor free-play significantly increased the time children spent in MVPA while in attendance at childcare. This simple ecological intervention could be considered for broader dissemination as a strategy to increase child physical activity at a population level.
Trial registration:
This trial was prospectively registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR) ( ACTRN1261000347460 ). Prospectively registered 17th March 2016.
Recess is an integral part of the school day where children are afforded the opportunity to create and organize games, socialize with their peers, and explore nature. When implemented effectively, recess has the potential to offer significant academic, physical, and social benefits (London, Westrich, Stokes-Guinan, & McGlaughlin, 2015). However, the amount of time allocated to recess in elementary schools across the United States has significantly declined over the past two decades. A reduction in play time can be attributed to increased educational mandates, which have lead to vigorous and ongoing debates about the important role recess plays in elementary schools. Thus, this quantitative study examined the effect of recess on fifth grade students’ time on-task in an elementary classroom. Participants on- and off-task behaviors were observed and documented on a task frequency chart prior to and after recess. Findings from the study indicated that providing fifth-grade students with daily recess significantly increased on-task behaviors in the classroom.
Background
Physical activity levels among preschoolers in childcare are low and sedentary time high. The Supporting Physical Activity in the Childcare Environment (SPACE) intervention had three components: 1. portable play equipment; 2. staff training; and, 3. modified outdoor playtime (i.e., shorter, more frequent periods). This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the SPACE intervention on preschoolers’ physical activity levels and sedentary time during childcare hours (compared to standard care).
Methods
Via a single-blind cluster randomized controlled trial, 338 preschoolers (39.86 ± 7.33 months; 52% boys) from 22 centre-based childcare facilities (11 experimental, 11 control) were enrolled. Preschoolers wore an Actical™ accelerometer for 5 days during childcare hours at baseline, post-intervention, and 6- and 12-month follow-up, and were included in the analyses if they had a minimum of two valid days (5 h each day) at baseline and one additional time point. Intervention effectiveness was tested using a linear mixed effects model for each of the four outcome variables (i.e., sedentary time, light physical activity [LPA], moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA], and total physical activity [TPA]). Fixed effects were further evaluated with t-tests, for which degrees of freedom were estimated using a Satterthwaite approximation.
Results
One hundred and ninety-five preschoolers were retained for analyses. The intervention did not significantly impact LPA. MVPA was significantly greater among children in the experimental group when comparing post-intervention to pre-intervention, t(318) = 3.50, p = .0005, but no intervention effects were evident at 6- or 12-month follow-up. TPA was significantly greater for children in the intervention group at post-intervention when compared to pre-intervention, t(321) = 2.70, p = .007, with no intervention effects evident at later time periods. Finally, sedentary time was significantly lower among preschoolers in the experimental group when comparing post-intervention to pre-intervention, t(322) = 2.63, p = .009, with no significant effects at follow-up.
Conclusions
The SPACE intervention was effective at increasing MVPA and TPA among preschoolers, while simultaneously decreasing sedentary time. The ability of the SPACE intervention to target higher intensity activity is promising, as MVPA levels have been documented to be low in centre-based childcare. The changes in physical activity were not sustained long term (6- or 12-month follow-up).
Trial registration
ISRCTN70604107 (October 8, 2014).
Background:
The aim of the study was to test the 12-month effects of a multicomponent physical activity (PA) intervention at schoolyards on morning recess PA levels of sixth- and seventh-grade children in primary schools, using accelerometry and additional global positioning system data.
Methods:
A quasi-experimental study design was used with 20 paired intervention and control schools. Global positioning system confirmatory analyses were applied to validate attendance at schoolyards during recess. Accelerometer data from 376 children from 7 pairs of schools were included in the final analyses. Pooled intervention effectiveness was tested by multilevel linear regression analyses, whereas effectiveness of intervention components was tested by multivariate linear regression analyses.
Results:
Children exposed to the multicomponent intervention increased their time spent in light PA (+5.9%) during recess. No pooled effects on moderate to vigorous PA were found. In-depth analyses of intervention components showed that physical schoolyard interventions particularly predicted a decrease in time spent in sedentary behavior during recess at follow-up. Intervention intensity and the school's commitment to the project strengthened this effect.
