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Environmental citizenship in Lebanon: a study in the higher
education context
Mira Hajj-Hassan
a
, Rawad Chaker
b
, Jinan Karameh Shayya
c
and Veronica Lo Presti
d
a
Department of Pedagogy, Lebanese University, Tahwita, Beyrouth, Lebanon;
b
ECP Laboratory, Department of
Education, Lyon 2 Universit, Lyon, France;
c
Department of Education, Lebanese Association of Educational Studies,
Beirut, Lebanon;
d
Department of Communication and Social Research, la Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT
Global and regional environmental problems persist to this day, posing
serious threats to the world and Lebanon. There is a data gap regarding
environmental citizenship in Lebanon, despite numerous investigations
and research done in relation to environmental problems. Current
Lebanese eco-citizenship behaviours should be investigated. This article
aims to quantitatively investigate Lebanese higher education students’
environmental citizenship. In this study, a survey method is used with
a comparative approach and factorial analyses. The sample consisted of
355 Lebanese university students from 16 Lebanese educational institu-
tions. Results show that participants declare relatively high environmental
citizenship motivations, competences, and intentions. Conversely, they
report low environmental past activities. Demographic factors such as
gender, age, university (private vs. public), academic year, and major
yielded signicant dierences among the measured factors. This paper
encourages establishing feedback mechanisms to gather input from stu-
dents on environmental educational programmes implementing sensiti-
zation and active youth participation in environmental sustainability.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 15 April 2024
Accepted 26 July 2024
KEYWORDS
Environmental citizenship;
eco-citizenship; Lebanon;
eco-citizenship factors
Introduction
For decades, there has been systematic and intentional mismanagement of Lebanon’s natural
resources and capital, with devastating consequences. Poverty rates are very high, and the
healthcare and education systems have crumbled, putting millions at risk (Germanos & Azzi,
2023). There is a lesser discussed, yet equally dangerous, environmental degradation taking place
in the country, according to Germanos and Azzi (2023). As Lebanon struggles with the economic
crisis, the degrading environment exacerbates the problem; sewage contaminates drinking
water, generators emit toxic fumes, excessive groundwater use makes it saline, and agricultural
produce is contaminated by irrigation with sewage water (Aimola et al., 2021; Germanos & Azzi,
2023). Thus, as the natural environment is highly vulnerable, education in Lebanon needs to
foster awareness, commitment, and competence that engage future citizens in nding solutions
to environmental problems and developing new approaches to address them (Ghosn-Chelala &
Akar, 2021). According to Authors, pedagogies and policies are generally insucient to foster
citizenship for environmental sustainability in Lebanon, despite their commitment to the natural
CONTACT Rawad Chaker rawad.chaker@univ-lyon2.fr
This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH
2024, VOL. 29, NO. 1, 2387079
https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2024.2387079
© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work
is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or
with their consent.
environment. Despite teachers reporting that youth participate in recycling and replanting
activities at school, their own reports suggest that mainstream pedagogy requires learners to
reproduce uncritically the national curriculum and participate in teacher-directed activities. To
teach and learn about citizenship for environmental sustainability, teachers believed that govern-
mental reform was a prerequisite (Ghosn-Chelala & Akar, 2021). The teaching workforce in
Lebanon is hampered by a highly centralized system of governance and stagnant curriculum
reforms which prevent children from engaging in environmentally sustainable practices in public
schools.
