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Self-Actualization
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Self-actualization is a high level of human requirement and as an existing need, which is the tendency of an individual to grow and realize available potentials. In the present crossover study, we aimed to identify the factors affecting self-actualization of students at spaces of universities.The method which used in this research was a qualitative research method, including documentary and Delphi method in two rounds. The results showed four factors affecting students' self-actualization at university spaces: 1. 1- Understanding one’s own nature: Understanding one’s own nature and finding concealed and potential talents. 2- Individual evolution. 3-Understanding facts and truths: Understanding the facts and truths, learning science and virtue, seeking rightness, seeking justice, freedom. 4- Seeking beauty: Pay attention to the beauty which is liked by the human. Also conceptual strategies to reach these factors were extracted. In summary, we obtained the model. The model has showed the four factors affecting students' self-actualization at university spaces. Four factors affecting students' self-actualization at university spaces, it consists of four factors: Understanding one’s own nature, finding concealed and potential talents; Individual evolution; Understanding facts and truths: Understanding the facts and truths, learning science and virtue, seeking rightness, seeking justice, freedom; Seeking beauty: Pay attention to the beauty which is liked by the human. Also conceptual strategies consist of: Freedom of choice, Access to facilities and opportunities for growth, Control, Creating a context for going from outward to inward, Persuading to think and creating the context of thinking away from chaos, Comfort and psychological safety and create a context to connect with nature.
Background and Objective: Given that the elderly population has been increasing in recent years in Iran, studying their life expectancy and its related factors is necessary. Thus, we aimed to examine the relationship of perceived social support and self-actualization with life expectancy in the elderly of Tehran city.
Materials and Methods: This descriptive correlational study was conducted on 200 elderly (nursing home residents and non-residents) of Tehran in 2016. The participants were selected using the convenience sampling method. Maslow’s self-actualization, Miller’s life expectancy, and Norbeck’s perceived social support questionnaires were used for data collection. Then, the data were analyzed by using Pearson correlation coefficient and regression analysis in SPSS, version 20.
Results: We found a significant positive relationship between perceived social support and life expectancy, self-actualization and life expectancy, as well as self-actualization and perceived social support in the elderly of Tehran (P
By 2050, 80% of the elderly worldwide will be living in low- and middle-income countries. Demographic shift is challenging low- and middle-income countries to ensure their social and health systems are ready for the elderly. This paper aims to identify what basic needs have to be fulfilled for the elderly to experience healthy ageing especially in low- and middle-income countries. The method used for this study was a literature review of official reports and statistics, and scientific journals. The first basic need is financial security. In countries where pension systems are weak, the elderly live in extended households sharing the budget with their children. The second need is for personal security and safety. Issues such as injuries, crime, and disasters become prominent. The third need is for mental health. The number of
people with dementia in low- and middle-income countries is predicted to be four times higher than in high-income countries by 2050. The fourth need is for accessible health care. The biggest challenge for low- and middle-income countries is the ability for the elderly to afford health care. The last need is self-actualization. These needs have not yet been met and still challenge low- and middle-income countries even though they are essential for healthy ageing and elderly welfare.
Keywords : elderly, basic needs, low-middle income countries
Aims
This research aims to evaluate psycho-emotional challenges for older adults and the relevance of person-centered therapy (PCT) for older adults.
Methods
Forty senior adults, aged above 65 years (M = 71.7; SD = 4.6) were assessed with the the Self-Esteem Scale (‘SES’) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Socio-demographic data, including gender (57.5% women), marital status (37.5% married) and education (39.2% mandatory school) were also assessed. Bivariate associations were performed.
Results
Results yielded a set of five descriptive categories that captured the distinct ways older adults perceived psychoemotional challenges and that reflected the individual's perceived importance of PCT: ‘time perspective’, ‘the aging body’, ‘autonomy and control’, ‘cognitive endurance’ and ‘loss and reminiscing’. Regarding bivariate associations, results indicated that ‘autonomy and control’ was associated with the ‘aging body’ ( r =.552, p < .001) and ‘cognitive endurance’ with ‘time perspective’ ( r =.425, p < .001). This latter was also associated with ‘loss and reminiscing’ ( r =.616, p < .001).
Conclusions
This study highlights the importance of PCT for older adults facing psycho-emotional challenges in old age. Interventions with older adults may benefit from clearly understanding older adults’ specific issues as an important component for promoting successful aging and reducing health disparities.
