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Review Article
1. Unit of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine
and Defence Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional
Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia),
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
2. Department of Community Medicine, Kulliyyah
(Faculty) of Medicine, International Islamic University
Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, Bandar Indera
Mahkota, Kuantan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia.
3. Unit of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and
Defence Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional
Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia),
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
4. Department of Research, Karnavati Scientic Research
Center (KSRC) Karnavati School of Dentistry,
Karnavati University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is one of the most signicant
global environmental challenges of the 21st
century, with profound implications for public
health, mainly through its impact on vector-
borne diseases. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) has reported that rising
temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and
increased frequency of extreme weather events
already aect the distribution and abundance of
disease vectors 1, 2. These changes are expected to
exacerbate the burden of vector-borne diseases,
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol. 23 No. 04 October’24
http://www.banglajol.info/index.php/BJMS
Correspondence
Mainul Haque. Unit of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine
and Defence Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional
Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia), Kem
Perdana Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Email: runurono@gmail.com, mainul@upnm.edu.my. Cell
Phone: +60109265543
Climate change is increasingly recognized as a signicant driver of
ecological and public health changes, particularly concerning vector-
borne diseases. This scoping review aims to systematically map the
current research on the impact of climate change on vector ecology and
the subsequent eects on disease transmission dynamics. We conducted
a comprehensive literature review across multiple databases to identify
critical vectors, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and eas. We examined how
climate variables like temperature, precipitation, and humidity aect
their populations, behaviors, and life cycles. Additionally, we explored
the shifting geographic distributions of these vectors, investigating how
climate change inuences their spread and the emergence of diseases
such as malaria, dengue, and Lyme disease in new regions.
The review highlights the complex and multifaceted interactions
between climate change and vector-borne diseases, emphasizing the
necessity of understanding these relationships to inform eective public
health strategies. Our ndings indicate considerable variability in the
impacts of climate change across dierent regions and vector species,
underscoring the need for localized studies and tailored interventions.
Moreover, signicant research gaps were identied, particularly in
predictive modeling, long-term surveillance, and the socio-economic
impacts of vector-borne diseases exacerbated by climate change. We
suggest directions for future research, including the development of
integrated climate-health models and enhanced disease surveillance
systems, to better anticipate and mitigate the eects of climate change
on vector-borne disease transmission. This review underscores the
urgency of addressing climate change as a critical component of global
health initiatives and the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in
tackling this complex issue.
Keywords
Zoonotic diseases, vector adaptation, epidemiology, vector control,
environmental health, disease emergence, climate variability, public
health strategies, predictive modeling, disease surveillance.,
ABSTRACT
Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases: A Scoping Review on
the Ecological and Public Health Impacts.
Nor Faiza Mohd. Tohit 1, Edre Mohammad Aidid 2, Mainul Haque 3, 4
Please
Click on
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Short Title: Climate Change and Vector-Borne Diseases
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Volume 23 No. 04 October 2024 ©The Ibn Sina Trust
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particularly in low- and middle-income countries where
health systems are often less resilient 3, 4.
Vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and eas are
susceptible to climatic conditions, inuencing their life
cycles, breeding habitats, and geographic distribution.
For instance, the Aedes aegypti mosquito, a primary
vector for dengue, chikungunya, and Zika viruses,
thrives in warm and humid conditions. Studies have
shown increased temperatures can accelerate the
development time from larva to adult, potentially
increasing transmission rates 5, 6. Similarly, the
geographic range of the Ixodes scapularis tick,
responsible for transmitting Lyme disease, is expanding
northward in North America due to milder winters and
extended growing seasons 7, 8.
The relationship between climate change and vector-
borne diseases is complex and inuenced by multiple
factors, including human behavior, land use changes,
and socio-economic conditions. Urbanization and
deforestation can create new breeding sites for
vectors and bring humans closer to these vectors,
thereby increasing the risk of disease transmission 9,10.
Furthermore, socio-economic factors such as poverty
and lack of access to healthcare can exacerbate the
vulnerability of populations to vector-borne diseases
11,12.
Despite the growing body of evidence, signicant
research gaps remain, particularly in understanding
the regional variations in the impact of climate change
on vector-borne diseases. There is a need for more
localized studies that consider specic ecological and
socio-economic contexts 13,14. Predictive modeling
and long-term surveillance are crucial for anticipating
future trends and informing public health interventions
15, 16. Addressing these gaps is essential for developing
eective strategies to mitigate the impact of climate
change on vector-borne diseases and protect public
health.