Although there’s international recognition of the need for sustainable development, achieving
a singular vision for environmental well-being remains a challenge due to diverse viewpoints
(Wessels et al., 2022). This complexity underscores the importance of education as a preparation
process, that equips individuals and plays a crucial role in fostering a generation of informed citizens
capable of grappling with environmental issue (Biesta, 2020). Education, as an empowering means
for young people to advocate for a new, sustainable model, must point towards active citizenship
that promotes sustainable living among citizens (Pinheiro et al., 2024). Adolescence and young
adulthood are pivotal periods characterized by signicant cognitive, emotional, and social develop-
ment (Lerner & Steinberg, 2009). During this time, individuals establish values and behaviours that
persist into later life. Higher education institutions provide a unique context for studying this
demographic, as university students often fall within the age range of 18–25 years, encompassing
late adolescence and early adulthood. The world’s natural environmental systems are being pres-
sured by human actions, causing damage to the ecological and biophysical systems and leading to
an environmental crisis with the change of the climate, loss of biodiversity, and pollution generation
(McMichael et al., 2008). Hadjichambis and Paraskeva-Hadjichambi (2020) underline the necessity of
fostering environmental citizenship behaviours as it contributes to raising awareness about the
current environmental problems and will help anticipate new ones. A major concern about environ-
mental issues was addressed by European and global authorities (European Environment Agency,
2015), and citizenship education was found among possible solutions. Thus, many countries
included environmental citizenship education in their curricula (Hadjichambis & Paraskeva-
Hadjichambi, 2020), motivating researchers to lead investigational projects in dierent countries
to locate and study the responsiveness of communities to eco-citizenship education. However, De
Guttry et al. (2019) found that only a few people are willing to respond with pro-environmental
behaviour to the goal of ‘saving the planet,’ despite most people being educated and aware of the
consequences of unsustainable human activities.
A recent study done by Avelar et al. (2023), emphasized the importance of integrating several
dimensions of environmental education, such as ethics, responsibility, and sustainability, into the
mission, disciplines, and courses of higher education institutions (HEIs) to strengthen eco-citizenship.
This study investigated 37 Sharing Information on Progress (SIP) reports prepared by business
schools and HEIs that signed for the United Nations. Principles of Responsible Management
Education (UNPRME). It is the largest voluntary engagement platform for academic institutions
that supports the universal values of sustainability, responsibility, and ethical living in teaching,
research, and thought leadership. Their ndings reveal that curricula featuring SDG courses, mod-
ules, and disciplines, created and implemented, show promising multidisciplinary and interdisciplin-
ary involvement leading to attitude change towards eco-citizenship policy making.
UNESCO and numerous higher education (HE) associations are advocating for the widespread
adoption of a suitable iteration of a ‘whole-institution approach’ (WIA) across all education systems.
They acknowledge quality education, particularly with Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
at its core, as a fundamental catalyst for accomplishing all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by
the United Nations General Assembly. This approach holds promise for eectively implementing
specic targets and playing a signicant role in advancing societies towards SDG attainment (Kohl
et al., 2022). However, the implementation of the SDGs has faced critique for sometimes aligning
more closely with global corporate interests than with a serious commitment to environmental
2M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
citizenship (Corwin & Gidwani, 2021; Davis et al., 2019; Dedeoglu & Ekmekcioglu, 2020). Critics argue
that current practices may prioritize economic growth over genuine ecological justice and sustain-
ability (Bell, 2022; Schild, 2016). To address these concerns, it is essential that the WIA and ESD
frameworks not only aim to achieve the SDG targets but also incorporate critical engagement with
these critiques.
The Lebanese Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MEHE) 2021–2025 Five-Year General
Education Plan underscores the crucial role of education in cultivating responsible and active citizens
and explicitly aims to develop ‘responsible active innovative citizens and workforce’ who contribute
to the country’s socio-economic development while ‘preserving and ensuring the sustainability of
national natural, cultural heritage’ (Ministry of Education and Higher Education, 2021, p. 14). This
emphasis on sustainability signies the MEHE’s implicit endorsement of education for environmental
citizenship, preparing future generations to actively contribute to the country’s social and economic
development while safeguarding its ecological well-being. Concrete steps towards this goal are
being taken by the Lebanese Center for Educational Research and Development (CRDP) as evi-
denced by the integration of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) competencies into the
newly developed curriculum framework (CRDP, 2022).
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) pedagogies, to be impactful, should be character-
ized by (Shayya et al., 2020): 1) a focus on student-centred learning, where learners actively engage in
the process, 2) exploration of diverse perspectives (pluralism), 3) critical reection on values and
actions (critical pedagogy) in relation to sustainability, and 4) students’ collaboration with peers and
educators to solve real-world problems and tasks (collaborative problem solving), often through
project-based learning, where they plan and implement action projects that address these issues,
solidifying knowledge and fostering practical application.