The Kite Runner is Khaled Hosseini’s debut novel, which not only shows a person’s spiritual growth, but also the history of the soul of a nation, and of a country’s suffering. It is about a journey of salvation and return of humanity. This journey can be viewed as going beyond religious, social and economic acceptance; it is a journey of self discovery while accepting the past. Through the analysis of the experiences of Amir from innocence to maturity, from betrayal to salvation, this paper attempts to reveal that on Amir’s way to redemption for what he did to Hassan, he has obtained the power of pursuit of love, loyalty, responsibility, dignity and courage. His cowardice and selfishness as well as suffering from conscience and condemnation and torture transform gradually into strong qualities. Therefore, this journey cannot merely be seen as self actualization of the protagonist himself but also the return of humanity of the whole human race.
Maslow’s self-actualization remains a popular notion in academic research as well as popular culture. The notion that life’s highest calling is fulfilling one’s own unique potential has been widely appealing. But what do people believe they are doing when they pursue the realization of their full, unique potentials? Here, we examine lay perceptions of self-actualization. Self-actualizing, like any drive, is unlikely to operate without regard to biological and social costs and benefits. We examine which functional outcomes (e.g., gaining status, making friends, finding mates, caring for kin) people perceive as central to their individual self-actualizing. Three studies suggest that people most frequently link self-actualization to seeking status, and, concordant with life history theory, what people regard as self-actualizing varies in predictable ways across the life span and across individuals. Contrasting with self-actualization, people do not view other types of well-being—eudaimonic, hedonic, subjective—as furthering status-linked functional outcomes.
The author revisits neuropsychiatrist Kurt Goldstein’s (1934/1995, 1963) concept of self-actualization. It is argued that the interdisciplinary field of biosemiotics (Emmeche & Kull, 2011; Hoffmeyer, 2003/2009) provides contemporary language and examples to understand Goldstein’s concept, and expands the breadth of its application to include all living things (not only humans). The introduction to biosemiotics also provides an opportunity for humanistic psychology to form a meaningful collaboration with the naturalistic sciences. Self-actualization is defined through 3 important aspects. The first is that of individuation or the process of becoming a self. The second is that of holism, or the recognition that the organism and environment comprise a meaningful whole. Finally, the third is that self-actualization is the only motivating drive. With the expansion of application that a biosemiotic view provides, it is maintained that all life is governed by biosemiosis.
The concept of self-actualization has been the subject of much theoretical speculation over the years. The essential meaning entails the discovery of the real self and its expression and development. As for the instruments available to measure the construct, there are currently several scales considered to be suitable to this end. However, many of these have been considered too long or presented problems with inadequate validation. This is the reason why a short index of self-actualization has been developed (Jones & Crandall, 1986). This index, best known as the Short Index of Self-Actualization or the SelfActualization Scale (SAS), is now a widely used short form to measure self-actualization. The present study provides a psychometric analysis of the SAS, in order to highlight its
strengths and weaknesses and to offer a starting point to a further and broader investigation.
Self-actualization is described as an individual's expression of their full potential and a desire for self-fulfilment. It is the leading need in Maslow's hierarchical motivation theory (Maslow, 194353.
Maslow , A. H. ( 1943 ). Conflict, frustration, and the theory of threat . Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology , 38 , 81 – 86 . [CrossRef]View all references) which does not specify an age range for each level, believing that individuals progress through the hierarchy at different rates. However, he recognises older adults are more likely than young adults to be concerned with higher motivation (Maslow, 197057.
Maslow , A. H. ( 1970 ). Motivation and personality . New York : Harper & Row . View all references). Previous work has revealed that people over the age of 36 have a tendency to be concerned with higher motives and people under this age with lower motives (Reiss & Havercamp, 200570.
Reiss , S. , &
Havercamp , S. M. ( 2005 ). Motivation in a developmental context: A new method for studying self-actualization . Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 45 , 41 – 53 . [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®]View all references). This study looks at the influence of age on the level of self-actualization and discovered that on 8 out of the 12 Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) scales, participants over the age of 36 showed higher levels of self-actualization than participants under the age of 36. These results indicate the relevance of developmental issues in this matter and back up the hypothesis that there is a relationship between one's age and levels of self-actualization. However, results also showed a degree of overlap of self-actualization scores across age groups, suggesting further research may find other important factors, beyond age, which have a relationship with self-actualization.