Conclusions:
The multicomponent schoolyard PA intervention was effective in making children spend a larger proportion of recess time in light PA, which was most likely the result of a shift from sedentary behavior to light PA.
Despite research demonstrating the importance of recess and free play for children, schools have been reducing free play time for more academic pursuits (Ramstetter et al. in J Sch Health 80:517–526, 2010; Waite-Stupiansky and Findlay in Educ Forum 66:16–25, 2001). Recently, there has been renewed interest in understanding the critical role that free play has for children’s development. The current study was designed to contribute to this literature as well as investigate how the type of environment in which children play influences their behaviour in the classroom. Children in grades 3–5 were tested before and after recess on cognitive measures of sustained attention and creativity. We found an increase in children’s sustained attention after recess. We additionally found that the type of environment in which children played differed depending on children’s behaviour and traits. Our findings suggest that recess is an important factor in children’s performance in school and should be considered an important part of the school day. Furthermore, we suggest that researchers should consider how individual differences influence the relationship between recess and children’s performance in the classroom. Implications of this research for schools are considered.
Background:
The physical school environment is a promising setting to increase children's physical activity although robust evidence is sparse. We examined the effects of major playground reconstruction on physical activity and sedentary time in primary schools using a quasi-experimental design (comparison group pre-test/post-test design).
Methods:
Five experimental and two control schools from deprived areas of inner city London were recruited at baseline. Main outcome was physical activity and sedentary time measured from objective monitoring (Actigraph accelerometer) at one year follow up. Pupils' impressions of the new playground were qualitatively assessed post construction.
Results:
A total of 347 pupils (mean age = 8 years, 55% boys; 36% Caucasian) were recruited into the study at baseline; 303 provided valid baseline Actigraph data. Of those, 231 (76%) completed follow-up (n = 169 intervention; n = 62 control) and 77.4% of the sample recorded at least 4 days of Actigraph wear. In mixed models adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, ratio activity or sedentary/wear time at baseline, wear time at follow up, and school, no differences were observed in total moderate - vigorous activity (B = -1.4, 95% CI, -7.1, 4.2 min/d), light activity (B = 4.1, 95% CI, -17.9, 26.1), or sedentary time (B = -3.8, 95% CI, -29.2, 21.6 min/d) between groups. There were significant age interactions for sedentary (p = 0.002) and light intensity physical activity (p = 0.008). We observed significant reductions in total sedentary (-28.0, 95% CI, -1.9, -54.1 min/d, p = 0.037) and increases in total light intensity activity (24.6, 95% CI, 0.3, 48.9 min/d, p = 0.047) for children aged under 9 yrs. old in the intervention.
Conclusion:
Major playground reconstruction had limited effects on physical activity, but reduced sedentary time was observed in younger children. Qualitative data suggested that the children enjoyed the new playgrounds and experienced a perceived positive change in well-being and social interactions.
Background Aim of the study was to test the 12-month effects of a multicomponent physical activity (PA) intervention at schoolyards on recess PA levels of 6th and 7th grade children in primary schools, combining Global Positioning System (GPS) and accelerometry data. Methods A quasi-experimental study design was used with 20 paired intervention and control schools. GPS confirmatory analyses were applied to validate attendance at schoolyards during recess. Data from 376 children from 7 pairs of schools were included in the final analyses. Pooled intervention effectiveness was tested by multilevel linear regression analyses, whereas effectiveness of intervention components was tested by multivariate linear regression analyses. Results Children exposed to the multicomponent intervention increased their time spent in light PA (+5.9%) during recess. No pooled effects on Moderate-to-Vigorous PA were found. In depth-analyses on intervention components showed that physical schoolyard interventions particularly predicted a decrease in time spent in sedentary behavior during recess at follow-up. Intervention intensity and school's commitment to the project strengthened this effect. Conclusions The multicomponent schoolyard PA intervention was effective in making children spend a larger proportion of recess time in light PA, which was most likely the result of a shift from sedentary behavior to light PA.
Recess offers primary-school-age children the opportunity to engage in physical activity, though few studies have detailed the physical activity levels of children in this environment. The physical activity levels of 270 children ages 6-11 years from 18 schools were monitored on 1 school day using heart rate telemetry. Data revealed that boys engaged in higher levels of moderate-tovigorous and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) than did girls during recess (26 and 20 min, respectively). These results suggest that recess can make a worthwhile contribution to the recommended 60 min of MVPA per day.