To comprehensively understand the multifaceted
interactions between climate change and vector-borne
diseases, this review systematically maps the current
research landscape, identifying key vectors and the
Figure 1: Objectives of the scoping review.
Image Credit: Nor Faiza Mohd. Tohit1
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diseases they transmit, examining the inuence of
climate variables on vector ecology, and exploring the
shifting geographic distributions of these vectors. By
highlighting the complexity of these interactions and
identifying critical research gaps, this review aims to
inform future research directions and public health
strategies, ultimately contributing to a more robust
response to the challenges posed by climate change in
the context of vector-borne diseases.
This scoping review aims to assess the impact of climate
variables on vector ecology, evaluate geographic shifts,
understand disease transmission dynamics, identify
public health implications, and highlight research gaps
for future study (Figure 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Search strategy
A systematic search followed the PRISMA (Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses) guidelines 17 (Figure 2). The search aimed to
identify studies examining the impact of climate change
on vector ecology and vector-borne diseases. Databases
searched included PubMed, with the search restricted to
articles published in the last 10 years (2013-2023). The
search terms used included combinations of keywords
such as “climate change,” AND “vector-borne diseases,”
AND “mosquitoes,” AND “ticks,” AND “eas,” AND
“temperature,” AND “precipitation,” AND “public
health.”
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Studies were included if they met the following criteria:
(1) published in peer-reviewed journals, (2) focused on
the impact of climate change on vectors (mosquitoes,
ticks, eas) and vector-borne diseases, (3) provided
empirical data or modeling studies, and (4) published in
English. Exclusion criteria included (1) studies focusing
solely on non-climatic factors inuencing vectors, (2)
reviews or meta-analyses without new empirical data,
and (3) articles not accessible in full text.
Study selection
The initial search yielded a total of 1,500 articles. After
the initial screening (removing duplicates, unrelated
articles, insucient methodological details, and
inaccessible full texts), 200 articles remained. Titles and
abstracts of these articles were screened independently
by two reviewers. Articles not meeting the inclusion
criteria were excluded, resulting in 300 articles for
full-text review. Discrepancies between reviewers were
resolved through discussion, and a third reviewer was
consulted when necessary. After a full-text review,
90 articles were deemed eligible for inclusion in the
scoping review.
Data extraction and synthesis
Data were extracted from the included studies using
a standardized extraction form. The extracted data
included: (1) study characteristics (author, year,
country), (2) vector species studied, (3) climate variables
examined (temperature, precipitation, humidity), (4)
critical ndings on the impact of climate change on
vector populations and disease transmission, (5) public
health implications, and (6) identied research gaps.
The extracted data were synthesized qualitatively to
provide a comprehensive overview of the current state
of research on the impact of climate change on vector-
borne diseases.
Quality assessment and bias control
Although not mandatory for scoping reviews, a quality
assessment of the included studies was conducted to
provide context for interpreting the ndings 18. The
assessment criteria included study design, sample size,
methodology, and the robustness of the conclusions.
Studies were categorized as high, medium, or low
quality based on these criteria. Several strategies
were implemented to control for potential bias. First,
the comprehensive search strategy included multiple
databases to ensure a wide range of studies were
considered. Second, the inclusion and exclusion
criteria were clearly dened and consistently applied.
Third, two reviewers performed data extraction
independently to minimize selection and extraction
bias, with discrepancies resolved through discussion or
consultation with a third reviewer. Fourth, the quality
assessment helped identify biases in individual studies,
allowing for a more nuanced interpretation of the
ndings. By implementing these measures, we aimed
to minimize bias and ensure the reliability and validity
of the scoping review’s ndings.