Maslow’s hierarchy implies that human growth is associated with adult maturity, a decrease in the prepotency of “lower” motives and an increase in the prepotency of “higher” motives. These hypotheses were evaluated with data from 1,712 participants who had been tested with the Reiss Profile, which is a standardized assessment of a comprehensive range of enduring (trait) strivings. The results provided some support for Maslow’s general idea of human growth: The lower motives (such as eating and exercise) were stronger for younger versus older adults, whereas the higher motives (such as honor and idealism) were stronger for older versus younger adults. The results demonstrated a new method for studying some of the issues raised by Maslow.
The conventional description of Abraham Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs is inaccurate as a description of Maslow's later thought. Maslow (1969a) amended his model, placing self-transcendence as a motivational step beyond self-actualization. Objections to this reinterpretation are considered. Possible reasons for the persistence of the conventional account are described. Recognizing self-transcendence as part of Maslow's hierarchy has important consequences for theory and research: (a) a more comprehensive understanding of worldviews regarding the meaning of life; (b) broader understanding of the motivational roots of altruism, social progress, and wisdom; (c) a deeper understanding of religious violence; (d) integration of the psychology of religion and spirituality into the mainstream of psychology; and (e) a more multiculturally integrated approach to psychological theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors examined the similarities and differences between 3 dimensions that represent people's focus on self vs. other: individualistic vs. collectivistic nations, independent vs. interdependent self-concepts, and intrinsic vs. extrinsic aspirations. In samples of South Korean and U.S. college students, the authors found that each of these dimensions was interrelated in expected ways and that each also was independently associated with different aspects of participants' self-report of their own well-being (i.e., self-actualization, vitality, happiness, anxiety, and physical manifestations). The authors concluded that environmental circumstances and personality characteristics that focus on personal needs are more likely to provide experiences supportive of psychological well-being.
Maslow's need hierarchy and model of the self-actualizing personality are reviewed and criticized. The definition of self-actualization is found to be confusing, and the gratification of all needs is concluded to be insufficient to explain self-actualization. Therefore the theory is reconstructed on the basis of a second-order, cognitive-systemic framework. A hierarchy of basic needs is derived from the urgency of perturbations which an autonomous system must compensate in order to maintain its identity. It comprises the needs for homeostasis, safety, protection, feedback and exploration. Self-actualization is redefined as the perceived competence to satisfy these basic needs in due time. This competence has three components: material, cognitive and subjective. Material and/or cognitive incompetence during childhood create subjective incompetence, which in turn inhibits the further development of cognitive competence, and thus of self-actualization.
In the counseling field, it is imperative that mental health professionals stay informed of current research findings. By staying abreast of the most recent trends and techniques in healthcare, professionals can modify their methods to better aid their patients. Emerging Research in Play Therapy, Child Counseling, and Consultation is a critical resource that examines the most current methodologies and treatments in child therapy. Featuring coverage on relevant topics such as behavioral concerns, childhood anxiety, and consultation services, this publication is an ideal reference source for all healthcare professionals, practitioners, academicians, graduate students, and researchers that are seeking the latest information on child counseling services.
Dramatic increases in life expectancy within the older population have revealed challenges specific to older adults, yet these are rarely addressed in the person-centered literature. In this paper, we offer the perspective of adults experiencing old age, using the case of a 74-year-old older client as well as research that supports the various challenges expressed by the client. We explore several psycho-emotional challenges experienced by older adults – cognitive capacity, time perspective, autonomy, loss and reminiscing, and the aging body, in order to facilitate understanding of their specific needs. We argue that, for older adults, an empathic approach is key to creating relational depth within a therapeutic relationship so that the older client can deepen his or her personhood and his or her sense of agency. Finally, we assert that a genuine and authentic encounter between an older client and her or his therapist is the key to facilitating growth and development for the older client. © 2015 World Association for Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapy & Counseling.
