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Do you speak English or my language? An LMT approach to language requirements in EU nations’ visa applications
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The aim of this paper is to shed light on how ordinary language users in a globalized city adapt to and manage their multilingual situations in which diverse communicative problems occur. The subject of this study is a multiethnic bakery shop in Prague. Various languages, such as English, Czech, Korean and Chinese are used as a means of everyday interaction between the owners and customers in the shop. Language Management Theory (Jernudd & Neustupný, 1987; Neustupný & Nekvapil, 2003) will be employed as a theoretical framework in order to understand and analyze the following research questions: 1) how do the owners of a multiethnic bakery shop adapt to their multilingual situation?, 2) how do the owners of a multiethnic bakery shop manage their language use during the work? Simple management (on the micro-level) and organized management (on the macro-level) will be analyzed based on the data gathered from observations, recordings, language biography interviews , and follow-up interviews by the author. This paper will illuminate how socioeconomic , communicative and linguistic management are intertwined and what consequences may follow after implementing the adjustment plan.
Visa requirements, coupled with other extraterritorial border controls like carrier sanctions, prevent refugees from accessing the territory of States in the global North and the protection these States offer under the 1951 Refugee Convention. Visa requirements are imposed largely on the basis of an individual’s nationality, and distinctions made between different non-citizens in this context are considered to be legitimate in international law, based on States’ right to control their borders. In light of the 70th anniversary of the Refugee Convention, this article examines whether this instrument can respond to the externalization of border controls, specifically the imposition of visa requirements, and to the impact of these developments on refugees’ access to protection, by relying on the Convention’s non-discrimination clause. The article makes the case for an interpretation of the Refugee Convention that allows for access to States parties’ territory under article 7(1) – by approaching visa requirements as a ‘treatment accorded to aliens generally’ – combined with article 3 – the non-discrimination provision of the Convention, which prohibits discrimination among refugees on grounds of their nationality. It will be suggested that coupled with the declaratory nature of refugee status, these provisions may be read as precluding imposing visa requirements on refugees originating from country A, as long as refugees originating from country B can reach a State’s border visa-free. The article highlights the Refugee Convention’s continued relevance, showing that some of its core principles, such as the non-discrimination provision, offer solutions where States parties attempt to limit their protection obligations towards refugees.
This article examines French immigration policy through the experiences of Palestinians displaced by the war in Syria who are currently residing in France. In response to the Syrian refugee crisis, France has instituted an ‘asylum visa’ that enables refugees from Syria who are awarded the visa to travel legally from the Middle East to France to apply for asylum there. The asylum visa, also referred to as a ‘humanitarian visa’, extends to Syro-Palestinians. Humanitarian visas have been celebrated by some as a means by which individuals in need of international protection can seek asylum in Europe in a dignified and safe manner. I argue that it is too early to celebrate the French asylum visa. Indeed, evidence shows that steps to provide legal routes to Europe for asylum-seekers through humanitarian visas coexist with rather than overturn broader policies that seek to deter the majority of asylum-seekers from entering Europe.
Visas are an important means for countries to regulate the potential access of non-nationals to their territory. Past datasets and quantitative research on visas have focused on visa waivers, ignoring the fact that visas, where demanded, can vary greatly by cost. This paper presents a novel dataset based on a manual collection of visa costs for travel between a global set of country pairs in seven different categories (tourist, work, student, family reunification, business, transit, and other). Our analyses reveal a strong global visa cost divide that exposes the injustice in the right to travel for people located in different areas of the world. Whereas Europeans usually hardly have to work at all for travel permits, visa costs often amount to several weeks of mean income in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The result is a fundamentally paradoxical situation: The richer a country, the less its citizens pay for visas to go abroad (both in absolute terms and relative to their income). Poisson pseudo-maximum likelihood regression analyses reveal that a variety of factors influence the costs of visas between countries: reciprocal treatment, processing costs, historical-cultural ties, geographic proximity and regional, religious, economic, and political discrimination. This confirms the important role of visa costs as a tool for states to control population movements and simultaneously position themselves in international relations.
Since the establishment of the Schengen area, border management has been having momentum within the European Union (EU) and, one of its major building blocks is the common policy on visas. This allows to control who can have access to the Schengen area for short stays that do not exceed three months over any six-month period.