Despite numerous international and national change interventions, research across various
disciplines including education (Hallinger & Heck, 2010), indicates limited eectiveness in achieving
desired outcomes. Scholars attribute this to several factors: resource constraints (Fullan, 2015),
unclear goals (conceptual ambiguity), resistance to change (negative attitudes & history), fragmen-
ted eorts, workload pressures, and a lack of stakeholder participation (Walker et al., 2012).
Other studies have focused their attention on the dominant role that falls to teachers as practi-
tioners of educational policies and technological-didactic environments (Grimaldi, 2006) in order to
transform the didactic and training potential of the Internet into good net-education practices – the
latter dened as the set of didactic activities and learning processes that make massive use of the
Internet as a technological infrastructure, and the web as a cultural repository. The interest regarding
these policies and environments relies in their aim towards the needs of a generation of students –
the digital natives – born within the context of the change taking place, accustomed to socializing
with the school environment through digital technologies (Ferri, 2011; Prensky, 2001). Central to this
research is the capacity of the new learning environments to stimulate student interaction, enhan-
cing the cognitive and also the emotional component of learning, in order to guarantee the concrete
development of transversal competences (social, citizenship, learning to learn) and of digital
literacy – which appear increasingly central within the school curriculum.
Thus, investigating higher education Lebanese students’ eco-citizenship attitudes, as aimed at by
our study, may reect on the importance of integrating environmental ethics, responsibility, and
sustainability into Lebanese HEIs courses.
Environmental citizenship behavior
According to D’Arco and Marino (2022), environmental citizenship behaviour can be dened as ‘pro-
environmental behavior [PEB], in public and private, driven by a belief in the fairness of the
distribution of environmental goods, in participation, and in the co-creation of sustainability policy.’
(p.186). Indeed, environmental protection refers to individuals’ behaviours towards the protection of
the environment. Everyday ‘green’ behaviours, such as selective sorting of household waste, are
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 3
examples of PEBs, but they can also serve as adaptive responses to climate change, such as buying
environmentally sustainable products (local food, green cleaning products), conserving water, or
changing travel modes, such as buying an electric vehicle or building an o-grid house (Lee & Khan,
2020). Scientic literature emphasizes the importance of understanding how students initiate
innovative and spontaneous environmentally friendly actions. Indeed, D’Arco and Marino (2022)
found that student awareness of the consequences of their behaviours is positively related to the
attributions of responsibility and personal norms in both private and public environmental citizen-
ship behaviours. Thus, understanding why students choose to adopt ‘“environmental citizenship
behaviors”’ leads to examining higher education students’ attitudes towards environmental citizen-
ship (Priadi et al., 2018). Moreover, Priadi et al. (2018) found that universities increasing the integra-
tion of environmental policies about the ongoing environmental challenges leads to decentralizing
their initiatives to their students, thus making them act as agents of change. According to Code
(2020), regulation, control, and monitoring of students’ own learning are inherent features of agency,
which refers to the individual capacity to make a choice about their actions to succeed (Martin, 2004).
Code (2020) found that the dimensions of agentic functioning include motivation, self-regulation,
and self-ecacy. An essential characteristic of human functioning is self-ecacy, which is a self-
reective belief in one’s ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997). Thus, students’ eectiveness in regulating
their cognitive, aective, and behavioural processes towards the environment’s protection is linked
to their self-reective beliefs as well as their motivation.
