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The MMDAP: An Effective Model for Digital Pedagogy in the Social/Behavioral Sciences

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Abstract

Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the rapidly growing field of online education experienced an even greater surge, sparking increased interest in the particulars of effective digital pedagogy. Effective approaches include useful facilitator guidance, well-structured course design and productive instructor feedback. In addition, there is evidence to suggest the need for engaging learner exercises that leverage both the efficacy of traditional test-taking as well as self-referential reflection. While these previous studies point to the efficacy of multidimensional models encompassing these components, few have used assorted attitudinal assessments to gauge the progress students make while engaging with this work. Building on that scholarship, this study proposes and evaluates a new Multidimensional Model for Digital Asynchronous Pedagogy (MMDAP) that can be effectively utilized in teaching the social and behavioral sciences. This study blueprints a course design framework for the MMDAP and employs quasi-experimental research via one-group pretest-posttest analysis of attitudinal scales associated with course objectives to measure growth in students who engage in the MMDAP. Of the 256 pre/post attitudinal assessment sets collected, 218 (85%) indicated higher scores on post-assessments over pre-assessments, demonstrating an improvement in course-related attitudes and skill sets after completing said courses utilizing the MMDAP. This study’s findings support the notion that students perform better on measures of interpersonal communication competence, emotional intelligence, resilience, and social consciousness, after engaging in respective communications, psychology, resilience, and sociology courses utilizing the MMDAP framework. Published in The Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration.
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The MMDAP: An Effective Model for Digital Pedagogy in the Social/Behavioral Sciences
Dinorah Nieves
Rocky Mountain College of Art + Design
dnieves@rmcad.edu
Christopher W. Berg
Rocky Mountain College of Art + Design
Walden University, Riley College of Education and Human Sciences
cberg@rmcad.edu
Author Note
Dinorah Nieves https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1283-9870
Christopher Berg https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9251-6087
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dinorah Nieves,
Department of Liberal Arts, Rocky Mountain College of Art & Design, 1600 Pierce St,
Lakewood, CO 80214. E-mail: dnieves@rmcad.edu
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Abstract
Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the rapidly growing field of online education experienced
an even greater surge, sparking increased interest in the particulars of effective digital pedagogy.
Effective approaches include useful facilitator guidance, well-structured course design and
productive instructor feedback. In addition, there is evidence to suggest the need for engaging
learner exercises that leverage both the efficacy of traditional test-taking as well as self-
referential reflection. While these previous studies point to the efficacy of multidimensional
models encompassing these components, few have used assorted attitudinal assessments to gauge
the progress students make while engaging with this work. Building on that scholarship, this
study proposes and evaluates a new Multidimensional Model for Digital Asynchronous
Pedagogy (MMDAP) that can be effectively utilized in teaching the social and behavioral
sciences. This study blueprints a course design framework for the MMDAP and employs quasi-
experimental research via one-group pretest-posttest analysis of attitudinal scales associated with
course objectives to measure growth in students who engage in the MMDAP. Of the 256 pre/post
attitudinal assessment sets collected, 218 (85%) indicated higher scores on post-assessments over
pre-assessments, demonstrating an improvement in course-related attitudes and skill sets after
completing said courses utilizing the MMDAP. This study’s findings support the notion that
students perform better on measures of interpersonal communication competence, emotional
intelligence, resilience, and social consciousness, after engaging in respective communications,
psychology, resilience, and sociology courses utilizing the MMDAP framework.
keywords: online learning, social science, behavioral science, digital pedagogy, quasi-
experimental research, pretest-posttest, educational interventions
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The MMDAP: An Effective Model for Digital Pedagogy in the Social/Behavioral Sciences
In a recent article in U.S. News and World Report titled “How Online Learning is
Reshaping Higher Education,” the benefits of online learning discussed included cost-
effectiveness, accessibility, flexibility, and teacher and staff support akin to traditional brick-and-
mortar institutions (Fitzgerald, 2022). Don Kilburn, the CEO of UMass Online, observed, “I
think we are just at the beginning of the digital transformation” (Fitzgerald, 2022, para. 12). One
aspect of the digital transformation Kilburn alludes to is instruction.
Instructional decision-making at the individual faculty level, from textbook adoption to
course organization and structure, has a tremendous influence on student experience and
academic achievement and success. According to a June 2023 survey by McKinsey and
Company, U.S. students “value asynchronous classes, online program structure, and up-to-date
content the most in their online courses” (Mowreader, 2023, para. 5). In addition to student
values, there is sufficient research to suggest that pedagogy is most successful when promoting
an active learning approach. Important aspects of active learning that have been identified as
integral for effective online learning include self-assessment, reflection, self-directed learning,
problem-based learning, learner interaction, and feedback (Cook & Dupras, 2004). Building on
these premises, this study examines the appropriation of curated course materials, facilitator
guidance, and learner exercises as critical considerations when developing effective online
course content.
Curated Materials
As instructional gatekeepers, faculty determine the “day-to-day decisions concerning
both the subject matter and the experiences to which students have access” (Thornton, 1991, p.