This article investigates how the EU visa policy has been influenced by the ever-evolving migratory dynamics towards the EU. Focusing on the latest reform of the Common Code on Visa, which has entered into force in 2020, this article argues that the new approach to conditionality in EU migration law has consolidated the intertwining between the EU visa policy and cooperation on readmission. Over the years, the latter has constituted an incentive for the EU in order to offer visa facilitation regimes or specific visa waivers to nationals of third countries. However, this article criticizes the new mechanism, introduced by the recent reform, and providing the European Commission with the mandate to propose specific restrictive measures related to visa processing and visa fee in case of a lack of cooperation especially on readmission. In an attempt to shed light on the legal concerns raised by this mechanism, the paper concludes that it even emphasises the discriminatory effects of the EU visa policy and, more generally, it impacts on the cooperation with third countries within the EU General Approach to Migration and Mobility.
English is widely used as a global language. The traditional monolithic model of English has been challenged as the development of World Englishes (WE) and English as a lingua franca (ELF) paradigms challenge the ownership of English. With this newly emerging status quo, English language teaching (ELT) should also recognize the diversity and dynamism of English. This article discusses students' attitudes towards their own and native English accents, and describes the influence of English accents in ELT. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews with nine international students from Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka who were studying at a university in Southern Thailand. The derived data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. The findings revealed that most students still perceived their accents as being deficient, and they believed that native speakers' English accents were the norm of English use and the ultimate learning goal. Thus, entrenched native ideology was still persistent among these students. The article also provides some implications for pronunciation teaching from a WE and ELF framework with the Teaching of Pronunciation for Intercultural Communication (ToPIC). It is hoped that an awareness of English as a global language could be recognized, and ToPIC could be applied to ELT in more contexts to reflect the global status of English.
Discourses concerning language have ideological aspects in both scholarly and every day contexts. In the present contribution, I use data from the past two decades to examine language ideologies as they are communicated explicitly or conveyed implicitly in metalinguistic discourse on Hungarian medical language management. Besides drawing attention to language ideologies, the paper also aims to offer suggestions for making medical language management more efficient. The material for the present study comes from approximately 80 articles published in Magyar Orvosi Nyelv [Hungarian Medical Language], between 2001 and 2017. The analysis mainly consists in iden tifying the most conspicuous language ideologies that are at work in the texts under investigation, using a preexisting inventory of language ideologies. The results show that language ideologies prevailing in the analyzed articles are usually not based on actual language usage, but rather, on structuralist considerations as well as various language ideologies which uphold the authority of the standard (e.g. linguistic elitism, conservativism, purism), while the domain of language use and the layered nature of medical language are overlooked.
Lo Bianco (Curr Issues Lang Plan 9(2):155–178, 2008) proposed an “ensemble of [three] activities” that comprise language policy: the “textual,” “discursive,” and “public performance” (p. 157). When expressed in language, the current study proposes that each of Lo Bianco’s three activities (text, discourse, performance) becomes a register—a variety of language associated with a given social situation (Biber and Conrad in Register, genre, and style. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2009). Building on a previous study that used corpus-based methods to identify five language ideologies in a 1.4 million word corpus of language policy texts (Fitzsimmons-Doolan in Corpora, 9: 57–82, 2014), this study asks, Is there variation in the language ideologies expressed in a corpus of institutional language policy texts attributable to language policy register? Using inferential statistics, groups of texts coded by language policy register (i.e., language policy documents, discourse about language policy, institutional models of language policy, and lists) were compared for expression of each of the five previously identified language ideologies. For four out of five of the language ideologies, there were significant differences among language policy registers with much of the ideological work being done by texts coded as institutional models of language policy. The findings suggest the viability of Lo Bianco’s categories and the identification of a new register category of language policy texts—lists. Furthermore, findings suggest the importance of analyzing institutional models of policy for language ideology scholarship and support for a multi-dimensional, layered model of language policy.
International student migration to the United States markedly dropped after the September 11, 2001, attacks. Considering the interaction of immigration policy and student agency, this study examines how student visa issuances changed after 9/11 to determine whether there were significant changes to international student flows to the United States. Nonimmigrant visa data from the U.S. Department of State annual Report of the Visa Office from 1997 to 2006 were analyzed. Results show that while there was no initial significant difference between the pre- and post-9/11 periods, when broken down by visa classification and by region, there were pronounced decreases in visa issuance. Findings suggest that negative effects by student visa type in all regions may have shifted worldwide student mobility trends in the post-9/11 era.