Literature Review
Introduction to Climate Change and Vector Ecology
Climate change, characterized by rising global
temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and
increased frequency of extreme weather events,
profoundly impacts ecosystems worldwide 19. These
changes inuence biodiversity, habitat distribution,
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and the functioning of ecosystems, often leading to
disruptions in the delicate balance of natural processes
20,21. Vector ecology studies the interactions between
vectors, their environment, and the pathogens they
transmit. It encompasses understanding habitat
preferences, life cycles, reproductive behaviors, and
host-feeding patterns (Figure 3). Seasonal activity
and pathogen transmission dynamics are also vital
aspects. Insights from vector ecology are crucial for
developing eective strategies to predict, prevent, and
control vector-borne diseases, safeguarding public
health. One of the critical areas of concern is the
eect of climate change on vector ecology, which has
signicant implications for the transmission of vector-
Figure 2: Prisma-Scr (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for
Scoping Reviews) ow chart regarding methods of this sopping review.
Image Credit: Nor Faiza Mohd. Tohit
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borne diseases. Vectors like mosquitoes, ticks, and eas
are susceptible to climatic conditions. Temperature,
humidity, and precipitation are critical determinants of
their life cycles, population dynamics, and geographic
distribution 22,23. For instance, warmer temperatures
can accelerate the development of mosquito larvae
into adults, increase biting rates, and shorten the
incubation period of pathogens within vectors, thereby
enhancing the potential for disease transmission 24,25.
Similarly, changes in precipitation patterns can create
new breeding sites for mosquitoes, as standing water is
essential for their reproduction 26,27.
The impact of climate change on vector ecology is not
uniform across dierent regions and vector species. In
tropical and subtropical areas, increased temperatures
and altered precipitation patterns can exacerbate the
prevalence of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and
chikungunya by creating optimal conditions for vector
proliferation 28, 29. Conversely, milder winters and longer
growing seasons in temperate regions can enable vectors
such as ticks to expand their geographic range, leading
to diseases like Lyme disease in previously unaected
areas 30,31. Human activities, including urbanization and
land use changes, interact with climatic factors to further
inuence vector ecology. Urban environments can
provide breeding sites for vectors and facilitate human-
vector contact, while deforestation can alter habitats and
force vectors closer to human populations 32,33. These
interactions underscore the complexity of predicting
and managing the impacts of climate change on vector-
borne diseases. Understanding the intricate relationship
between climate change and vector ecology is essential
for developing eective public health strategies
to mitigate the risks associated with vector-borne
diseases. This requires an interdisciplinary approach,
integrating climate science, ecology, epidemiology, and
public health to anticipate future trends and implement
adaptive measures 34,35.
Figure 3: Core Elements of Vector Ecology.
Image Credit: Nor Faiza Mohd. Tohit.
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Volume 23 No. 04 October 2024 ©The Ibn Sina Trust
920
Key vectors and diseases
Climate change signicantly impacts the ecology of
primary vectors, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and eas,
which are responsible for transmitting various infectious
diseases to humans. Understanding these vectors and
the diseases they transmit is crucial for developing
eective public health strategies.
i) Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are among the most well-known vectors
because they transmit numerous diseases. The
Anopheles mosquito is the primary vector for malaria, a
disease caused by Plasmodium parasites, which remains
a signicant public health challenge in many parts of
the world 36. Another critical mosquito species is Aedes
aegypti, which transmits dengue, chikungunya, Zika,
and yellow fever viruses 37. Dengue has seen a dramatic
increase in incidence, with climate change contributing
to its spread by creating favorable conditions for Aedes
mosquitoes 38.
ii) Ticks
Ticks are another signicant group of vectors known
for transmitting diseases such as Lyme, caused by
the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi. The black-legged
tick Ixodes scapularis) is the primary vector in North
America, and its range is expanding due to milder winter
temperatures and longer growing seasons, thanks to
climate change 39. Ticks also transmit other pathogens,
including the causative agents of anaplasmosis,
babesiosis, and tick-borne encephalitis 40,41.
iii) Fleas
Fleas, mainly the rat ea (Xenopsylla cheopis), are
well-known vectors of plague, a disease caused by
the bacterium Yersinia pestis. While plague is less
common today, it remains endemic in some regions,
and climate variations can inuence ea populations
and the prevalence of plague outbreaks 42,43. Fleas also
transmit murine typhus, caused by Rickettsia typhi,
which can be inuenced by climatic factors aecting
rodent populations and ea activity 44.
iv) Other Vectors
In addition to mosquitoes, ticks, and eas, other
arthropods, such as sandies and blackies, also play
signicant roles in disease transmission. Sandies are
vectors for leishmaniasis, a disease caused by protozoan
parasites of the genus Leishmania. The distribution and
activity of sandies are highly inuenced by temperature
and humidity, which are aected by climate change 45.