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247). When curating materials for students, it is important to note the usefulness and
effectiveness of virtual, open resource texts. Some studies suggest that students prefer physical
textbooks over virtual texts (Millar and Schrier, 2015; Yoo & Roh, 2019). Relatedly, a
significant mixed methods study of 896 undergraduate biology students found a significant
correlation between student frustration with e-texts and the user experience, technical issues with
the e-text, and how the e-text fit within the wider curriculum (Novak, McDaniel, Daday, &
Soyturk, 2021). Furthermore, as Romig (2017) concluded, “A hard copy of the textbook was
seen by our students as a source of comfort and normality” (p. 182).
Still, digital textbooks and open educational resources (OER) are becoming more widely
accepted and accessible across disciplines (e.g., math, science, history). In fact, they’ve eclipsed
physical book sales (Romig, 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic helped to make alternatives to
printed textbook materials essential to the maintenance of education at all levels when physical
texts were unavailable due to extenuating circumstances. Despite digital textbooks and OER’s
growing importance in online learning, a survey by Seaman and Seaman (2019) found that over
50% of surveyed faculty were unaware of OER. Lee and Lee (2021), building on Hilton’s (2016)
important work, note the improved accessibility and functionality of the latest wave of OER and
the inherent safeguards they provide against a future educational crisis.
Digital textbooks have made progress in how they are packaged by publishers.
Rodríguez-Regueira and Rodríguez-Rodríguez (2022) bring attention to distinguishing between
first- and second-generation digital textbooks. The first generation are those that are merely the
original printed version in a digital format with limited digital accoutrements and the second
generation were designed with digital production and the user in mind to maximize the learning
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experience. Second generation digital textbooks, created with the user/student in mind, can
create immersive and interactive learning experiences that promote increased student
engagement with the material (Castro-Rodríguez, Mali & Mesa, 2022; Qin Sun &
Abdourazakou, 2018).
Facilitator Guidance
Teacher presence is an aspect of facilitator guidance that resonates with students.
Teachers and students perceive teacher presence differently according to the literature (Blaine,
2019; Gomez-Rey et al. 2016, Van der Klej, 2019; Zayac et al., 2021). A qualitative study
surveying 1,041 students and 18 teachers by Wang, Stein, and Shen (2021) revealed the theme of
Design and Organization as the highest rated by students and the theme of Facilitating Discourse
as the highest rated by teachers (though, interestingly, ranked lowest by students).
Related themes of interest are course organization and valuable course content: “An organized
course means communicating the course expectations clearly and precisely with students”
(Mohandas, Sorgenfrei, Drankoff, Sanchez, Furterer, Cudney, Laux, & Antony, 2022, p. 52).
Feedback is a key attribute of facilitator guidance that students recognize as central to
their learning experience (Berg, Shaw, Burrus, & Contento, 2019). The preferred method of
feedback in postsecondary education is written (Johannes & Haase, 2022). In an online setting,
narrative feedback tends to be more extensive and nuanced, according to Johnson, Stellmack,
and Barthel (2019) though that is not always the case where faculty might focus more on
“spelling errors and other corrections on writing mechanics” (Knight, Greenberger, &
McNaughton, 2021, p. 117). Borup, West, and Thomas (2015) observed that although feedback
timing and delivery are important, the content of the feedback is paramount (p. 163).
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In a qualitative study of 188 graduate students taking online courses, the highest ranked
facilitation strategies were instructors’ timely responses and feedback. Strategies were aimed at
“establishing instructor presence, instructor connection, engagement, and learning” (Martin,
Wang, & Sadaf, 2018, p. 52). Similarly, in a qualitative phenomenological study examining 15
faculty in STEM-related fields with global teaching and learning experience, one of the major
findings was timely feedback and response (Mohandas et al., 2022).
Learner Exercises
What does learning look like across the spectrum of academic disciplines? For decades it
has been associated with successful performance on testing tools and measures. Still effective in
promoting participation and preparation, regular online quizzing can help to secure desirable
academic outcomes (Marcell, 2008). Yet, in the social sciences, for instance, an equally and
often more desirable goal is to cultivate a mature understanding of the Self through the
development of empathy and reflection. Research has long confirmed the effectiveness of the
self-reference effect. Studies show that participants recalled significantly more self-referentially
encoded words than semantically encoded or structurally encoded words ” (Bentley, Greenaway
& Haslam, 2017, p.16). Encouraging students to become reflective empowers them to integrate
the material in useful and practical ways and challenge traditional learning models where rote
learning and passive, lecture-based teaching are privileged. Reflective learning can be a pathway
to “seeing the everyday from a different perspective than the norm and questioning it in the light
of the influences that social class, gender and ethnicity have on learning and on our assumptions
and preconceptions.” (Fullanaa, Palliscera, Colomerb, Peñac Pérez-Burrield, 2016, p. 1010).
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Allowing a space for students to engage with the material through a critical lens is
essential in an increasingly diverse and global environment. In social science courses, such as
communications, psychology, and sociology, for example, the human context is an important
consideration, leveraging reflective learning opportunities. “During reflection, learners'
emotional capacities are activated, which may lead to attitudinal changes to achieve constructive
learning” (Liu, Yin, Xu, & Zhang, 2021, p. 116). Liu et al. (2021) further argue that critical
reflection leads to superior learning outcomes and has advantages for attentional processes” (p.