Although the majority of illegalised migrants in the European Union are so-called visa overstayers who enter with a Schengen visa only to become ‘illegal’ once it has expired, this mode of illegalised migration has only received scarce attention in border and migration studies so far. This article takes the introduction of biometric visa as an opportunity to compensate for this neglect by asking: How do migrants appropriate Schengen visa in the context of biometric border controls? Drawing on the autonomy of migration approach (AoM), it investigates the visa regime from the perspective of mobility in order to elaborate on one set of practices of appropriation that involves the provision of falsified or manipulated supporting documents upon which the decision to issue a biometric visa is based. The article draws on this example to develop a conception of the notion of appropriation that addresses the two central criticisms which have been raised against the AoM. Besides contributing to the AoM’s development, the article thus introduces a concept in debates on migrant agency that highlights, better than existing concepts, the intricate intertwinement of migrants’ practices with the means and methods of mobility control.
Chinese tourism demands in Australia have increased exponentially in recent time, driven largely by increases in the number of visitors. The hidden important fact of this market is its high price sensitivity, which is vital to the growth of the dominant Chinese tourism segment in the total inbound sector of the country. This article addresses a concern of the tourism industry regarding a possible policy change on a tourist visa fee for Chinese nationals that potentially has adverse impacts on the economy. The article demonstrates that the revenue objective of an increase in the visa fee for Chinese visitors is unlikely to be a successful policy, as it will take a long time for the visa revenue to compensate for the losses of gross domestic product. In the extreme, the GDP losses may never be compensated adequately by the increased visa revenue.
The Routledge Handbook of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) provides an accessible, authoritative and comprehensive introduction to the main theories, concepts, contexts and applications of this rapidly developing field of study. Including 47 state-of-the-art chapters from leading international scholars, the handbook covers key concepts, regional spread, linguistic features and communication processes, domains and functions, ELF in academia, ELF and pedagogy, and future trends. This handbook is key reading for all those engaged in the study and research of English as a lingua franca and world/global Englishes within English language, applied linguistics and education.
In line with recent tourism international organizations’ outcry on stringent visa regulations for short-term travel negatively impacting the tourism industry, this paper sheds light into why some countries have more tourist visa-free access than others. We contribute to the politics of tourism literature by providing an understanding of the underlying determinants of political decisions with regard to the number of visa-free privileges offered. The empirical analysis uses count regression models while guided by relevant theories borrowed from migration studies, given that some visitors overstay and become illegal immigrants, which result in visa policies mitigating this phenomenon. Findings underscore the role of public policies centered on improving governance and economic development, deepening their financial sector and engaging in appropriate social networking groups. Such policies will promote global economic welfare, which can eradicate poverty and ignite economic recovery. The results also inform theory in devising an appropriate framework for visa strategic analysis.
Language Policy and Planning is currently a significantly diversified research area and thus it is not easy to find common denominators that help to define basic approaches within it. Richard B. Baldauf attempted to do so by differentiating between four basic approaches: (1) the classical approach, (2) the language management approach (Language Management Theory, LMT), (3) the domain approach and (4) the critical approach [Baldauf, R. B. (2012). Introduction – language planning: Where have we been? Where might we be going? Revista Brasileira de Linguística Aplicada, 12(2), 233–248]. This paper takes up this classification and seeks to show the main features of LMT, while highlighting the features that it shares with the other approaches and the features that are unique to it. This is done against the background of Baldauf's works and their contribution to the spread of LMT.
In these introductory remarks, the authors deal with the metaphors “top-down”, “bottom-up” and related concepts in the Language Policy and Planning research. Furthermore, they sketch out the position of Language Management Theory in this field of study and characterize “language management” in various research traditions. Afterward, the main features of Language Management Theory are presented with emphasis placed on the relationship between “simple” and “organized” language management. Finally, these features are illustrated on the individual contributions to this special issue.