Eco-citizenship factors
Education for environmental citizenship emphasizes intellectual growth (the cognitive domain) as
well as emotional growth (the aective domain) to enable individuals to become critical and actively
engaged in environmental issues (Goldman et al., 2020). Ergen et al. (2014) found that Environmental
knowledge is an inuential factor for predicting environmental behaviour and activism. Studies have
shown that environmentalist behaviour is inuenced by a variety of sociocultural, personal, and
environmental factors, including perceived seriousness of environmental problems, knowledge
about environmental issues, environmental concern, values, lifestyles, and demographics (Ergen
et al., 2014; Islam et al., 2023). Indeed, knowledge gained through environmental activism was found
to be attributed to pro-environmental behaviour (Jagers & Matti, 2010). Thus, both knowledge
brought by activities in public and private organizations and formal education in universities can
inuence eco-citizenship behaviours. Hence, students’ activities in organizations, clubs, or outside
university groups are one main predictor of PEBs (Jagers & Matti, 2010). Students’ past and present
actions, knowledge, concepts, skills, attitudes, values, future actions inside school, future actions
outside school, and future actions as agents of change as eco-citizens (ECn) were found to be nine
essential dimensions describing the characteristics of environmental citizenship and the intention to
inuence change (Hadjichambis & Paraskeva-Hadjichambi, 2020).
Building on these insights, we can dene environmental citizenship in a Lebanese context as
a holistic approach that equips individuals with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to
critically analyse environmental challenges facing Lebanon, actively participate in solutions, and
advocate for a more sustainable future. This denition emphasizes the importance of both cognitive
and aective development, alongside the crucial role of experiential learning through participation
in environmental initiatives specic to Lebanon’s unique sociocultural context.
Environmental motivation
Behaviour strategies have been compared with environmental knowledge and attitudes as predic-
tors of environmental behaviour to determine their impact on environmental consciousness
(Pelletier et al., 1998). Being found insucient to foster environmentally conscious behaviours in
the long run, Pelletier et al. (1998) suggest continual contingencies, such as motivation to gain
4M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
behavioural persistence towards the environment. Particularly in the theory of self-determination
developed by Deci and Ryan (1985), three universal psychological factors inuence individuals and
groups’ motivation: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Deci and Ryan
(1985) identied two sub-theories of the psychological factors of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. Unlike extrinsically motivated behaviours, which are pursued for an external purpose
(e.g. to receive rewards, avoid punishment, or support one’s self-belief), intrinsically motivated
behaviours are pursued for pleasure, regardless of external motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Deci
and Ryan (1985, 2002) identied a spectrum of subtypes of extrinsic motivation regulation, some of
which still help people persist in behaviours that are not intrinsically satisfying. The spectrum of
extrinsic motivation includes external regulation, introduced regulation, identied regulation, and
integrated regulation. A person who regulates his or her behaviour according to his or her values,
goals, and needs is said to be practicing integrated regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Integrated
regulation behaviour is very similar to intrinsically motivated behaviour, except that it is still
determined by external outcomes (Pelletier et al., 1998). A fundamental psychological need that is
met by intrinsically regulated motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985) autonomy, competence, and related-
ness. According to Pelletier et al. (1998), knowledge and attitudes about the environment don’t
appear to be sucient to foster environmentally conscious behaviour. As a result, the presumed
relationships between these factors and environmental behaviour are ecient over the short term
only. Environmental citizenship behaviour would not be sustained without continuous contingen-
cies (Pelletier et al., 1998). Motivating behaviour as a means of gaining insight into behavioural
persistence was proposed as a method of study (Aronson & Gonzales, 1990). Thus, considering
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is key to eco-citizenship behaviour persistence (De Young, 1986).
A study conducted by Guerra et al. (2022) found that the proposed conceptual framework, which
includes three dimensions: personal values, behaviours, and the context of action for sustainability,
eectively aids in understanding how students’ agency intersects with their learning about sustain-
ability. Participants demonstrated a strong awareness of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
and expressed motivation to contribute towards their achievement, consistent with the emphasis on
environmental sustainability in engineering education. However, there were inconsistencies in
students’ beliefs regarding the relevance of sustainability to their own lives, inuencing their
engagement levels. This highlights the signicance of beliefs in shaping attitudes and underscores
the need to empower students to translate their knowledge into strong beliefs and positive
attitudes, essential for taking action.