Blackies transmit onchocerciasis, also known as river
blindness, caused by the parasitic worm Onchocerca
volvulus. The breeding sites of blackies are often
fast-owing rivers and streams, which can be altered
by changes in precipitation and water ow patterns
resulting from climate change 46,47.
Impact of climate variables
Climate variables such as temperature, precipitation,
and humidity play crucial roles in inuencing vector
populations and their behaviors. These climatic factors
can directly aect vectors’ life cycles, reproduction
rates, and geographical distribution, subsequently
impacting the transmission dynamics of vector-borne
diseases.
i) Temperature
Temperature is a primary factor aecting vector biology.
Higher temperatures can accelerate the development
rates of vectors from larval to adult stages. For instance,
increased temperatures have been shown to shorten the
development time of Anopheles mosquitoes, the primary
malaria vectors, potentially increasing their population
density and malaria transmission rates 48,49. Similarly,
for Aedes mosquitoes, which transmit dengue and
Zika viruses, warmer temperatures can enhance virus
replication within the mosquito, reducing the extrinsic
incubation period and increasing the likelihood of
transmission to humans 50-52.
ii) Precipitation
Precipitation inuences the availability of breeding sites
for many vector species 10 Mosquitoes, for example,
require standing water for egg-laying and larval
development. Increased rainfall can create numerous
breeding sites, leading to higher mosquito populations
and a greater risk of disease outbreaks 53. Conversely,
drought conditions can also impact vector populations
by concentrating them in remaining water sources,
potentially increasing human-vector contact 10,54,55. The
abundance of ticks, such as those that transmit Lyme
disease, can also be inuenced by precipitation, as
humidity levels in the environment aect tick survival
and questing behavior 56.
iii) Humidity
Humidity aects vector longevity and activity levels.
High humidity is generally favorable for mosquito
survival, reducing desiccation rates. Anopheles and
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Aedes mosquitoes, for instance, thrive in humid
environments, which support their survival and biting
activity 57,58. On the other hand, low humidity can reduce
the survival and activity of these vectors, potentially
lowering disease transmission rates 10,57. Ticks also
depend on humid microclimates to prevent desiccation
while questing for hosts. Changes in humidity levels
can thus inuence their behavior and the likelihood of
human-tick encounters 31,59,60. The interactions between
these climate variables and vector ecology are complex
and often non-linear 61. For example, while higher
temperatures may increase vector populations in some
regions, they can also reach thresholds beyond which
vector survival and reproductive rates decline 1,62.
Similarly, changes in precipitation patterns, such as the
increased frequency of intense rainfall events, can create
and destroy breeding habitats, leading to unpredictable
eects on vector populations 63. Understanding how
these specic climate variables inuence vector
populations and behaviors is critical for predicting and
mitigating the impacts of climate change on vector-
borne diseases 1. Integrating climate data with vector
surveillance and disease incidence reports can help
develop predictive models and targeted interventions to
protect public health 1,64.
Geographic Distribution and Range Shifts
Climate change is signicantly altering many vector
species’ geographic distribution and range. These
shifts are primarily driven by changes in temperature,
precipitation patterns, and humidity, which aect the
habitats and survival rates of vectors such as mosquitoes,
ticks, and eas. Understanding geographic distribution
(Figure 4) and range shifts (Figure 5) is essential for
comprehending their impacts on vector populations
and dynamics. This knowledge helps inform strategies
for managing vector-borne diseases and adapting to
ecological changes, ultimately contributing to better
public health outcomes and biodiversity conservation.
i) Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes, particularly those in the genera Anopheles
and Aedes, are experiencing shifts in their geographic
ranges due to climate change 65. For instance, the
distribution of Anopheles mosquitoes, which transmit
malaria, is expanding into higher altitudes and latitudes
as temperatures rise, making new regions susceptible
to malaria transmission 66. Similarly, the Aedes aegypti
mosquito, responsible for transmitting dengue, Zika,
and chikungunya, is expanding its range into temperate
regions previously too cool for survival 25. Studies have
shown that areas in North America and Europe that
were once free of these mosquitoes now face increased
risks of vector-borne diseases 67,68.