While visa policies are the major instrument for regulating and controlling the global flow of people, little is known about how they have changed over time. Accordingly, scholars have expressed the need for large-N data-sets which cover more than one point in time. This article takes up this challenge and presents for the first time a global overview of the changes in visa waiver policies based on a newly created database containing the visa waiver policies of over 150 countries for 1969 and 2010. We find that, on average, visa-free mobility has increased over the past 40 years. However, not everybody has benefited from these developments. In fact, visa waivers are increasingly unequally divided: while citizens of OECD countries and rich countries have gained mobility rights, mobility rights for other regions have stagnated or even diminished, in particular for citizens from African countries. Overall, we find a clear bifurcation in mobility rights, leading to a ‘global mobility divide’.
This article is devoted to the linguistic, communicative and sociocultural situation in branches of multinational companies located in the Czech Republic and Hungary. There are typically several languages used in these branches. In addition to the local languages, there are the languages of the parent companies – most commonly English or German, and also French. The core of the article is the description of the strategies on various levels of the company used to manage problems anticipated in future interactions. We demonstrate that these strategies originate as the result of communication problems the employees have already experienced and are created and reproduced in anticipation of similar problems in the future. We place emphasis on the close relationship between the way in which individuals systematically solve language and communication problems and how multinational companies do so, and we thus contribute to the further investigation of the interplay between micro- and macro-language planning. The article has its theoretical basis in language management theory as conceived by J.V. Neustupný and B.H. Jernudd, but its ambition is also to develop the theory further, above all through the concept of pre-interaction management.
In this paper, we demonstrate the dialectical relationship between micro and macro language planning: macro planning influences micro planning and yet macro planning results (or should result) from micro planning. The relation between the two planning perspectives is illustrated within the framework of Language Management Theory (Jernudd & Neustupný, 1987; Neustupný & Nekvapil, 2003). We deal with the relations between various levels of ‘organised management’, and with the role of the ‘simple, i.e. discourse-based management’ in organised language management. Attention is also given to the impact of organised language management on naturally occurring discourses and discourse-based management. The paper is empirically based on research carried out during the past two years in branches of multinational companies or corporations founded in the Czech Republic by German, Austrian or Swiss owners. We focus primarily on the situation in a subsidiary of a Siemens corporation. The languages which have become the subject of management activities here are German, English, and Czech. The data we work with were obtained using various types of interviews (semi-structured, follow-up) as well as audio-recordings and participant observation.
This paper analyses how “noting” has been conceptualized in the Language Management Framework originating in the work of Neustupný and Jernudd. It deals with the influence of the cognitivist concept of “noticing” as used in the theories of Second Language Acquisition and instead proposes to assume the discursive approach of “noting” inspired by Discursive Psychology and Conversation Analysis. It pays attention to the formulations and concrete words which people use to express that they “noted” a phenomenon (be it linguistic, communicative or socio-cultural). Finally, it addresses micro-macro-linkage in the framework, namely, how “noting” of everyday speakers connects to management acts performed by experts in institutions.
This article questions the unreflexive use of English in academic practices by highlighting the paradox of multilingual scholarship and the need for practices that may help both scholars and journals to become inventive in performing multilingual scholarship. Even when academic outputs are only in English, language multiplicity exists and needs to be reflected upon. To do so, we introduce the three strategies of scandalization, scrutinization, and invention which respectively document and question the naturalization of English as lingua franca, inquire into linguistic negotiations and its effects, and make multiplicity visible. It is our belief that there is currently too little agony about and critique of the hegemony of English based on a kind of pragmatism; this situation prevents us from being more imaginative and experimental in the ways we include other languages and language differences.
This article discusses the different effects arising from deliberations on language policy in conferences dominated by professionals compared with the interests, priorities and demands of geo-political and military security coming from defense interests. The paper proposes a three dimensional way to understand language policy: text, discourse and performance, and discusses strains and tensions placed on language policy that aims to serve explicit security agendas. Such tensions and strains are particularly strong for those languages spoken by minority populations who are sometimes forced into ambivalence between local and national identity, citizenship loyalty and the promotion and retention of needed language skills. Technical or rationalist approaches to language planning analysis fail to capture the performative and discursive dimensions of language planning under such strains, remaining at the descriptive level of policy texts and their formal declarations of intent. Community or heritage language activists negotiate such tensions but for some categories of language professional, such as interpreters in war zones who are required to mediate between occupying and occupied forces, these tensions can be extreme. The paper considers language in espionage where severe tensions are imposed between its communicative-secretive functions.