Kreativität – die Generierung und Verwertung von Ideen – und Psychopathologie werden schon seit langem miteinander in Verbindung gebracht. Jedoch wurde der Einfluss interkultureller Faktoren bisher weitgehend in der Fachliteratur ignoriert. Die vorliegende Dissertation zeigt, dass (1) Kreativität und Selbstverwirklichung kaum miteinander assoziiert sind, dass (2) Kreativität allerdings stark mit schizotyper Persönlichkeitsstörung verbunden ist, jedoch zeigen Menschen mit schöpferischen Leistungen verminderte Schizotypie-Symptome und es gibt einen Geschlechterunterschiede. Deshalb zeigt diese Dissertation (3), dass die Assoziation zwischen Kreativität und Schizotypie durch einen kulturellen Faktor (Deutsch, Russisch) moderiert wird. Die Ergebnisse werden diskutiert im Hinblick auf die kultur-unabhängige Validität der Konstrukte Kreativität, Schizotypie und Selbstverwirklichung, hinsichtlich psychometrischer Probleme bei der Erfassung dieser Konstrukte und hinsichtlich der Rolle für die allgemeine und spezifische mentale Gesundheit. Zukünftige Studien sollten eine wie hier vorgeschlagene Unterscheidung zwischen schöpferischen Leistungen und Kreativität als kognitives Konstrukt bzw. als Teil psychopathologischer oder persönlichkeitsrelevanter Aspekte vornehmen. Darüber hinaus sind die Hinzunahme von Aspekten, die Kultur, Geschlecht und Alter unterscheiden, sinnvoll. Unsere Resultate leisten einen Beitrag zur kulturellen Psychologie, indem sie das Wissen erweitern, wie die Kreativität-Schizotypie Assoziation durch kulturelle Faktoren beeinflusst wird und inwieweit schöpferische Leistungen und kognitive kreative Fähigkeiten diesbezüglich divergieren. Dies bedeutet, dass der humanistische Ansatz unterstützt wird, welcher zeigt, dass Selbstverwirklichung und kreative Fähigkeiten nicht unmittelbar auf ähnliche Persönlichkeitseigenschaften zurückzuführen sind.
Thinkers, philosophers and mundane management personnel have worked on the concept and tried to decipher the aura around ‘self-actualized’ people and whether such people can contribute to the overall objectives of a group. In every society, there are some parameters which are perceived to be success. It can be possession of properties, or wealth, or positions of power, or fame. We, often, pursue the goals which confirm to the society standards. Amidst the worldly routines and our quest to pursue the society confirmed goals we sometimes forget what we are actually and thereby, forgoing ‘self-actualization need’. Even upon extensive review of literature on the subject, very few studies could be found wherein, empirically, nature of relationship between the age of an employee and self-actualization need of the employees could be established. Further, no such study interlinking self-actualization need and age of the employees has been conducted in India. Thus, in order to find explore the linkage between age of an employee and self-actualization need, this empirical study has been embarked upon.
This research reports the development of a 15-item index of self-actualization that will be useful in research contexts. The index is based primarily on modified items from the most widely accepted measure of self-actualization, the Personal Orientation Inventory. The index had a significant correlation with this inventory (r = .67, p < .001). It also correlated as expected with measures of self-esteem, rational behavior and beliefs, neuroticism, and extraversion. The index discriminated between groups of people nominated as self-actualizing and as non-self-actualizing. There were no problems with response sets, and the index was resistant to "faking good." Weaknesses of the scale are discussed as well as means to overcome these weaknesses.
It has been over twelve years since the publication of Everett Shostrom's "Personal Orientation Inventory" (POI). During this time, the Manual has served as the single source of information concerning the POI.
The most current bibliography for the POI, contained at the back of this volume, will still serve as the major guide to the interested researcher seeking original sources to research on specific topics. However, the availability of a broad overview of research results in a single source should serve a practical purpose to those interested in the concept of actualizing.