Children need opportunities to establish positive social connections at school, yet many school playgrounds are challenged by social conflict that can undermine these connections. When children's social needs go unmet, the resultant feelings of loneliness, isolation and self-doubt can cumulatively lead to mental and physical illness. Because recess is typically the only time during the school day that children are free to socialize and play, we propose a more thoughtful way of thinking about it: from the lens of belongingness. Schools are, historically, designed for instruction. We argue, however, that we need to attend to children's social needs at school. We highlight current research from social neuroscience, belonging and social connectedness in order to delineate the pathways between daily school recess and developmental health trajectories. We then consolidate an array of research on play, social interaction and school change to suggest four areas that could benefit from consideration in research, practice and policy: (i) the culture of recess, (ii) the importance of healthy role models on the playground, (iii) the necessity of activities, options and variety during recess and (iv) the significance of space and spatial layout (indoor and outdoor). We bridge our discussion with the conception of health as described in the Ottawa Charter and emphasize the need to build alliances across sectors to assist schools in their efforts to support children's overall health needs.
Background:
National adherence to the recess recommendations of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has not been comprehensively studied in the United States.
Methods:
Data from 6 nationally representative data sets over the last decade (Classification of Laws Associated with School Students, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, National Youth Fitness Survey, School Health Policies and Practices Survey, and the School Nutrition and Meal Cost Study) provided estimates for adherence to CDC recess guidelines.
Results:
While approximately 65-80% of elementary school-children receive the recommended 20+ minutes of daily recess according to parent-, principal-, and school-report, adherence declines by sixth grade, and little information is available for middle/high school students. Adherence to playground safety was high (90%), but adherence to recommendations about recess before lunch (<50%), withholding recess as punishment (∼50%), and training recess staff (<50%) were lower.
Conclusions:
School policy and practice should align with CDC recommendations, with the aim of providing sufficient quality recess to all youth, K-12th grade. Comprehensive, on-going national surveillance of multiple recess domains is needed to inform policy and ensure equitable provision of recess.
This Policy Statement was reaffirmed April 2023
Recess is at the heart of a vigorous debate over the role of schools in promoting the optimal development of the whole child. A growing trend toward reallocating time in school to accentuate the more academic subjects has put this important facet of a child’s school day at risk. Recess serves as a necessary break from the rigors of concentrated, academic challenges in the classroom. But equally important is the fact that safe and well-supervised recess offers cognitive, social, emotional, and physical benefits that may not be fully appreciated when a decision is made to diminish it. Recess is unique from, and a complement to, physical education—not a substitute for it. The American Academy of Pediatrics believes that recess is a crucial and necessary component of a child’s development and, as such, it should not be withheld for punitive or academic reasons.
Purpose:
To identify associations between amount of school recess provision and children's physical activity (PA), weight status, adiposity, cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, and muscular endurance.
Method:
Data from 6- to 11-year-old participants (n = 499) in the 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey were analyzed. Parents/guardians reported children's PA levels and recess provision, categorized as no/minimal (9.0%), low (26.1%), medium (46.0%), or high (18.9%). Children wore a wrist-worn accelerometer for 7 days and completed anthropometric measurements. Fitness was assessed using grip strength and treadmill, pull-up, and plank tests. Cross-sectional linear and logistic regression compared outcomes across levels of recess provision adjusting for the survey's complex sampling design.
Results:
Children with high provision of recess were 2.31 times more likely to meet PA guidelines according to parent report than those with no/minimal recess. Accelerometer-measured PA followed a more U-shaped pattern, wherein PA was higher in children with high, compared to low, recess provision but comparable to those with no/minimal recess provision. There were no associations with weight status, adiposity, or fitness.
Conclusion:
Current recess recommendations (20 min·d-1) may be insufficient as 30 minutes per day of recess was associated with a 2-fold greater likelihood of achieving recommended PA levels. Additional research on recess quantity and quality is needed.
Background:
Recess provides many physical, mental, and social benefits for students; however, the most recent systematic review examining the benefits of recess was conducted over a decade ago. The purpose of this paper was to determine the current benefits of school recess by conducting an updated systematic review of the literature.