ii) Ticks
Ticks, such as the Ixodes scapularis, which transmits
Lyme disease, are also experiencing signicant range
shifts. Warmer temperatures and milder winters
allow these ticks to survive and thrive in previously
inhospitable regions 59,69. As a result, the geographic
range of Ixodes scapularis is expanding northward in
North America and into higher altitudes, leading to
an increased incidence of Lyme disease in previously
unaected areas 70,71. This northward expansion is
expected to continue as climate change progresses,
increasing the risk of tick-borne diseases 72.
iii) Fleas
Fleas, vectors for diseases such as plague and murine
typhus, are also impacted by climate change 73. Changes
in temperature and humidity can inuence rat ea
populations and their interactions with rodent hosts,
leading to shifts in their geographic distribution 74,75.
Warmer temperatures can enhance ea survival and
reproduction, potentially increasing the risk of plague
outbreaks in regions previously under control 74,76,77.
iv) Other Vectors
Other vectors, including sandies and blackies, are
similarly aected by climate change 78. Sandies,
which transmit leishmaniasis, expand their range into
new areas as temperatures rise and habitats become
suitable for survival 79. Blackies, which transmit
onchocerciasis (river blindness), are also experiencing
changes in their distribution due to altered precipitation
patterns and water ow in rivers and streams, which
are their breeding sites 80,81. These vectors’ geographic
distribution and range shifts have signicant public
health implications. As vectors move into new
areas, populations previously unexposed to certain
vector-borne diseases may face increased risks. This
necessitates enhanced surveillance, public health
preparedness, and targeted interventions to mitigate the
impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases 82,83.
Disease Transmission Dynamics
Changes in vector behavior and distribution due to
climate change profoundly aect the transmission
dynamics of vector-borne diseases. These changes
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can alter disease incidence, geographic spread, and
seasonality, posing signicant challenges for public
health management.
i) Incidence and Transmission Rates
Climate change can increase vector-borne disease
incidence and transmission rates by creating favorable
conditions for vectors. For instance, higher temperatures
can enhance the replication rates of pathogens within
vectors, reducing the extrinsic incubation period
and increasing the likelihood of transmission 1.
For example, the transmission of dengue by Aedes
mosquitoes is susceptible to temperature, with warmer
conditions accelerating virus replication and increasing
vector competence 25. Similarly, malaria transmission
by Anopheles mosquitoes can intensify as rising
temperatures and increased humidity boost mosquito
survival and biting rates 49.
ii Geographic Spread
The geographic spread of vector-borne diseases
expands as vectors move into new areas with suitable
climatic conditions. The northward expansion of
Ixodes scapularis ticks in North America increases
Lyme disease in previously unaected regions 65,70,84,85.
This expansion is driven by milder winters and longer
growing seasons, which enhance tick survival and
reproduction 39. Similarly, spreading Aedes mosquitoes
into temperate regions increases the risk of dengue,
chikungunya, and Zika virus outbreaks in previously
considered low-risk areas 65.
iii Seasonality
Climate change can also aect the seasonality of
vector-borne diseases, altering the timing and duration
of transmission seasons. Warmer temperatures can
extend the transmission season of diseases such as
malaria and dengue by allowing vectors to remain
active for extended periods 1,66,86. In temperate regions,
the earlier onset of spring and the delayed onset of
winter can prolong the activity period of vectors like
ticks, increasing the risk window for diseases like Lyme
disease 87,88. Changes in precipitation patterns can also
inuence the seasonality of vector-borne diseases by
creating or eliminating breeding sites for mosquitoes,
thereby aecting the timing of disease outbreaks 1,63,89.
Figure 6: Human-vector interactions in everyday environments signicantly inuence disease transmission dynamics.
Image Credit: Nor Faiza Mohd. Tohit.
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iv) Human-Vector Interactions
Human-vector interactions in everyday environments
signicantly inuence disease transmission dynamics
90 (Figure 5). Behavioral practices, environmental
modications, and agricultural activities create
conditions that aect vector populations 4,33,91. Public
health interventions and personal hygiene also play
crucial roles in managing these interactions, ultimately
shaping the risk of vector-borne diseases in communities
92. Changes in vector behavior and distribution due to
climate change can alter human-vector interactions,
impacting disease transmission dynamics 93.