115). Reflective learning is not without its challenges, however, as McGarr and O’Gallchóir
(2020) explain, as students calibrate responses to prompts to achieve an optimal result, thus
undermining the reflective learning process. How reflective exercises are communicated, framed,
and assessed are important considerations for online faculty.
Attitudinal Effects in Online Contexts
Asynchronous learning can be challenging for students (Anzari & Pratiwi, 2021;
Pulungan, Jaedun, & Retnawati, 2022). Studies have shown that online learning can present
difficulties for students ranging from issues with procrastination and effective time management
skills to decreased motivation and academic performance (Han, DiGiacomo, & Usher, 2023).
How courses are developed and presented to students is an important consideration in an online
learning environment (Mehall, 2020).
The way a class is structured can provide natural scaffolding for students to improve “soft
skills”, such as emotional intelligence (EI), self-efficacy, and interpersonal skills, for instance
(Jeong, González-Gómez, Cañada-Cañada, Gallego-Picó, & Bravo; Tai, 2016). De Leon-Pineda
(2022) found that through intentional online course design and specific instructional
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interventions, increased self-awareness, a sense of belonging, and connection was achievable for
students. The author concludes, “educational institutions should have a conscious intention of
providing experiences that will allow students to develop their emotional intelligence (p. 395).
Some suggested strategies include modeling emotional intelligence, such as modifying
assignments and/or granting additional time, can be a powerful mechanism for building rapport
and trust with students, particularly in an online classroom (Majeski, Stover, Valais, & Ronch,
2017). “Specifically, we advocate that instructors model emotional intelligence through their
own behavior, and through the design, facilitation, and management of learning to help learners
develop this skill through observation” (Majeski et al., 2017, p. 136). Iqbal, Asghar, Ashraf, and
Xi (2022), confirm the necessity of incorporating emotional intelligence into the framework of
an online course, observing, “emotional intelligence…is a key factor in the academic life of
students” (p. 1).
In a study looking at the development of “soft skills” for workplace readiness in a
Management Information Systems course at a liberal arts college, Cotler and colleagues (2017)
concluded that this under-researched area shows considerable promise as direct instruction (i.e.,
workshops on self-awareness, empathy, etc.) paired with mindfulness techniques improved
students’ emotional intelligence. Similarly, in a LinkedIn survey of 38 online adjunct faculty,
Hamilton (2017) discovered that interpersonal skills were considered “a top priority” in
connection with the promotion of emotional intelligence (p. 2). Hamilton concluded:
there is research to support incorporating more EI into all levels of education including
higher education. The curriculum could be designed with emotional intelligence
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components in mind…the key to improving students’ EI might be to educate the
educators to regard EI as a crucial component in the field of education. (p. 3).
In a quantitative study of 865 undergraduate business major/minor students, Lindsey and Rice
(2015) found that the more online classes students took (e.g., zero, 1-4, 5+), the higher their
emotional intelligence. The authors suggest that one possible explanation is that “online
education provides students with additional opportunities not present in the traditional
environment. Online courses may offer more chances for the proper development of
interpersonal relationships and social skills…” (pp. 132-33). And, by extension, the use of
asynchronous tools, such as discussion boards, creates an “opportunity to provide thought-based,
provocative responses which might serve to not only enhance interpersonal skills and practice,
but also boost the development and maintenance of social relationships…” (p. 133). Thoughtful
consideration and planning are necessary for soft skills such as interpersonal communication to
flourish, according to Mehall (2020), who argued “quality instructional and social interaction
opportunities in online environments need to be deliberately designed into the course” (p. 186).
What does a good model for online course design look like? “[I]nteraction opportunities should
be designed in a way that allow students to interact with content, faculty, and other students in a
manner that is not fake or forced but meaningful and purposeful” (p. 185). When student
characteristics and challenges are factored into the design process, it sets students up for success.
As one researcher concluded, “Beliefs about self-efficacy also help determine how much effort
people invest in an activity, how long they endure when encountering obstacles, and how
resilient they will be in the face of adverse situations” (Tai, 2016, p. 119).
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Methods
The social and behavioral sciences encompass many disciplines including but not limited
to psychology, sociology, communications, and resilience studies. The leading researcher,
possessing graduate degrees in the aforementioned three disciplines (sociology, psychology, and
communications) was assigned to facilitate courses in each discipline under the role of Assistant
Professor of Liberal Arts at an art and design college in the western United States, under the
direct tutelage of the Head of Liberal Arts (second researcher).
Driven by the literature on effective digital pedagogy, inspired by transformative learning
theories and substantiated by the efficacy of blended learning models, the researchers developed
a framework for online course design, titled Multidimensional Model for Digital Asynchronous
Pedagogy (MMDAP). The model’s primary three pillars include curated materials, facilitator
guidance, and learner exercises (included here as Figure 1). Over the course of two academic
years (2021-2023), the lead researcher iterated on the model in response to student feedback,
academic quality control standards, and instructor trial and error.