Methods:
Multiple databases were systematically examined to find articles fitting the following inclusionary criteria: (a) school recess, (b) all schooling before college, and (c) recess benefits of any kind. Research was limited to literature published between June 2009 and July 2020.
Results:
Nine studies were included in this review. The majority of studies examined elementary-aged students. Seven studies were conducted in the United States, and 2 studies were conducted internationally. Recess provided school-aged children academic and cognitive benefits, behavioral and emotional benefits, physical benefits, and social benefits.
Implications for school health policy, practice, and equity:
Providing recess for all school levels positively impacts the whole child; there was no literature implicating negative impacts of recess.
Conclusions:
Schools can improve overall student health and belonging by redesigning and/or implementing daily recess.
Introduction/purpose:
In the United States, it is recommended that schools provide at least 20 minutes of daily recess, but the optimal amount for health benefits is unknown. We examined associations between amount of recess and health indicators using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data (NHANES; 2013-2016).
Methods:
For this cross-sectional analysis, parents/guardians of 6-11 year olds (n=738) reported recess provision which was classified as low (22.8%; approximately 10-15 min, 5 days per week), medium (54.9%; approximately 16-30 min, 5 days per week), or high (22.3%; approximately >30 min, 5 days per week). Outcomes measured included parent/guardian-reported and accelerometer-measured physical activity (PA), blood pressure, cholesterol, grip strength, bone mineral content, weight status, percent body fat, vitamin D level, and C-reactive protein level. Linear and logistic regression compared outcomes by level of recess provision accounting for the NHANES complex survey design.
Results:
The odds of meeting PA guidelines according to parent/guardian reports were 1.70 and 2.05 times higher in those with medium and high (respectively) versus low recess provision. Accelerometer-measured weekday activity was highest in those with high recess provision while weekend activity was highest in those with low recess provision (Cohen's d = 0.40-0.45). There were no other significant associations.
Conclusion:
At least 30 minutes of daily recess is associated with two-fold greater odds of achieving recommended PA levels according to parent/guardian reports; accelerometer data suggest this is through increased weekday activity. This finding suggests current national recess recommendations are insufficient for PA promotion. More detailed data on the frequency and duration of recess are needed to quantify optimal provision more precisely.
Objective To determine the effects of interventions aimed at optimising the quantity and quality of physical education (PE) on cognition and academic performance in children and adolescents.
Design A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Data sources Studies from electronic databases from inception to 3 January 2021 were identified.
Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Experimental studies that assessed the effect of quantity-based (ie, increasing the amount of curriculum time allocated to PE) or quality-based (ie, increasing students’ participation in physical activity during PE) PE interventions, or both, on changes in cognition and/or academic performance in youth (aged 5–18 years) were included.
Results 19 trials comprising 8676 youth (46.5% girls) were included. Individual quality-based PE interventions increased cognition performance (Hedges’ g=0.38, 95% CI 0.15 to 0.60; I 2=83.70%), mainly in primary education settings (g=0.48, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.89; I 2=90.43%). Academic performance, principally mathematics-related skills, was also increased by quality-based PE interventions (g=0.15, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.24; I 2=41.75%). Among these interventions, teaching strategies favoured similar results, but without heterogeneity in the results (g=0.12, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.18; I 2=0%). In contrast, quantity-based PE interventions had a very small and non-significant effect on academic performance (g=0.09, 95% CI −0.05 to 0.24; Q=11.65; I 2=48.48%). Finally, there were no differences between the three PE interventions (ie, quantity, quality, and combined PE interventions) in regard to academic performance.
Conclusion Improving the quality of PE classes may improve students’ cognition and academic performance in children and adolescents. Importantly, allocating more time for PE does not seem to compromise this performance.