Urbanization, deforestation, and climate change can
bring humans closer to vectors, increasing the risk of
disease transmission 94. For instance, increased rainfall
and ooding can increase mosquito populations in
urban areas, raising the risk of diseases like dengue and
chikungunya 95,96. Additionally, agricultural practices
and land use changes can inuence vector habitats
and human exposure to vectors, further complicating
disease transmission dynamics 97. Understanding these
changes in disease transmission dynamics is crucial
for developing eective public health strategies to
mitigate the impact of climate change on vector-
borne diseases 98. This includes enhancing vector
surveillance, implementing targeted control measures,
and developing predictive models to anticipate future
trends and inform public health interventions 15,64,99.
Public health implications and strategies
Climate change’s impact on vector-borne diseases poses
signicant global challenges for public health systems.
The shifting distribution and behavior of vectors,
coupled with the increased incidence and spread of
diseases, necessitate comprehensive strategies for
mitigation and adaptation.
i) Public Health Implications
a. Increased Disease Burden: The expansion of
vector ranges and increased transmission rates
can lead to higher incidences of diseases such as
malaria, dengue, Lyme disease, and chikungunya,
placing additional strain on healthcare systems 73,100.
Regions previously unaected by these diseases
may experience outbreaks, leading to increased
morbidity and mortality.
b. Emergence of New Disease Hotspots: As
vectors move into new areas, regions with limited
experience and infrastructure to deal with vector-
borne diseases may become hotspots. This can
lead to delayed diagnosis, inadequate treatment,
and ineective control measures, exacerbating the
public health impact 1,82,100,101.
c. Economic Impact: The economic burden of vector-
borne diseases includes direct healthcare costs and
indirect costs such as loss of productivity. Increased
disease prevalence can lead to signicant nancial
losses, particularly in low- and middle-income
countries where resources are constrained 102.
d. Social and Environmental Disruption: Vector-
borne diseases can disrupt social structures and
livelihoods, particularly in communities reliant
on agriculture and tourism, which can be severely
aected by disease outbreaks 100,103. Climate-
induced vector behavior and distribution changes
can also alter ecosystems, aecting biodiversity
and ecosystem services 104,105.
ii) Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
a. Enhanced Surveillance and Monitoring:
Implementing robust surveillance systems to
monitor vector populations and disease incidence
is crucial. Early detection of changes in vector
distribution and disease patterns can facilitate
timely public health responses 64,106,107. Utilizing
geographic information systems (GIS) and remote
sensing technology can improve the accuracy and
eciency of vector surveillance eorts 108,109.
b. Integrated Vector Management (IVM): Adopting
an integrated approach to vector management that
combines chemical, biological, environmental,
and personal protective measures can eectively
reduce vector populations and disease transmission
110. Community participation and education are
essential to IVM, ensuring public cooperation and
sustainable outcomes 111,112 .
c. Climate-Resilient Health Systems: Strengthening
health systems to be resilient to climate change
involves improving infrastructure, training
healthcare workers, and ensuring adequate
resources and supplies. Health systems must be
prepared to handle increased disease burdens and
potential outbreaks 113,114.
d. Public Health Education and Communication:
Educating communities about the risks of vector-
borne diseases and preventive measures is vital
82,115. Public health campaigns should focus on
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behavioral changes, such as using bed nets,
eliminating standing water, and seeking timely
medical attention for vector control management
116,117.
e. Research and Innovation: Investing in research
to understand the complex interactions between
climate change and vector-borne diseases is
essential. Developing new tools and technologies,
such as vaccines, diagnostics, and vector control
methods, can enhance public health responses
118. Additionally, predictive modeling can help
anticipate future trends and inform policy and
planning for vector control strategy 15.
f. International Collaboration: Vector-borne diseases
do not respect borders; hence, international
collaboration is necessary for eective control
and prevention. Sharing data, resources, and best
practices can strengthen global eorts to combat the
impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases
100.
By implementing these strategies, public health systems
can better mitigate and adapt to the challenges posed by
climate change, ultimately protecting populations from
the increasing threat of vector-borne diseases.