Curated Materials are divided into 1) text: long form web-based academic text with
scholarly research that highlights theory and short form a relevant mainstream web article that
makes the theory relatable in todays world and 2) video demonstrations: long-form a film that
dramatizes the module's topic and its complexities -and- short form a Ted Talk/ music video
that provides insight on the module's materials.
The Facilitator Guidance is divided into five components: 1) A Coaching Video (1-2
min) Motivating students and connecting with students 2) A Content Overview Video (1-2
min) Introducing the module's content and spelling out the module’s main objectives 3)
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Resource Links life skills & self-care tips 4) Gamification Elements a course game map,
Progress percent tracker, badges earned 5) Assignment Feedback rubric grading, highlighted
submission strengths and opportunities, and student meetings by request.
The third pillar is Learner Exercises which is comprised of two major components: 1)
Midweek Assessments - Attitudinal Assessments (Pre/Post) - Week 1 & 8 and Reading
Assessments/Quizzes (Throughout) 2) End-of-week Reflections Aided by Daily Journaling &
Film Reflection Worksheets. These assignments vary in format, including Discussion Post
Reflections, Written Reflections, Creative/ Artistic Reflections, and Reflection Videos. A
detailed version of the MMDAP then, encompasses all aspects of each pillar (see Figure 2).
Figure 1
Three Pillars of the Multidimensional Model for Digital Asynchronous Pedagogy (MMDAP)
Curated Material
1) Text:
Long form web-based
academic text with scholarly
research that highlights
theory
Short form - a relevant
mainstream web article that
makes the theory relatable
in today's world
2) Video demonstrations:
Long form - a film that
dramatizes the module's
topic and its complexities
Short form - a ted talk/
music video that provides
insight on the module's
materials
Facilitator Guidance
1) A Coaching Video (1-2 min)
- Motivating students and
connecting with students
2) A Content Overview Video
(1-2 min) - Introducing the
module's content and
spelling out the modules
main objectives
3) Resource Links - life skills
& self-care tips
4) Gamification Elements A
course game map, Progress
percent tracker, Badges
earned
5) Assignment Feedback -
Rubric Grading, Highlighted
submission strengths and
opportunities and Student
meetings by request.
Learner Exercises
1) Midweek Assessments -
Attitudinal Assessments
(Pre/Post) - Week 1 & 8 and
Reading
Assessments/Quizzes
(Throughout)
2) End-of-week Reflections
Aided by Daily Journaling &
Film Reflection Worksheets.
These assignment vary in
format, including Discussion
Post Reflections, Written
Reflections, Creative/ Artistic
Reflections and Reflection
Videos.
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Figure 2
Detailed MMDAP
The research question posed then was as follows: Is there any evidence to suggest that
students engaged in the MMDAP, report attitudinal improvement related to course content?
The researchers hypothesized that given the literature substantiating the benefit of each modality,
a Multidimensional approach that combined these modalities would in fact yield beneficial
results for students. The research hypothesis was then stated as follows: Students who complete
courses utilizing the MMDAP will demonstrate a statistically significant increase in pre to post
scores on an associated attitudinal measure, indicating a benefit of course completion.
The leading researcher hence designed and utilized the MMDAP model to facilitate the
following courses: “Introduction to Sociology,” “Introduction to Psychology,” “Interpersonal
Communication,” and “Culture, Family, and Resilience.” Improved social consciousness,
Curated
Material
Long Form - Web-Based
Academic Text with Scholarly
Research That Highlights Theory
-AND-
Short Form - A Relevant
Mainstream Web Article That
Makes The Theory Relatable In
Today's World
Text:
Long Form - A Film That
Dramatizes The Module's Topic
And Its Complexities
-AND-
Short Form - A Ted Talk/ Music
Video That Provides Insight On
The Module's Materials
Video
Demonstrations:
Facilitator
Guidance
Coaching Video
(1-2 min)
Motivating students
Connecting with
students
Content Overview
Video
(1-2 min)
Introducing the week's
content
Spelling out the main
objectives
Resource Links
Life Skills & self-care
Tips
Gamification
Elements
Course game map
Progress percent tracker
Badges earned
Assignment
Feedback
Rubric Grading
Highlighted submission
strengths and
opportunities
Student meetings by
request
End-of-week Reflections (Sun)
Aided by Daily Journaling & Film
Reflection Worksheets
2
Discussion
Post
Reflections
2
Written
Reflections
2
Creative/
Artistic
Reflections
2
Reflection
Videos
Midweek
Assessments (Wed)
Attitudinal Assessments
(Pre/Post) - Week 1 & 8
Reading
Assessments/Quizzes
(Throughout)
Learner
Exercises
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emotional intelligence, interpersonal communication competence, and resilience skills were
determined to be the global learning outcomes of those courses respectively.