School recess can provide social, emotional, and physical benefits for children. Yet, not all children experience recess the same, as inequity in access to recess and variability in the quality of recess exist. Researchers have yet to understand the long-term implications of recess experiences on adult well-being and physical activity behaviors. The purpose of this study was to explore the interrelationships between memories of recess, physical activity, and social-emotional well-being. A total of 514 adults between the ages of 19 and 79 (M = 45.56; SD = 15.62) were surveyed via Prolific, a web-based research platform. Participants were asked about their memories of recess enjoyment and recess exclusion, and current physical activity levels, physical activity enjoyment, social isolation, social role satisfaction, and sense of meaning and purpose. Structural equation modeling analysis showed that memories of recess enjoyment were associated with meaning and purpose (β = 0.138, p < .05) and PA enjoyment (β = 0.183, p < .05). Furthermore, retrospective recess exclusion predicted current social isolation (β = 0.266, p < .05) and was negatively associated with retrospective recess enjoyment (β = − 0.379, p < .05). Findings highlight the importance of childhood recess experiences and its impact on current physical activity behaviors, social isolation, and meaning and purpose later in life. Consistent with other research, early positive physical activity experiences, in the form of recess, appear to provide more assurances that one will engage in healthier lifestyle behaviors and more favorable psycho-socio-emotional profiles in adulthood.
Background:
Environmental provisions can boost students' discretionary participation in physical activity (PA) during lunchtime at school. This study investigated the effectiveness of providing PA equipment as an environmental intervention on middle school students' PA levels and stakeholders' perceptions of the effectiveness of equipment provisions during school lunch recess.
Methods:
A baseline-intervention research design was used in this study with a first baseline phase followed by an intervention phase (ie, equipment provision phase). A total of 514 students at 2 middle schools (school 1 and school 2) in a rural area of the western United States were observed directly using the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth instrument. Interviews were conducted with stakeholders. Paired-sample t tests and visual analysis were conducted to explore differences in PA levels by gender, and common comparison (with trustworthiness measures) was used with the interview data.
Results:
The overall percentage of moderate to vigorous PA levels was increased in both schools (ranging from 8.0% to 24.0%). In school 2, there was a significant difference in seventh- and eighth-grade students' moderate to vigorous PA levels from the baseline. Three major themes were identified: (1) unmotivated, (2) unequipped, and (3) unquestionable changes (with students becoming more active).
Conclusions:
Environmental supports (access, equipment, and supervision) significantly and positively influenced middle school students' lunchtime PA levels.
IMPORTANCE Whether quality- or quantity-based physical education (PE) interventions are associated with improvement of health-related physical fitness outcomes and fundamental motor skills (FMSs) in children and adolescents is unknown.
OBJECTIVE To examine the association of interventions aimed at optimizing PE in terms of quality (teaching strategies or fitness infusion) or quantity (lessons per week) with health-related physical fitness and FMSs in children and adolescents.
DATA SOURCES For this systematic review and meta-analysis, studies were identified through a systematic search of Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Controlled Trials Registry, and SPORTDiscus databases (from inception to October 10, 2019) with the keywords physical education OR PE OR P.E. AND fitness AND motor ability OR skills. Manual examination of references in selected articles was also performed.
STUDY SELECTION Studies that assessed the association of quality- or quantity-based PE interventions with improvement in physical fitness and/or FMSs in youths (aged 3-18 years) were included.
DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS Datawere processed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline. Random-effect models were used to estimate the pooled effect size (Hedges g).
MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Health-related physical fitness outcomes and FMSs.
RESULTS Fifty-six trials composed of 48,185 youths (48%girls) were included in the meta-analysis. Quality-based PE interventions were associated with small increases in health-related physical fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness [Hedges g = 0.24; 95%CI,
0.16-0.32] and muscular strength [Hedges g = 0.19; 95%CI, 0.09-0.29]) and FMSs (Hedges g = 0.38; 95%CI, 0.27-0.49). Subgroup analyses found stronger associations for fitness infusion interventions on body mass index (Hedges g = −0.18; 95%CI, −0.26 to −0.09), body fat (Hedges g = −0.28; 95%CI, −0.37 to −0.18), cardiorespiratory fitness (Hedges g = 0.31; 95%CI, 0.23-0.39), and muscular strength (Hedges g = 0.29; 95%CI,
0.18-0.39). Quantity-based PE interventions were associated with small increases in only cardiorespiratory fitness (Hedges g = 0.42; 95%CI, 0.30-0.55), muscular strength (Hedges g = 0.20; 95%CI, 0.08-0.31), and speed agility (Hedges g = 0.29; 95%CI, 0.07-0.51).
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The findings suggest that quality-based PE interventions are associated with small increases in both student health-related physical fitness components and FMSs regardless of frequency or duration of PE lessons. Because PE aims to improve more than health, high levels of active learning time may need to be balanced with opportunities for instruction, feedback, and reflection.