This article estimates the effect of visa restrictions on bilateral trade flows and foreign direct investment (FDI) stocks. By raising the costs of travel and deterring some visitors, visa restrictions hamper personal contact across borders, which is detrimental to trade and FDI. Employing a standard gravity-type model in a global dyadic country sample, I estimate that if one country unilaterally requires a visa from nationals of the other country with no reciprocal restriction in place by the partner country, this lowers bilateral trade and FDI by up to 16 and 33 per cent, respectively. If both countries require a visa from nationals of the other country, the effect on trade is larger, but less than double, at up to 23 per cent, while the effect on FDI is essentially the same as for unilateral restrictions. With such non-negligible negative effects, it is at least questionable whether many of the existing visa restrictions would pass a cost-benefit test.
This paper draws upon arguments about scale and spatial analysis in order to rethink multilingualism in an urban, diasporic-globalized context. Introducing space and scale allows us to re-examine two important bodies of the literature – Erving Goffman and Pierre Bourdieu – that both address the political and historical situatedness of linguistic competence and the centrality of interactional perspectives in social-linguistic analysis. While very influential, neither Goffman’s not Bourdieu’s work engaged in a sustained way with questions of multilingualism. Space and scale offer a connection between macro-conditions and micro-processes, which allows us to focus on multilingualism as a matter of conditioned resources as well as interactionally ‘framed’ practices. This perspective has important effects on our view of competence. Criticizing existing accounts of both linguistic and communicative competence, we argue for reversing the usual order of thinking: multilingualism is not what individuals have and don’t have, but what the environment, as structured determinations and interactional emergence, enables and disables. Consequently, multilingualism often occurs as truncated competence, which depending on scalar judgments may be declared ‘valued assets’ or dismissed as ‘having no language’.
Language ideologies are cultural representations, whether explicit or implicit, of the intersection of language and human beings in a social world. Mediating between social structures and forms of talk, such ideologies are not only about language. Rather, they link language to identity, power, aesthetics, morality and epistemology. Through such linkages, language ideologies underpin not only linguistic form and use, but also significant social institutions and fundamental nottions of person and community. The essays in this new volume examine definitions and conceptions of language in a wide range of societies around the world. Contributors focus on how such defining activity organizes language use as well as institutions such as religious ritual, gender relations, the nation-state, schooling, and law. Beginning with an introductory survey of language ideology as a field of inquiry, the volume is organized in three parts. Part I, “Scope and Force of Dominant Conceptions of Language,” focuse on the propensity of cultural models of language developed in one social domain to affect linguistic and social behavior across domains. Part II, “Language Ideology in Institutions of Power,” continues the examination of the force of specific language beliefs, but narrows the scope to the central role that language ideologies play in the functioning of particular institutions of power such as schooling, the law, or mass media. Part III, “Multiplicity and Contention among Ideologies,” emphasizes the existence of variability, contradiction, and struggles among ideologies within any given society. This will be the first collection of work to appear in this rapidly growing field, which bridges linguistic and social theory. It will greatly interest linguistic anthropologists, social and cultural anthropologists, sociolinguists, historians, cultural studies, communications, and folklore scholars.
Intense mobility of people and languages driven by tourism, which propels "cultural transformation of places" (Urry, 1995:2) across the world, is manifested in their linguistic landscapes through varying regimes of multilingualism. Linguistic landscapes, which render themselves for "visual consumption" (Urry, 2005), emerge from the sedimentation and synchronization of diachronic semiotic processes which index current societal developments. The recent period of the COVID-19 pandemic has had a noticeable impact on linguistic landscapes globally through the emergence of a noticeable and coherent layer of pandemic regulatory signage. In a longitudinal study covering the period between the outbreak of the pandemic in March 2020 to its decline in August 2022, we trace the implementation of regulatory measures in a highly frequented tourist region in Slovakia whereby the actors involved in the tourist industry implemented the official pandemic legislature aimed at preventing the spread of the disease. Our overall goal is to explore the management of "pandemic regulatory discourse", i.e., how producers of regulatory signage manage multimodal resources to convey their authority and stance towards regulations, to legitimize regulatory measures, and to ensure compliance with them. The study is grounded in the theoretical-methodological approaches of ethnographic linguistic landscape studies, geosemiotics, sociolinguistics of globalization, sociopragmatics, and language management theory.