At the outset no claim is made to the extension of the theoretical model in the pages of this volume. Everett Shostrom's lead in this regard is acknowledged and it is assumed that those reading this volume will have already read his primary text and companion volume, "Actualizing Therapy: Foundations for a Scientific Ethic." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"A Personal Orientation Inventory utilizing scores of relative time competence, relative inner-and other-directedness, and 10 additional subscales has been developed. Validation studies show a definite trend in discriminating self-actualized, normal, and non-self-actualized groups on these dimensions." The mean for the self-actualized group was above the norm mean, whereas the mean for the non-self-actualized group was below. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
How family, school, and social background contribute to the self-identity and subsequent self-concept and self-esteem of highly
gifted individuals may be related to whether or not they eventually self-actualize. The author examined factors that possibly
relate to the development of individuals who are self-actualized; and which, if any of these factors, are predictors of highly
principled moral reasoning development. Forty-one case studies were analyzed using characteristics of emotional and moral
reasoning stages outlined by Erikson, Maslow, Dabrowski, Kohlberg, and Rest. Findings indicate that self-actualization that
follows inner transformation is highly correlated with advanced levels of moral reasoning. Such people are not necessarily
happier or more successful in careers than subjects who attain lower emotional and moral reasoning growth. There was a significant
correlation between scores on Rest's Defining Issues Test (DIT) and Dabrowski's and Kohlberg's stages of development. New terms for the study, Searcher and Nonsearcher, appeared to
correlate with developmental levels, with Searchers being more likely to eventually self-actualize. Evidence exists that people
can become Searchers. Emotional, physical, or sexual abuse in childhood was highly related to both lower and higher DIT scores
and Dabrowski levels among highly gifted adults. Those who overcame persistent bitterness over abuse were more likely to become
Searchers and eventually self-actualize. Those who do not experience inner transformation but are “good people” and career
self-actualizers are generally in the Conventional (Kohlberg) or Stereotypical (Dabrowski) levels of development. Finally,
subjects' perceptions that someone significant to them cared about them or respected them emerged as a significant positive
factor in those who eventually self-actualized.
Technologies are being developed and promoted with the aim of improving the health and quality of life of older adults, but
often without analyzing or planning around the human needs of users. Abraham Maslow’s model of the hierarchy of needs proposes
that people seek to satisfy progressively higher human needs, starting with physical needs like food and shelter, and advancing
through safety and security, belonging and love, esteem, and self-actualization. Each of these levels of need has relevance
for aging-related technologies. Lack of attention to user needs may be one factor that explains the limited adoption of many
aging-related technologies. It is important to consider the users’ current levels of need, the different needs of patients
and caregivers, the degrees of behavioral change expected at different levels of need, and the unintended consequences of
technologies. Insights from Maslow’s model can help developers, researchers, providers, and consumers in the process of producing,
evaluating, recommending, and purchasing technologies for older adults. One particular challenge is that assistive technologies
may undermine esteem needs by limiting independence. Scales to measure levels of need can help characterize which needs are
most relevant for different individuals, and can be used to ensure that technologies address users’ needs.
KeywordsAging–Gerontechnology–Technology–Assistive technology–Abraham Maslow–Human needs–Smart homes
Fundamental motives have direct implications for evolutionary fitness and orchestrate attention, memory, and social inference in functionally specific ways. Motivational states linked to self-protection and mating offer illustrative examples. When self-protective motives are aroused, people show enhanced attention to, and memory for, angry male strangers; they also perceive out-group members as especially dangerous. In contrast, when mating motives are aroused, men show enhanced attention to and memory for attractive members of the opposite sex; mating motives also lead men (but not women) to perceive sexual arousal in attractive members of the opposite sex. There are further functionally specific consequences for social behavior. For example, self-protective motives increase conformity among both men and women, whereas mating motives lead men (but not women) to engage in anticonformist behavior. Other motivational systems trigger different adaptive patterns of cognitive and behavioral responses. This body of research illustrates the highly specific consequences of fitness-relevant motivational states for cognition and behavior, and highlights the value of studying human motivation and cognition within an evolutionary framework.
Twenty-five residents (sixty-nine to ninety-three years old) of two Israeli homes for the elderly were investigated in order to see if there was a correlation between the creative attitude (self-actualizing personality) and the way of coping with the process of aging and attitude toward death. The results showed that the more creative-actualizing a personality, the better the coping with aging phenomena and the less denial of death.
The present study examined age, sex and personality correlates of self-actualization among older adults. The Personal Orientation Inventory and Personality Research Form were administered individually to 80 community men and women aged 56 yr.-84 yr. No main effect for sex was observed on inventory scores, but younger subjects (56 yr.-67 yr.) obtained higher scores than older subjects (68 yr.-84 yr.) on four subscales: Existentiality, Feeling Reactivity, Acceptance of Aggression and Capacity for Intimate Contact. Age was negatively correlated with Feeling Reactivity in both sexes; Inner-directedness decreased with age in men and Capacity for Intimate Contact diminished with age in women. For men, inventory scores were positively associated with the traits of Change and Endurance and negatively correlated with Abasement, Order and Succorance. For women, Impulsivity correlated positively and Order was associated negatively with scores on the inventory. These results suggest that the components of self-actualization are differentially influenced by age for men and women and that the traits accompanying self-actualization are sex-linked.
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