Research demonstrates children’s attention, working memory, and behavior improve following a recess or activity break. Longer periods of inactivity are associated with higher levels of inattention; children who are less active have higher rates of disciplinary infractions. Thus, providing physical activity breaks may positively impact student achievement and behavior. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of doubling recess time on elementary students’ academic achievement and disciplinary referrals over two school years. Participants were 728 K to 6th-grade students from one school in the southeastern United States who transitioned from one 15-minute recess break to two 15-minute recess breaks per school day the following year. Discipline referrals were recorded and coded by type. Academic achievement reflected students’ math and reading performance on the Measure of Academic Progress, the Reading Inventory, and the Math Inventory. Results show the number of discipline referrals increased with the additional daily recess, and math test scores improved. Given the differential effects on student disciplinary referral and academic achievement outcomes, implications are discussed for school personnel in light of these findings.
Introduction:
Nature exposure is associated with many wellbeing benefits. However, the influence of green space on the physical activity and social behaviors of children is not completely understood. The purpose of the study was to complete a stepwise impact evaluation of a large-scale playground greening project at a Title 1 elementary school in Los Angeles, California.
Methods:
Physical activity and social interaction data were collected with direct observation and accelerometers pre-, immediately post-, and 4 months post-greening at control (students enrolled=393) and experimental (students enrolled=538) locations from 2016 to 2017. Effects of relevant variables on recess behavior were analyzed with linear mixed models in 2018.
Results:
Zone popularity and recess behaviors did not change for control students during the study (p>0.05). Areas replaced by green space became the most popular for experimental students who transitioned from traditional playground games/sports to tag/chasing, gymnastics, climbing/jumping, and creative play. The percentage of students observed as sedentary decreased by 10.0% (95% CI=4.9%, 15.0%) at 4 months, p=0.003. Vigorous activity participation increased pre to post at the individual (48.5%, 95% CI=29.1%, 67.9%, p<0.001) and population level (41.2%, 95% CI=27.3%, 55.1%, p=0.003) and remained higher than pre-greening at 4 months (p<0.05) for girls in the experimental group only. The moderate to vigorous physical activity differential between green space and hardscape was greater for fifth graders than all other grades, p=0.002. Student physical and verbal conflict rates decreased below pre-greening rates after 4 months for the experimental group, p<0.001.
Conclusions:
Results suggest that adding green space to asphalt-covered schoolyards helps expose children to nature, increases daily activity levels, and promotes social wellbeing in sex- and age-dependent ways.
Greening schoolyards is an initiative to reconnect children with nature and afford meaningful experiences that foster children’s well-being. To strengthen the empirical basis for greening schoolyards, we conducted a longitudinal prospective intervention study with a two-year follow-up, to investigate the impact of greening schoolyards on schoolchildren’s (age 7–11) appreciation of the schoolyard, and their physical, cognitive, and social-emotional well-being. Data were collected amongst nine elementary schools in moderate-to-high-urbanized areas in The Netherlands with approximately 700 children at each measurement. At baseline, all nine schoolyards were paved. Five schools greened their schoolyard between baseline and first-follow-up. Objective measurements included accelero-based measurements of physical activity during recess, attentional tests (Digit Letter Substitution Test, Natu & Argwal, 1995; Sky Search Task, Manly et al., 2001) and a social orientation test (Social Orientation Choice Card, Knight, 1981). Self-report questionnaires included children’s appreciation of the schoolyard (naturalness, likability, attractiveness and perceived restoration), and their social- and emotional well-being (Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire, van Widenfelt, Goedhart, Treffers & Goodman, 2003; Social Support, RIVM, 2005; Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, Varni, Seid & Kurtin, 2001). Multilevel data analyses support our expectation that greening has a positive impact on children’s appreciation of the schoolyard, their attentional restoration after recess and social well-being. Furthermore, our results indicate that greening stimulates physical activity of girls. We found no impact on emotional well-being. These findings provide some support for the relevance of greening schoolyards and may guide further development of schoolyards that facilitate the well-being of schoolchildren.