Language learning is a life-long process. In a world that connects people across nations through study, work, travel and socializing, new chances and challenges arise, intensifying a need to improve modern foreign language skills. The aim of language education, therefore, should not be limited to providing mere language instruction but it should also involve the development of learner autonomy so that students are equipped with strategies, methods, and approaches for managing their language development over the course of their whole lives. Higher Education Institution (HEI) teaching practices need to react to this reality through their teaching approaches and methodologies. The following study conducted with ŠKODA AUTO University presents an analysis of the current students’ simple language management (LM) process, which reveals their language learning attitudes, behaviors and ‘acts toward’ language. Data were collected between 2017 and 2020 from students’ written narratives describing and analyzing critical incidents (CI) that reflect the learning strategies the students adopt, the study styles they use, motivation for learning, as well as the actions they plan and conduct. As a result, these findings form the basis of a deeper understanding of the language teaching process, which in turn enhances language education methodology.
The goal of this chapter is to discuss the dialectical relationship between linguistic landscape (LL) and state ideology, provide concepts for researching this relationship, and demonstrate them in a comparative analysis of Belarus, Czech Republic and Slovakia, countries which have recently undergone substantial political and socioeconomic transformation.
This paper is devoted to several ways in which the language of instruction in Czech universities is managed. One of the key issues in this context is the fact that programs accredited in the Czech language are tuition-free, while those in foreign languages are paid. On the one hand, it is deemed desirable by certain actors to integrate greater numbers of students from abroad, conform to the discourse of internationalization, and even earn money through courses in English. On the other hand, it is also viewed as necessary by other actors to cultivate the Czech language and provide a solid education for local students. These multiple and often opposing interests, as well as a number of language ideologies, guide individual management acts. Utilizing the language management framework (Jernudd/Neustupný 1987; Fairbrother/Nekvapil/Sloboda 2018), I explore three selected examples of the management of the language of instruction. In the first, I show how many Czech university programs are accredited in the Czech language, but offer many classes in English. In the second, I examine one case of financial motivation for foreign-language courses through university teaching development projects. In the third, I point to the differences between the language of accreditation of some Ph.D. programs and the languages actually used in their realization. Finally, I consider the fact that all of these cases of management involve some sort of compromise between the interests of certain groups, which means that the only way forward is an increased awareness of all aspects of the management processes.
In recent years there has been increased interest in examining the treatment of language problems across different levels of society, ranging from individual interactional issues to language policy and planning at the national or supra-national level. Among the various approaches to tackle this issue, Language Management Theory (LMT) provides a framework to address behaviour towards language problems on differet levels explicitly and comprehensively.
Using LMT as a unifying theoretical concept, the chapters in this volume examine the links between micro and macro dimensions in their analyses of a variety of language problems in Asian and European contexts. This body of work illustrates that the LMT framework is able to show the characteristics of different dimensions clearly, especially when combined with a conceptualization of the micro and macro as a continuum of intertwining elements. This volume will appeal both to those interested in language policy and planning as well as those interested in interaction between speakers from different language backgrounds.
In recent years there has been increased interest in examining the treatment of language problems across different levels of society, ranging from individual interactional issues to language policy and planning at the national or supra-national level. Among the various approaches to tackle this issue, Language Management Theory (LMT) provides a framework to address behaviour towards language problems on differet levels explicitly and comprehensively.
Using LMT as a unifying theoretical concept, the chapters in this volume examine the links between micro and macro dimensions in their analyses of a variety of language problems in Asian and European contexts. This body of work illustrates that the LMT framework is able to show the characteristics of different dimensions clearly, especially when combined with a conceptualization of the micro and macro as a continuum of intertwining elements. This volume will appeal both to those interested in language policy and planning as well as those interested in interaction between speakers from different language backgrounds.