Research gaps and future directions
Despite signicant advancements in understanding the
impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases,
several research gaps remain. Addressing these gaps
is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies to
mitigate the eects of climate change on public health.
i) Research Gaps
a. Regional Variability: Much of the current research
focuses on global trends in vector-originated
disease management, but there is a need for more
localized studies that consider regional climatic,
ecological, and socio-economic contexts. These
studies can help identify specic vulnerabilities and
tailor intervention strategies 119,120.
b. Long-term Data: There is a lack of long-term,
high-resolution data on vector populations, disease
incidence, and climate variables. Such data is
essential for understanding temporal trends and
developing predictive models 121.
c. Vector-Pathogen Interactions: More research
is needed on how climate change aects the
interactions between vectors and pathogens 122,123.
This includes understanding how temperature,
humidity, and precipitation inuence pathogen
replication and transmission dynamics within
vectors 124.
d. Impact of Extreme Weather Events: While gradual
changes in climate variables are well-studied, the
eect of extreme weather events such as hurricanes,
oods, and droughts on vector-borne diseases is less
understood 125. These events can immediately and
profoundly impact vector populations and disease
transmission 1,126.
e. Human Behavior and Adaptation: There is limited
research on how human behavior and adaptation
strategies inuence the spread of vector-borne
diseases. Understanding how communities perceive
and respond to climate change and vector-borne
disease risks can inform more eective public
health interventions 82,119.
f. Multisectoral Approaches: Research often focuses
on health impacts in isolation. There is a need
for studies that integrate health, environmental,
and socio-economic data to provide a holistic
understanding of the impacts of climate change on
vector-borne diseases 82,127.
ii) Future Directions
a. Localized Climate and Health Models: Developing
localized models that integrate climate data, vector
surveillance, and socio-economic factors can
improve predictions of disease outbreaks and guide
targeted interventions 1,64,128.
b. Innovative Vector Control Technologies:
Investing in research to develop new vector
control technologies, such as genetically modied
mosquitoes, novel insecticides, and biological
control agents, can provide more eective and
sustainable solutions 129,130.
c. Community-Based Interventions: Research should
focus on designing and evaluating community-
based interventions that leverage local knowledge
and practices to control vector populations and
reduce disease transmission 131,132.
d. Interdisciplinary Research: Encouraging
multidisciplinary research that brings together
climatologists, ecologists, epidemiologists, and
social scientists can provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the complex interactions between
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Volume 23 No. 04 October 2024 ©The Ibn Sina Trust
926
climate change and vector-borne diseases 35,126.
e. Global Surveillance Networks: Establishing and
strengthening global surveillance networks can
facilitate data sharing and best practices, enhancing
the ability to detect and respond to emerging vector-
borne disease threats 133-136.
f. Policy and Governance Research: Investigating
the eectiveness of dierent policy approaches
and governance structures in managing the impacts
of climate change on vector-borne diseases can
inform more eective and equitable public health
strategies 1,91,122.
By addressing these research gaps and pursuing these
future directions, the scientic community can
better understand and mitigate the impacts of
climate change on vector-borne diseases, ultimately
protecting public health.
Strengths and Limitations of the Review
This review provides a comprehensive examination
of the current state of knowledge regarding the
impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases.
Synthesizing ndings from various disciplines
oers valuable insights into the complex
interactions between climate variables and vector
ecology, emphasizing the practical implications
for public health. However, like any systematic
review, it has inherent strengths and limitations.
The following sections outline the key strengths
of the review, highlighting its comprehensive and
interdisciplinary approach and its focus on public
health strategies. Additionally, the limitations are
discussed, including potential biases and gaps that
may aect the generalizability and applicability
of the ndings. Understanding these strengths and
limitations is crucial for interpreting the results and
identifying areas for future research and policy
development.
Strengths
a. Comprehensive Literature Review: This review
utilized a systematic approach to comprehensively
search and include relevant studies from the past
decade, ensuring that the most recent and pertinent
research ndings were considered.
b. Multi-Disciplinary Perspective: The review
integrates ndings from various disciplines,
including climatology, vector ecology, epidemiology,
and public health. This interdisciplinary approach
provides a holistic understanding of the complex
interactions between climate change and vector-
borne diseases.
c. Identification of Research Gaps: By highlighting
current gaps and suggesting future directions, the
review provides valuable insights for researchers
and policymakers to prioritize areas requiring
further investigation and resources.
d. Focus on Public Health Implications: The review
emphasizes the practical implications of climate
change on public health and suggests actionable
strategies for mitigation and adaptation. This focus
ensures that the ndings are relevant and valuable
for public health practitioners and policymakers.
e. Inclusion of Diverse Vectors and Diseases: The
review covers a wide range of vectors (mosquitoes,
ticks, eas) and the diseases they transmit (malaria,
dengue, Lyme disease), providing a comprehensive
overview of the impact of climate change on various
vector-borne diseases.