Higher education pivotal role in students eco-citizenship
Despite the previous eorts targeting citizenship education and environmental sustainability in
Lebanon (Cordis, 2006; Ghosn-Chelala & Akar, 2021), there is still a lack of focus on higher
education and Lebanese eco-citizenship behaviours. Drawing from their research agenda and
bolstered by practical examples illustrating successful integration of sustainability on a systemic
level (Fien, 2002), HEIs can play a pivotal role in fostering present and future leaders who
contribute signicantly to societal transformation (Mulder, 2010). By embracing sustainability
across all facets of their operations, HEIs can adopt a ‘whole-institution approach’ (WIA), poten-
tially catalysing their own transformation (Rieckmann, 2018). This, in turn, positions stakeholders
to become a collective voice within the global higher education (HE) community, serving as
esteemed advisors in policy making while also serving as exemplars in pursuit of a sustainable
future, aligning with the goals outlined in the 2030 Agenda (Corcoran et al., 2021). A recent study
by Sidiropoulos (2022) explored sustainability learning, focusing on critical components of the
educational system, including the learner’s individual context, the teaching environment
(Sustainability Education compared to conventional education), and learning outcomes. Key
overarching ndings included student resistance to sustainability education, convergence in
perspectives and attitudes towards an ‘anthropocentric environmentalist’ standpoint, i.e. to an
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 5
environmental perspective or approach that prioritizes human interests and concerns above all
other considerations within the natural world, limited empowerment and occasional disempo-
werment from sustainability education, a focus on personal behavioural changes rather than
professional action or agency, and limited instances of broader agency. Substantial and deeper
sustainability learning was observed through repeated exposure to sustainability education and
increased integration with students’ lived experiences. Based on the Sidiropoulos (2022) study,
the current sporadic approach to sustainability education in higher education proves ineective
in cultivating widespread change agents. Thus, the focus of our study is on the Lebanese higher
education students, as they are part of the HE community as agents of change.
Research questions
There is a research gap in exploring the unique motivations and demographic predictors of Lebanese
HE students with environmental citizenship concerns (Dansholm, 2015). This study explores how
environmental citizenship is embodied by students across Lebanese universities to contribute to
widespread knowledge about local issues of sustainable behaviours and attitudes.
A few studies have examined the relationship between sociodemographic and environmental
values. Sargisson et al. (2020) claim that while it is dicult to establish a link between sociodemo-
graphic and environmental values, they found that environmental values rarely correlate with
sociodemographic. Nevertheless, the results of their study show that for 11,820 participants across
seven European countries, sociodemographic variables (gender, age, income, education, urbaniza-
tion level, and political orientation) predicted environmental values (Sargisson et al., 2020). In
Lebanon, Haidari et al. (2022) found that participants’ knowledge of environmental safety and
practice was associated with several socio-demographic factors (age, educational level).
Our research raises two research questions aiming to understand environmental citizenship in the
Lebanese higher education (HE) context:
●RQ1: To what extent do Lebanese HE students express environmental motivation and environ-
mental citizenship, actions, values, and competences?
●RQ2: Do Lebanese HE students’ demographics inuence environmental citizenship?
Method
Sample
This research is based on a survey method following a quantitative, comparative approach char-
acterized by data analysis techniques using exploratory and conrmatory factor analyses and
variance comparisons. Participants in this study consisted of Lebanese students’ Lebanese univer-
sities. The sampling method followed in this paper was both random and non-random. A sampling
technique can be classied into either probability (based on random criteria) or non-probability
(based on predened criteria), according to Ell and Negida (2017). On one hand, this study
considered reaching university students in Lebanon via the list of “representatives of educational
mobilization in universities’’, joining the contacts of each representative of the following universities:
Lebanese university (faculty of : Science in Hadath and Debbieh, Pharmacy, Agriculture, Literature,
Engineering, Arts, Management, Dentistry, General Medicine, Public Health, Information, Education,
Social Sciences), American University of Beirut (AUB), Lebanese American University LAU (in Beirut,
and Jbeil), Beirut Arab University (Beirut, Debbieh), Maaref University, Lebanese International
University (LIU), Saint Joseph University (USJ), Islamic University (IUL) (in Khaldeh and Wardaniya),
Antonine University (UA), University Of Sciences And Arts In Lebanon (USAL), American University of
Science and Technology (AUST). On the other hand, a snowball non random sampling method was
also used, inviting participants reached by representatives to provide us with access to their
6M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
colleagues from the same population. Participants were assured of full condentiality, and their
participation was voluntary. Ethical measures were ensured as participants were fully informed about
the purpose of the survey, insured with condentiality and anonymity. The nal sample consisted of
a total of N = 355 participants (65.6% of Females).