Linguistic nationalism in Western Europe most commonly takes a monolingual form, involving the promotion of one dominant national language. This is not the only form of linguistic nationalism possible, however, as the link between language and nation can also be constructed in more multilingual ways. This article looks at the case of Luxembourg, a small officially multilingual country, to examine how political parties portrayed the language-nation link in their published election programmes for the past two national elections (2013 and 2018) and in their accompanying websites. The results reveal tension between fidelity to classic monolingual linguistic nationalism and nods towards a form of trilingual linguistic nationalism, all set against an increasingly multilingual society. The discursive balancing act required to uphold these competing ideological stances reflects broader tensions across contemporary Europe regarding how to reconcile a classic linguistic nationalist ideology with ever more multilingual societies.
Travel visas impose additional costs to firms engaging in international trade. This paper exploits a natural experiment provided by the Schengen Agreement to document a large causal negative impact of visas on goods trade. The introduction of a visa, requested by a single Schengen Area member, considerably reduced bilateral trade flows of Ecuador and Bolivia with the members of the border-control free zone other than Spain. I show that the negative impact of visas is much larger for differentiated than for homogeneous products. By applying a general equilibrium framework, the paper shows that removing visas would increase welfare by 5% or more for some Sub-Saharan African countries and by 1,1% on average for developing countries. For policy makers this paper highlights the importance of including visa facilitation schemes into the provisions of trade agreements and economic partnerships.
In March 2017, Georgian citizens were able to travel visa-free to the Schengen Area. This development was highly significant to Georgia, whose narrative of “belonging to Europe” has long contrasted with the travel restrictions for Georgian citizens, who were previously required to undergo complicated consular procedures. However, this was far from being a routine bilateral negotiation. Visa disparities mirrored the contractual asymmetry between Tbilisi and Brussels. This article focuses on how Georgia calibrated its political discourse vis-à-vis the European Union. After outlining both the symbolic and political relevance of visa liberalization, this work assesses the Georgian political rhetoric at different times: in 2005, when Georgia unilaterally lifted visa requirements for Western visitors, and in 2015 and 2016, when visa liberalization was widely expected. The article’s theoretical framework and the final conclusions are relevant to the study of visa regimes and the external relations of small states.
English is often assumed to be the national language in the US and the global language in the world; yet such views fail to address the complex linguistic repertoires of people living in linguistically heterogeneous places even within the US. Spotlighting a southwestern US border town, we provide a critique of both nation-state-language ideology, and of the neoliberal view of English as the global language par excellence. Our research, drawing from notions of linguistic scaling (e.g. Blommaert, 2007. Sociolinguistic scales. Intercultural Pragmatics, 4(1), 1–19) and chronotopic identities (Blommaert & De Fina, 2017. Chronotopic identities: On the timespace organization of who we are. In A. De Fina, D. Ikizoglu, & J. Wegner (Eds.), Diversity and superdiversity: Sociocultural linguistic perspectives (pp. 1–15). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press), focuses on language use in two distinct multilingual immigrant communities – Chinese immigrants of a Mandarin church, and resettled Lhotshampa refugees. By examining the sociolinguistic experiences our participants encounter, we explore how multilingual individuals in these two communities (re)negotiate linguistic hierarchies in chronotopic configurations. These immigrants engage in linguistic practices involving neither solely English nor their first languages, and strategically (re)scale language hierarchies in the local context of this border town.
Religion and nationalism are not only two distinctive but also closely related concepts when it comes to nation-building. Their role in language policy and linguistic nationalism is pervasive. Today, in Turkey, two religious movements of the same origin play a key role in linguistic nationalism and decision-making in language policy: the Gülen movement and the Med-Zehra movement. These two non-governmental affinities are important groups in the Nur movement. The Gülen movement is supportive of Turkish nationalism and thereby Turkish language and identity, while the Med-Zehra group emphasizes Kurdish identity and separatism. This study makes a comparison between the two movements and investigates in detail their role in language policy and linguistic nationalism.
This study is focused on the direction and magnitude of visa policies on bilateral trade and foreign direct investment (FDI), both of which often necessitate in-person contacts. Visa restrictions hinder cross-border travel deterring potential visitors and producing an inimical effect on trade and FDI. Liberal visa policies facilitate business travels and encourage companies engaging in international trade. This article analyzes the impact of visa restrictions using gravity-type models for the period of 2000–14 on the exports and FDI of Turkey. A panel data fixed-effects model helps elucidate time-variant and country-idiosyncratic characteristics of visa policies. The estimations indicate that visa restrictions have a significant negative effect on both trade and FDI. Two-step cluster analysis is also utilized to segment countries depending on the visa-free travel their citizens enjoy employing the Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index. Results suggest that effects of visa restrictions are higher for countries having higher travel freedom.