To evaluate the efficacy of the said model, the leading researcher employed psychometric
scales to assist in gauging student growth in relevant content areas throughout students’
participation in the eight weeks of each course. The research proposal was presented to the
university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). In accordance with U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services (HHS) requirements for exemptions (2018) from their “Basic HHS Policy
for Protection of Human Research Subjects,” the institution determined this study as “Exempt
Research,” meeting the following stated HHS criteria. First, it was shown to be “research,
conducted in established or commonly accepted educational settings, that specifically involves
normal educational practices that are not likely to adversely impact students’ opportunity to learn
required educational content or the assessment of educators who provide instruction (Office for
Human Research Protections, 2023, subpart d1). Secondly, it was deemed to be “research that
only includes interactions involving educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude,
achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures, or observation of public behavior
(Office for Human Research Protections, 2023, subpart d2). Thirdly, it also qualified as
“research involving benign behavioral interventions in conjunction with the collection of
information from an adult subject through verbal or written responses (Office for Human
Research Protections, 2023, subpart d3). In addition, this was all with, “the information obtained
is recorded by the investigator in such a manner that the identity of the human subjects cannot
readily be ascertained, directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects (Office for Human
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Research Protections, 2023, subpart d2i). Once the IRB exemption was granted, the study design
was refined.
Rationale for Quasi-Experimental Design
This study utilizes a one-group pretest-posttest, quasi-experimental research design to
explore the theory that the multidimensional model for digital asynchronous pedagogy
(MMDAP) may be positively correlated with improved scores on content-related attitudinal
assessments. While control group assisted experimental designs lead the industry standard for
measuring intervention effectiveness, “quasi-experimental designs can offset some ethical and
practical issues in true experiments, particularly random selection and assignment” (Barnes,
2019, p.90). Hence, a quasi-experimental research design was deemed appropriate in this context
in the interest of both practicality and ethics. Firstly, the rich data available to the lead researcher
by way of students enrolled in the course, presented a practical advantage over the various
known challenges associated with securing a control group for each course in question;
challenges of time, money, and instructor availability made securing a control group untenable
and impractical. More importantly, given the scholarly literature’s support of the pedagogical
components infused into the MMDAP (Fullanaa, Palliscera, Colomerb, Peñac Pérez-Burrield,
2016; Liu, Yin, Xu, & Zhang, 2021; McGarr and O’Gallchóir 2020), it is reasonable to suggest
that withholding effective teaching strategies from students who have entrusted the institution
and its faculty to provide the best possible education (simply for the purpose of creating control
groups) could be seen as a breach of good faith and deemed unethical. Accordingly, a quasi-
experimental design was employed.
As noted in the Encyclopedia of Social Measurement (2005):
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Quasi-experiments allow researchers to deal with serious social problems with scientific
rigor that, although not equal to that of randomized experiments, controls for many of the
most important threats to validity. In many instances, the gain in external validity from
adopting a quasi-experimental approach outweighs the loss in internal validity. (Linda,p.
255)
Thus, while this methodology does not provide the degree of internal validity assumed by
randomized experiments, its value should not be diminished or dismissed. Campbell and Stanley
(1963) draw attention to this sentiment when discussing how scrutiny of design validity can
“reduce willingness to undertake quasi-experimental designs, designs in which from the very
outset it can be seen that full experimental control is lacking” (p. 34). They go on to insist that:
From the standpoint of the final interpretation of an experiment and the attempt to fit it
into the developing science, every experiment is imperfect. What a check list of validity
criteria can do is to make an experimenter more aware of the residual imperfections in his
design so that on the relevant points he can be aware of competing interpretations of his
data” (Campbell & Stanley, 1963).
A reflection on these residual imperfections can be found in the “Limitations” section of this
research study. Those imperfections notwithstanding, a quasi-experimental research design was
implemented in this study as a informative and revealing manner of examining the correlation
between student engagement with the MMDAP and related attitudinal improvements.
Instruments and Procedures
Over the course of two years and 12 academic terms (each consisting of eight weeks),
256 pre/post comparison analyses were conducted of student surveys (across disciplines and
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scales respectively) collected at the start and end of each term. Respondents consisted of students
enrolled in courses taught by the lead researcher throughout the following terms: Spring A 2022
through Summer B 2023. This reflects seven sections of “Interpersonal Communication,” five
sections of “Introduction to Sociology,” two sections of “Introduction to Psychology,” and one
section of “Culture, Family and Resilience.” Each unique combination of student and course
symbolized a unique assessment opportunity. One student may have taken more than one of the
courses in question and would thus have been surveyed at different times about different
attitudes in different content areas. Each course survey is then deemed an assessment possibility.
Represented in this study are 86% of the total 299 assessment possibilities. While some students
took more than one course and are therefore included in the study multiple times, their
assessment represent 256 unique student-course combinations. Over the two years of
coursework, 43 (14%) assessment opportunities were excluded from the study, due to missing
pre or post-assessment scores. This included students who simply did not complete one or both
assessments as well as students who joined a course late or withdrew from a course early.
Attitudinal growth was measured using several content-specific scales across courses (see Table
1). For the assessment of emotional intelligence, the researcher utilized the scientifically valid
and reliable measure “The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)” – a thirty-
three item self-inventory designed to measure emotional intelligence across four subscales:
emotion perception, utilizing emotions, managing self-relevant emotions and managing others’
emotions (Schutte & Malouff, 1998).