Most of the sample consisted of young learners. 55.5% of the Lebanese students were between 17
and 20 years old, 42% between 20 and 30, and only 2.5% were between 30 and 54 years old. As for
the students' participation in the study, most were from Lebanese universities (76.6%), ULS (4.5%),
and USJ (4.5%). Little participation was seen in the rest of the universities (1.4% Sagesse University,
2.3% American University of Beirut, 0.8% Lebanese American University, 1.4% Beirut Arab University,
0.3% Islamic University, 0.6% Maaref University, 0.6% Phoenicia University, 0.3% Institut Supérieur
des Sciences Appliquées et Économiques, 1.1% Notre Dame University, 1.7% University of Balamand,
1.1% University Antonine, 1.7% Holy Spirit University of Kaslik, 0.3% Maten University College of
Technology). As for the student’s academic year, Lebanese in higher education who participated
were mostly in their 1st academic year (30.7%) and 2nd (17.5%). As for the rest, 16.1% of participants
were in their 3rd, 10.4% in their 4th, 13.2% in their 5th, and 12.1% in their 6th or more academic year.
Regarding the study majors of the participants, their majors were very diversied and were as
follows: STEM (61.1%); social sciences (15.2%); art and humanity (3.9%); law (4.2%); business and
management (9.3%); and health (6.2%) (see Table 2).
Measures
The survey used for data collection employed a questionnaire measuring six demographic items
(gender, age, country, university, academic year, major).
Several denitions of citizenship have been developed, including environmental citizenship
(Martinez-Alier & Shmelev, 2014), green citizenship Barry (2008), ecological citizenship (Jagers &
Matti, 2010) and sustainability citizenship Barry (2008). Based on the review conducted by
Environmental Evidence Australia (2012), there is still no consensus on what constitutes environ-
mental citizenship, as well as the most eective methods and tools for implementing environmental
citizenship. According to (Hadjichambis & Paraskeva-Hadjichambi, 2020), environmental citizenship
needs to be conceptualized in a 21st century context. More than 120 experts from 38 countries
participating in the ongoing European Network for Environmental Citizenship (ENEC) project, dene
environmental citizenship as:
The responsible pro-environmental behaviour of citizens who act and participate in society as agents of change
in the private and public spheres on a local, national and global scale, through individual and collective actions
in the direction of solving contemporary environmental problems, preventing the creation of new environ-
mental problems, achieving sustainability and developing a healthy relationship with nature. “Environmental
Citizenship” includes the practice of environmental rights and duties, as well as the identication of the
underlying structural causes of environmental degradation and environmental problems, the development of
the willingness and the competences for critical and active engagement and civic participation to address those
structural causes, and to act individually and collectively within democratic means, taking into account inter-
and intra-generational justice. (ENEC, 2018)
To predict whether individuals are acting as agents of change towards the environment to achieve
sustainability, the survey that Hadjichambis and Paraskeva-Hadjichambi (2020) have developed an
environmental citizenship questionnaire (ECQ) consisting of nine factors with 76 items in total that
was used as it came to answer the comprehensive holistic instrument need for environmental
citizenship research based on the (ENEC, 2018) denition. To investigate eco-citizenship in the
Lebanese context, we used the reduced version of the ECQ (rECQ), which was validated in separate
research (Chaker et al., paper in progress) and adapted to the higher education context. It was
reduced to 32 items respecting the original 9 factor structure, distributed in three second-order
dimensions: eco-citizenship activities, competences, and intentions. The questionnaire uses 4-point
Likert scales, with the wording depending on each group of items, as shown in Table 1:
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 7
The survey used either the English or the Arabic language. Lebanon is a founding member and
part of the 22 Arab League countries. Although English and French are also used in Lebanon, Arabic
is the ocial language of the country, as with most Arab League countries (Karuga, 2017). The survey
was originally constructed in Greek, with the English version available from Hadjichambis and
Paraskeva-Hadjichambi (2020). By following the transcultural validation methodology proposed by
Vallerand (1989), we translated the original English version to Arabic. A back translation was applied,
and two bilingual researchers compared the back translated English version with the original English
version survey. The needed modications were adjusted.