Visa policies have been important instruments of control for the movement of people and what they effectuate depends on their character. They impede the flow of people when they are restrictive; they facilitate the entry and admission of people when they are liberal. Turkey has been using visa policies liberally for long to stimulate tourism growth. In this paper, the log-linearized version of gravity-type models is used to analyze Turkey’s tourism demand relating inbound travel to visa requirements, macroeconomic variables, distance and regional contiguity. The countries are segmented into clusters according to travel freedom their citizens enjoy using the Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index by employing the two-step cluster analysis. It is found that the visa restrictions imposed on a country has a detrimental impact of 29 percent on average on inward mobility and this impact is on the higher side for countries with almost visa-free travel.
This article investigates the extent to which restrictive asylum and visa policies trigger an unintended behavioural response of potential and rejected asylum seekers. Based on our analysis of bilateral asylum and visa policies on migrant flows to 29 European states in the 2000s, we find evidence of a significant deflection into irregularity at work. Our estimates suggest that a 10% increase in asylum rejections raises the number of irregular migrants by on average 2% to 4%, and similarly, a 10% increase in short-stay visa rejections leads to a 4% to 7% increase in irregular border entries. We identify significant nuances in the impact of restrictive asylum and visa policies on the number of apprehensions ‘at the border’ versus ‘on territory’.
This essay is an overview of the theoretical, methodological, pedagogical, ideological, and power-related issues of world Englishes: varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts. The scholars in this field have critically examined theoretical and methodological frameworks of language use based on western, essentially monolingual and monocultural, frameworks of linguistic science and replaced them with frameworks that are faithful to multilingualism and language variation. This conceptual shift affords a "pluricentric" view of English, which represents diverse sociolinguistic histories, multicultural identities, multiple norms of use and acquisition, and distinct contexts of function. The implications of this shift for learning and teaching world Englishes are critically reviewed in the final sections of this essay.
Purpose
– This aim of this research was to discern the impacts that the visa application process has on destination perception and choice. Visas are used to respect border integrity, minimize illegal migration and reciprocate international relations.
Design/methodology/approach
– The research surveyed a sample of the Dubai resident population, targeting individuals who have previously been required to apply for travel visas.
Findings
– The outcomes of the research revealed that while visa application procedures were felt to be a “necessary bother”, certain factors such as: visa processing times and fees left participants with a negative perception of the destination, especially for travellers motivated by travel budgets, flight prices and visiting family and friends at the destination.
Research limitations/implications
– With available technology and the benefits of visa facilitation: cost savings, increasing tourism revenue and creating loyalty with legitimate visitors, today's nations have no excuse for not developing their policies and procedures in line with modern methods.
Originality/value
– For the first time, a measure of the impacts that visa application policies have on traveller destination perception and choice was assessed.
This paper examines travel visa restrictions in 188 countries. We measure travel visa requirements (1) facing foreign visitors
into a given country and (2) facing citizens of a given nation traveling abroad. Our analysis shows that countries are more
likely to impose visas on foreign visitors when they are large, but less likely when they are rich and economically free.
Citizens from richer and more populous countries face fewer travel visa requirements when traveling abroad. Countries are
less likely to impose visa requirements on similar nations.
In early 2006 the Swiss migration-specialist company Henley and Partners released a global ranking of visa-free travel privileges. The present paper comprises an exploratory analysis of the data, despite the lack of information as to how or when it was originally compiled. The initial hypothesis – that the ability for citizens to travel to other countries visa-free is based on the wealth and openness of their own country – is confirmed. The bulk of the world's countries, and indeed population, have very little travel freedom. A measure of global travel freedom combining the Henley data with national population figures is proposed. Any more comprehensive investigation requires the full release, or re-construction, of the dataset and knowledge of how it was compiled.
Language planning for whom
- B H Jernudd
- J Neustupný
- Jernudd B. H.
Language planning ‘schools’ and their approaches and methodologies
- R B Baldauf
- H M Obaidul
- Baldauf R. B.