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Table 1
Courses and Respective Attitudinal Assessments
Course
Outcome
Assessment
Citation
Introduction to
Psychology
Emotional
intelligence
The Schutte Self
Report
Emotional
Intelligence Test
(SSEIT)
Schutte &
Malouff,
1998
Resilience,
Culture & The
Family
Resilience
Skills
The CD-RISC-
10
Connor &
Davidson,
2003
Interpersonal
Communication
Improved
Interpersonal
Communication
Competence
Interpersonal
Communication
Competence
Self-Assessment
Spitzberg
&
Cupach,
1984
Introduction to
Sociology
Increased social
consciousness
The Social
Consciousness
Self-Assessment
Questionnaire
Nieves,
2022
To assess resilience skills, The CD-RISC-10” (a ten-item adaptation of “The Connor-
Davidson Resilience Scale”) was employed as a validated inventory (Connor & Davidson, 2003)
that measures resilience or how well one is equipped to bounce back after stressful events,
tragedy, or trauma.
For the assessment of interpersonal communication competence, students were given the
eighteen-item “Interpersonal Communication Competence Self-Assessment” (Spitzberg &
Cupach, 1984), built on the component model (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984) which explores the
three basic components of interpersonal communication competence as knowledge, skill, and
motivation.
Given the lack of validated scales to measure social consciousness, the “Interpersonal
Communication Competence Self-Assessment” (Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984) was adapted to a
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18
corresponding eighteen-item self-report measure inquiring about respondent empathy,
compassion, community activism, and an understanding of a relationship between society and
the self (Nieves, 2022). The “Interpersonal Communication Competence Self-Assessment”
already explored various relevant concepts including self-awareness and empathy, rendering a
strong choice for adaptation. All assessment responses operated on a Likert scale with attached
numerical values and total sums signifying “scores” in each measure of either social
consciousness, emotional intelligence, resilience skills, or interpersonal communication
competence. Scores at the beginning of each term were compared with scores at the end of each
term (on the same measure) to evaluate change in respondent attitude. Again, of the 299 unique
assessment opportunities, 256 (86%) completed sets of pre and post-assessments were collected
from students across the four courses.
Results
Two hundred, and fifty-six sets of (pre and post) assessments were collected from
students in a span of two years across 12 sections of courses, representing four content areas,
taught by the lead researcher. Fourteen sets were collected in 2021, 148 sets were collected in
2022 and 94 were collected in 2023 (see Table 2).
Table 2
Number of Student Assessments Per Year
Year
Number of Students Assessments
2021
14
2022
148
2023
94
Total
256
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
19
The data set included various assessment types such as The Connor-Davidson Resilience
Scale-10 (n=16), The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (n=27), The Interpersonal
Communication Competence Self-Assessment (n=94), and The Social Consciousness Self-
Assessment Questionnaire (n=119, see Table 3).
Table 3
Number and Types of Student Assessments Per Course
Course
Assessment Scale
Number of
Students
Interpersonal
Communication
The Interpersonal Communication Competence Self-
Assessment
94
Introduction to Sociology
The Social Consciousness Self-Assessment
Questionnaire
119
Introduction to
Psychology
The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test
27
Culture, Family &
Resilience
The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-10
16
Total
256
Of the 256 sets collected, 218 (85%), showed higher scores on post-assessments than
scored on pre-assessments, suggesting an increase and/or improvement in the attribute assessed
(see Table 4).
Table 4
Pre/Post Score Comparisons
Pre/Post Score
Comparison
Number of Student
Assessments
Percent of Student
Assessments
Improved
218
85%
Remained
8
3%
Worsened
30
12%
Total
256
100%
The majority of data sets, therefore, presented a notable increase in scores from pre to
post-assessment, indicating growth in each measured attribute. Thirty sets (12%) reported lower
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
20
scores on post-assessments than on pre-assessments. When asked about the lower post score,
many of these students pointed to an increased understanding of the assessment questions after
course completion, informing more accurate responses on the post-test. Eight (3%) assessment
pre/post sets reported post-scores consistent with their respective pre-scores.
Interpersonal communication competence (M=7.43) and social consciousness (M=6.72)
both reportedly increased an average of seven points, with resilience (M=5.09) and emotional
intelligence (M=4.52) both increasing an average of about five points (see Table 5).
Table 5
Average Difference from Pre to Post Score by Course
Course
Average of Difference from Pre to Post
Interpersonal Communication
7.425531915
Introduction to Sociology
6.722689076
Introduction to Psychology
4.518518519
Culture, Family & Resilience
5.09375
Total
6.646484375
The total average difference for all 256 sets collectively, was 6.46 points, suggesting an overall
average improvement in the desired attribute associated with participation in the related course.
A paired t-test was performed to determine if participation in said related courses,
utilizing the Multidimensional Model of Digital Asynchronous Pedagogy (MMDAP) yielded a
statistically significant increase in self-assessment scores in the areas of social consciousness,
interpersonal communication competence, emotional intelligence, and resilience. Since the alpha
value was set to 0.05, a p-value of less than 0.05, would indicate a statistically significant
difference between the assessment means before and after engaging in the course. As the p-value
was determined to be 3.05 x 10-36, which is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, the null
hypothesis is rejected. This means that for this set of scores, there is a difference between the
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
21
pre-assessment score mean of 72.94 and the post-assessment score mean of 79.59 which is not
likely due to chance (see Table 6).