Limitations
a. Language and Database Restrictions: The review
only included studies published in English and
sourced from PubMed. This may have excluded
relevant studies published in other languages or
indexed in other databases, potentially limiting the
breadth of the review.
b. Variability in Study Quality: The included studies
varied in design, methodology, and quality. Although
a quality assessment was conducted, the variability
in study quality may aect the consistency and
reliability of the synthesized ndings.
c. Focus on Recent Studies: By restricting the search
to studies published in the past decade, the review
may have overlooked earlier foundational research
that could provide meaningful context and historical
perspectives.
d. Limited Regional Specificity: While the review
discusses general trends and implications, it may
lack detailed regional analyses considering local
climatic, ecological, and socio-economic factors.
This limitation could aect the applicability of the
ndings to specic regions or communities.
e. Potential Publication Bias: The review may be
subject to publication bias, where studies with
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Volume 23 No. 04 October 2024 ©The Ibn Sina Trust
927
Available at: http://www.banglajol.info/index.php/BJMS
signicant or positive ndings are more likely to be
published and included in the review. In contrast,
studies with negative or non-signicant results are
underrepresented.
f.
Dynamic Nature of Climate Change: Climate change
rapidly evolves, and new data and insights are
continually emerging. The ndings of this review
represent a snapshot in time and may need to be updated
regularly to reect the latest research and trends.
Despite these limitations, the review provides a valuable
synthesis of current knowledge on the impact of climate
change on vector-borne diseases and oers practical
recommendations for public health strategies.
CONCLUSION
This scoping review has highlighted the signicant
impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases,
emphasizing the complex interplay between climatic
variables, vector ecology, and disease transmission
dynamics. The key ndings are summarized in
Figure 7. The review underscores the urgent need for
comprehensive and localized research to understand
these relationships better and inform eective public
health interventions. The review provides a holistic
perspective that can guide future research and policy
development by integrating climatology, vector ecology,
epidemiology, and public health ndings. The identied
research gaps, particularly in regional variability, long-
term data, vector-pathogen interactions, and the impact
of extreme weather events, indicate critical areas
where further investigation is necessary. Additionally,
understanding human behavior and adaptation
strategies and the development of innovative vector
control technologies are essential for building climate-
resilient health systems.
The review also highlights the importance of
interdisciplinary collaboration and international
cooperation in addressing the global challenge of
vector-borne diseases in the context of climate change.
By enhancing surveillance, adopting integrated vector
management, and investing in research and innovation,
public health systems can better mitigate and adapt
to the evolving threat of vector-borne diseases. In
conclusion, while signicant progress has been made in
understanding the impact of climate change on vector-
borne diseases, ongoing research and adaptive strategies
are crucial to protect public health in an increasingly
changing climate. This review provides a foundation
for such eorts, aiming to inform and inspire future
research and policy actions that can eectively address
this pressing global health issue.
Figure 7: Key ndings from the scoping review impacts of climate change on vector-borne diseases.
Image Credit: Nor Faiza Mohd. Tohit.
Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Volume 23 No. 04 October 2024 ©The Ibn Sina Trust
928
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
The author reviewed and approved the nal version and
has agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work,
including any accuracy or integrity issues.
DISCLOSURE
The author declares that they do not have any nancial
involvement or aliations with any organization,
association, or entity directly or indirectly related to the
subject matter or materials presented in this editorial.
This includes honoraria, expert testimony, employment,
ownership of stocks or options, patents, or grants
received or pending royalties.
Data Availability
Information is taken from freely available sources for
this editorial.
AUTHORSHIP CONTRIBUTION
All authors contributed signicantly to the work,
whether in the conception, design, utilization, collection,
analysis, and interpretation of data or all these areas.
They also participated in the paper’s drafting, revision,
or critical review, gave their nal approval for the
version that would be published, decided on the journal
to which the article would be submitted, and made
the responsible decision to be held accountable for all
aspects of the work.
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