This study examined how children's physical activity levels during recess and lunchtime and the contribution of recess and lunchtime to daily physical activity differed across seasons. Three hundred and twenty-six children aged 8-11 years from Australia participated. Physical activity was measured every 15-seconds using hip-mounted ActiGraph accelerometers for 7 consecutive days during the winter (n = 246), spring (n = 211), summer (n = 161) and autumn terms (n = 139). Data were collected 2012-2013. Time spent in light- (LPA) moderate- (MPA), vigorous- (VPA), and moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) during recess and lunchtime were calculated. Longitudinal data were analysed using multilevel analyses and adjusted for potential confounders. The results showed that compared to winter, children engaged in significantly less MVPA and VPA in spring and summer during lunchtime (p < 0.05). No significant changes were observed during recess. The contribution of lunchtime to VPA and MVPA significantly decreased in spring and summer compared to winter (p < 0.05). Children's lunchtime physical activity levels decreased between winter and spring and summer, with greater declines observed in VPA. Strategies to increase physical activity levels in every season are needed during lunchtime, with a greater emphasis on warmer months.
Background:
We assessed the effectiveness of a simple intervention for increasing children's physical activity, play, perceived competence/social acceptance, and social skills.
Methods:
A cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted, in which schools were the clusters. Twelve Sydney (Australia) primary schools were randomly allocated to intervention or control conditions, with 226 children (5-7 years old) selected randomly to participate. Data were collected at baseline and after 13 weeks. The intervention consisted of introducing recycled materials without an obvious play purpose into school playgrounds and a risk-reframing workshop for parents and teachers.
Results:
Children from the intervention schools increased physical activity and reduced sedentary time while control schools decreased physical activity and increased sedentary time. The intervention yielded increases in total accelerometer counts (β = 9350 counts, 95% CI 3490-1522, p = .002), minutes of moderate/vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (β = 1.8 min, 95% CI 0.52-3.12, p = .006), and reductions in sedentary time (β = -2.1 min, 95% CI -3.77-(-0.51), p = .01). Although the changes in time spent in play and nonplay were not statistically different (p = .08) the effect size (d = .27) indicates clinical significance.
Conclusions:
This intervention was effective for increasing MVPA during recess and demonstrated capacity to improve play opportunities in school playgrounds.
Recess is an important part of a comprehensive school physical activity program by providing physical activity to students during the school day, in addition to physical education and classroom physical activity. Unfortunately, recess in the United States is not an expected part of the school day, especially in middle and high schools. High-stakes testing and state and federal requirements have prompted well-meaning school leaders to nudge recess off the schedule, replacing it with increased desk time and little to no opportunities to engage in physical activity and socialization during the school day. The purpose of this article is to explain the benefits of recess and describe strategies to help schools keep recess in the school day and create a culture of physical activity that uses recess as a catalyst for learning.
Background:
Many school-based recess interventions have been shown to be effective in increasing physical activity but their relative efficiency compared to other school-based programs are unknown. This study examined the cost-effectiveness of Ready for Recess, a program designed to increase students' physical activity in 2 elementary schools.
Methods:
Standard cost-effectiveness analysis method was used from a program's perspective for this study. Program effectiveness was measured as total metabolic equivalent (MET) hours gained. Program costs included equipment, training, and personnel costs during the 1-year intervention. The cost-effectiveness was measured as the ratio of program costs to total MET-hours gained.
Results:
Ready for Recess cost $27,643.97 for the 2 schools in the first year of implementation. Physical activity increased by 1.8 MET-hours per day per student. Approximately 32 cents were spent on Ready for Recess to produce an additional MET-hour per student per school day in the 2008-2009 school year.
Conclusions:
Ready for Recess was cost-effective in its first year of implementation using 35 cents as a benchmark and it was cost-effective relative to other school-based physical activity interventions. The program may be more cost-effective if implemented for a longer time and on a larger scale.
Background:
To investigate whether changing the play environment in primary schools to one that includes greater risk and challenge increases physical activity and reduces body mass index (BMI).
Subjects/methods:
A two-year cluster randomised controlled trial was undertaken in 16 New Zealand schools (Years 1-8). Intervention schools (n=8) redesigned their play environments to encourage imaginative and independent free play by increasing opportunities for risk and challenge (e.g. rough-and-tumble play), reducing rules, and adding new playground components (e.g. loose parts). Control schools (n=8) were asked to not change their play environment. A qualified playworker rated all school play environments at baseline and 1 year. Primary outcomes were moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (7-day accelerometry) and BMI z-score, collected in 840 children at baseline, one and two years. Data were analysed using generalised estimating equations.