Table 6
t-Test Analysis
t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means
Variable 1
Variable 2
Mean
79.58789063
72.94140625
Variance
218.6245979
261.5534161
Observations
256
256
Hypothesized Mean Difference
0
df
255
t Stat
14.81342038
P(T<=t) one-tail
1.52674E-36
t Critical one-tail
1.650851092
P(T<=t) two-tail
3.05348E-36
t Critical two-tail
1.96931057
Statistical analyses of the data further demonstrate that the t-statistic value (14.81) is
greater than the t-critical (1.97), affirming rejection of the null hypothesis. Because the critical
value approach involves determining "likely" or "unlikely" by determining whether or not the
observed test statistic is more extreme than would be expected if the null hypothesis were true,
these findings further suggest that it is unlikely that the increase in post assessment scores is due
to chance.
Discussion
The goal of this study was to propose and evaluate a Multidimensional model for digital
asynchronous pedagogy (MMDAP) that can be effectively utilized in teaching the social and
behavioral sciences. There exists ample research to support the MMDAP’s components,
beginning with the effectiveness of digital textbooks and open educational resources (Romig,
2017; Castro-Rodríguez et al., 2022; Qin Sun & Abdourazakou, 2018) paired with useful
guidance from a course facilitator (Blaine, 2019; Gomez-Rey et al., 2016, Van der Klej, 2019;
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
22
Zayac et al., 2021) in a well-structured course (Wang et al., 2021; Mohandas et al., 2022)
enhanced by productive feedback from the course instructor (Johannes & Haase, 2022; Johnson,
Stellmack, & Barthel, 2019; Knight, Greenberger, & McNaughton, 2021). In addition, the
MMDAP engages students in effectual learner exercises that leverage both the efficacy of
traditional test-taking (Marcell, 2008) as well as self-referential reflections via myriad forms of
expression, including written, video and artistic reflections (Bentley et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2021;
McGarr & O’Gallchóir, 2020).
Still, while previous studies have pointed to the efficacy of multidimensional models
encompassing these components, few have used varied attitudinal assessments to gauge the
progress students make while engaging with this work. When compared with their performance
before engagement with the MMDAP coursework, this study’s findings support the notion that
students perform better on measures of interpersonal communication competence, emotional
intelligence, resilience and social consciousness, after engaging in respective communications,
psychology, resilience, and sociology courses utilizing the MMDAP.
It was hypothesized that combining evidence-based digital teaching modalities would
yield positive results in improving the attitudes and skill sets of students taking asynchronous
digital courses in the social and behavioral sciences. As hypothesized, the more than 250
attitudinal assessments of students who participated in social and behavioral science courses
taught by the lead researcher between 2021 and 2023, indicated higher scores on their post-
assessments than on their pre-assessments, demonstrating an improvement in course-related
attitudes and skill sets after completing said courses utilizing the MMDAP.
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
23
The difference in average increase across courses (4.5 emotional intelligence, 5.1
resilience, 6.7 social consciousness, 7.5 interpersonal communication competence) suggests only
a minor variation in the efficacy of this model across content areas. On average, student scores
improved by roughly six and a half points, indicating a statistically significant benefit to the
student.
Limitations
The data from this study stems from a single institution, using eight-week courses
facilitated by only one instructor the lead researcher. This limits the generalizability of the
study’s findings and renders it difficult to conclude, beyond doubt, that the findings are unique to
the MMDAP approach. A quasi-experimental research design was used. No control group was
utilized to compare and contrast the results of pre and post-assessments for students taking
MMDAP courses, to those of students taking the coursework without the use of the MMDAP.
Therefore, it remains unclear to what degree the improvement demonstrated by students can be
exclusively attributed to the MMDAP approach. As Campbell and Staley (1963) observed, there
are many challenges associated with quasi-experimental research of the one-group pretest-
posttest design, in the area of uncontrolled rival hypotheses. Those most relevant to the present
study include history, maturation, and testing. It is always plausible that between pretesting and
post-testing of study participants, many other change-producing events may have occurred that
affected the measured change, in addition to the educational interventionhistory. It is also
possible that the measured change could have been impacted by the biological and psychological
processes which systematically vary with the passage of time, independent of the educational
interventionmaturation. Moreover, the measured change could have been impacted by the
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
24
notion that individuals taking a test for the second time usually do better than those taking the
test for the first time (Campbell and Staley, 1963). Still, what is clear is that social and
behavioral courses taught utilizing the MMDAP yielded statistically significant improvement in
related attitudinal assessments among its students.
Another limitation involves the scales used to measure attitudinal and skill set
improvement. For one, the use of the social consciousness self-assessment questionnaire, which
while adapted from a valid and reliable scale, has not itself been validated as a psychometric
measure of scientific reliability. In addition, the decision was made by the lead researcher to
focus on improved emotional intelligence as the goal of taking a course in “Introduction to
Psychology, as well as setting increased interpersonal communication competence as the
objective of engaging in a course in interpersonal communication. Likewise, increased resilience
and increased social consciousness were determined to be the aims of engagement in the courses
“Culture, Family & Resilience,” and “Introduction to Sociology” respectively. It may be argued
that students and teachers of these courses may have different aims and, thus, ways to measure
the successful integration of the course content.