Results:
Multiple changes were made to the school play environments resulting in a significant difference in overall play evaluation score between intervention and control schools of 4.50 (95% CI: 1.82 to 7.18, P=0.005), which represents a substantial improvement from baseline values of 19.0 (s.d. 3.2). Overall, schools liked the intervention and reported many benefits, including increased physical activity. However, these beliefs did not translate into significant differences in objectively-measured physical activity, either as counts per minute (e.g. 35 (-51 to 120) during lunch break) or as minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (0.4, -1.1 to 2.0). Similarly, no significant differences were observed for BMI, BMI z-score, or waist circumference at one or two years (all P>0.321).
Conclusions:
Altering the school play environment to one that promoted greater risk and challenge for children did not increase physical activity, nor subsequently alter body weight. While schools embraced the concept of adding risk and challenge in the playground, our findings suggest that children may have been involved in different, rather than additional activities.
Trial registration:
Retrospectively registered with the Australia New Zealand Clinical Trial registry ID: ACTRN12612000675820.International Journal of Obesity accepted article preview online, 10 February 2017. doi:10.1038/ijo.2017.41.
Background:
This study examined the associations of objectively measured physical activity in Physical Education and recess with academic performance in youth.
Methods:
This cross-sectional study was conducted with 1,780 participants aged 6-18 years (863 girls). Physical activity was objectively measured by accelerometry and was also classified according to sex- and age-specific quartiles of physical activity intensities. Academic performance was assessed through school records.
Results:
Physical activity in Physical Education and recess was not associated with academic performance (β ranging from -0.038 to -0.003; all P > 0.05). Youth in the lowest quartile of physical activity in Physical Education engaged in an average of 1.40 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and those in the highest quartile engaged in 21.60 min (for recess: lowest quartile, 2.20 min; highest quartile, 11.15 min). There were no differences in academic performance between quartiles of physical activity in Physical Education and recess.
Conclusions:
Time spent at different physical activity intensities during Physical Education and recess does not impair academic performance in youth.
In recent decades, the role of recess during the school day has been called into question. This chapter addresses the critical issue of whether recess adds value to education by describing research examining the effects of recess on development and achievement. This topic is of critical importance for educational settings and wellbeing: To ensure the best practices are being utilized, school policies should be based on scientific investigations. Thus, research examining recess and play is described.
Fifth-grade students' physical activity levels were examined via heart rate telemetry and pedometry during school fitness and recess breaks. Twenty-seven students with a mean age of 11.03 (±.32) years participated in morning recess (MR), lunch recess (LR), and fitness breaks (FB) for three days. Structured FB's consisted of students engaging in locomotor and nonlocomotor activities within an obstacle course framework, while recess breaks followed a traditional model. Results from repeated measures ANOVAs indicated students engaged in significantly more physical activity during FB than MR and LR. Fitness breaks provided a viable method for increasing children's school time activity levels.
Objective:
To determine whether increased outdoor play time at Head Start was associated with greater changes in body mass index (BMI) over the course of a preschool year.
Method:
The authors used data from 2810 children from the Family and Child Experiences Survey 2006 cohort. With children's spring BMI as the outcome (both continuously measured and dichotomized to measure the risk of obesity), the authors conducted weighted regression analyses, controlling for child-level, family-level, and school-level covariates, including preschool entry BMI.
Results:
Children played outdoors at school for roughly 37 minutes per day, with little variation across half-day and full-day programs. The more children played outdoors, the more their BMI decreased over the preschool year (β = -.05, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-0.08 to -0.01]) and the less likely they were to be obese (odds ratio = 0.99, 95% CI [0.98-0.99]). The difference between high levels and low levels of outdoor play corresponded to 0.18 BMI points and a 42% reduction in children's risk of obesity. Sixty minutes was the "tipping point" for the association between outdoor play time and improvements in children's BMI. These associations were also stronger among children who were obese at the start of the year, less active at home, and living in unsafe neighborhoods.
Conclusion:
Outdoor play time at Head Start is associated with decreases in children's BMI scores and, thus, may serve as an important means of preventing obesity. Head Start programs should consider establishing clear guidelines encouraging more outdoor time.