Further investigation into the efficacy of the MMDAP would include the use of the model
across a variation of courses, instructors, and institutions in addition to utilizing other relevant
measures of content-related attitudinal and skill set improvement.
Despite its limitations, this study serves to advance our understanding of effective digital
pedagogy and proposes a structured, replicable model for institutions of higher education to
adapt as the academic world continues to navigate a shift toward increased interest in online
education.
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
25
Conclusions
The COVID pandemic and subsequent global quarantine, brought with it a spike in
digital education requests and availability. Despite the world’s continued recovery and
readjustment, the trend toward increased online learning persists. This research study was
intended to contribute to the current conversation around digital pedagogy. It is a particularly
relevant study, at a time when many universities grapple with the transitional challenges of
offering increased online education courses. Many faculty members have little time for
pedagogical experimentation and increasing demands for student-focused learning models that
transfer to real-world student benefit. Consequently, it is imperative that viable options be made
readily available. Now more than ever, there is a growing need for effective models in
asynchronous digital pedagogy. The Multidimensional Model of Digital Asynchronous
Pedagogy (MMDAP) proposed in this study, offers faculty members precisely such a recipe for
student success.
Under the combined umbrellas of well-curated content, facilitator guidance, and learner
exercises, the MMDAP lays out specific components that teaching staff can blend to effectively
engage students in asynchronous online courses. This study offers evidence to suggest that
students engaged in social and behavioral science courses utilizing the MMDAP, demonstrate
significant attitudinal and skill set improvement in related content areas.
AN EFFECTIVE MODEL FOR DIGITAL PEDAGOGY
26
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During the Covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia, all communication activities have been carried out mostly through CMC, including online learning that students must experience. This situation brings big changes in the communication process between lecturers and students and vice versa. This paper aims to see how interpersonal communication changes in the online lecture process and what elements of interpersonal communication are lost with technology in online learning. The data collection method in this study was to conduct Focus Group Discussions on Sociology students at the Universitas Negeri Malang. 6 students were involved in the FGD with the criteria for students above the 2019 class who had experienced face-to-face and online lectures. Primary data was obtained through active observation of Sociology Department lecturers. This study indicates that many dimensions of interpersonal communication are missing in online lectures, such as the loss of empathy between students due to the absence of face-to-face communication and miss communication in online lectures, which causes interpersonal communication not to work effectively. Furthermore, Interpersonal communication cannot be established properly if the lecturer does not have high technological skills. It can then affect the spirit of student learning in online lectures. Keywords: higher education, ICT skills, interpersonal communication, online learning
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Designing reflective activities for online video learning could enhance learning outcomes and, to some extent, influence learning processes (ie, attentional processes and emotional experiences). It is necessary to select different levels of reflective activities in online video learning according to learning processes and outcomes. This study examined to what extent different levels of reflection may affect the learning outcomes, and further explored the impact of reflection on learning processes. Participants, comprising 60 undergraduates, were randomly and equally assigned to two different groups: a reflection group and a critical reflection group, and each group member completed specific learning tasks. The results of the learning outcomes showed that critical reflection led to better transfer performance than reflection, but retention performance was the same in both conditions. Regarding process measures, eye‐tracking data indicated that the embedding of critical reflection strategies facilitated learners' visual attention, and controlled the difficulty of processing. Meanwhile, physiological data showed that the learners' reflection was accompanied by stress, and there was no significant difference between the two levels of reflection. Practitioner notes What is already known about this topic Embedding reflections within videos is an effective instructional strategy for online learning which can facilitate students' deep learning. Recent studies have evaluated the effectiveness of reflection mostly through its impact on learning outcomes, yet focusing on the process of reflection is equally valuable. How to choose the level of reflection is critical and challenging. Whether it should combine the processes (including attentional processes and emotional experiences) and outcomes of reflection can be addressed through experimental research. What this paper adds Selecting different levels of reflection (ie, reflection and critical reflection) according to Kember's model and suggesting strategies (ie, retrospective interpretation reports and evaluation reports of problem solving) to guide reflection. The experimental design combined outcomes and processes in order to identify the most appropriate level of reflection in the context of video learning, and both offline and online measurements were taken (including eye tracking and physiological measures). Critical reflection leads to superior learning outcomes and has advantages for attentional processes. Additionally, reflection itself is the main factor influencing participants' stress, and there is no significant difference between the levels of reflection. Implications for practice and/or policy Providing guidance for different levels of reflection (ie, retrospective interpretation reports and evaluation report of problem solving), which helps inform the design of instructional videos and foster learners' reflective awareness. Educators should focus not only on the learning outcomes caused by reflection but also on the learning processes of reflection and the emotional experiences that accompany it, in order to choose an appropriate level of reflection. Whether the teaching goal is knowledge retention or transfer, educators should embed a high level of reflection for learners in instructional videos to promote deep thinking and processing.