Regarding the motivational scale, Pelletier et al. (1998) have developed the Motivation Toward
the Environment Scale (MTES) based on the self-determination continuum. Being considered the
most autonomously regulated motivation factors, regulation extrinsic factors and intrinsic motiva-
tion were retained from the MTES. The survey included 8 items with a 7-point Likert scale (e.g. Taking
Table 1. ECQ dimensions and factors.
Dimensions Factors
Number
of items Scale
Eco-Citizenship
Activities
Past Actions as
ECn
4 1: Yes, I have done this within the last 6 months; 2: Yes, I have done this but
more than 6 months ago; 3: Yes, I have done this but more than 1 year
ago; 4: No, I have never done this
Eco-Citizenship
competences
Knowledge for
ECn
3 1: Not all; 2: To a small extent; 3: To a moderate extent; 4: To a large extent.
Conceptions for
ECn
4 1: Not important at all; 2: Not very important; 3: Quite important; 4: Very
important
Skills of ECn 3 1: Not at all; 2: Not very well; 3: Fairly well; 4: Very well
Attitudes of ECn 4 1: Very much disagree; 2: Disagree; 3: Agree; 4: Very much agree
Values of ECn 5 1: Not important; 2: Slightly important; 3: Important; 4: Most important
Eco-Citizenship
intentions
Future actions
inside school
3 1: Not at all likely; 2: Not very likely; 3: Quite likely; 4: Very likely
Future Actions
outside school
4 1: I would certainly not do this; 2: I would probably not do this; 3: I would
probably do this; 4: I would certainly do this
Agents of Change 2 1: I would certainly not do this; 2: I would probably not do this; 3: I would
probably do this; 4: I would certainly do this
Table 2. Sample characteristics.
Variable Modality Percent (%) Frequency
Gender Male 34.4 122
Female 65.6 233
Academic year 1st 30.7 109
2nd 17.5 62
3rd 16.1 57
4th 10.4 37
5th 13.2 47
6th and plus 12.1 43
Age 17-21 63.9 227
21-25 26.5 94
25-29 7.3 26
29-33 .8 3
33-37 .6 2
37-42 .3 1
42-47 .3 1
University Public 76.9 273
Private 23.1 82
Major STEM 61.1 217
Social sciences 15.2 54
Art and humanity 3.9 14
Law 4.2 15
Business and management 9.3 33
Health 6.2 22
8M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
care of myself and the environment are inseparable; For fun, mastering new ways to help the
environment; I love the feeling when I do something useful towards the environment; Taking care
of the environment has an impact on how I live).
Data analysis
Data was conducted using SPSS Version 26.0 and AMOS 22 and was analysed by descriptive
statistical analysis, inferential statistics, and factorial analyses. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA)
was conducted to verify rECQ factors’ structure using SPSS, yielding nine tested factors as in the
original ECQ publication and in the previous reduction and adaptation study (Chaker et al., paper in
progress). For the Conrmatory Factorial Analysis (CFA), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Goodness of
Fit (GFI), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) were used to verify the t between
the model and the data (Karam, 2008; Wah, 2023).
Demographic criteria with very diversied modalities were grouped after data collection (see
Table 1). Thus, age scales were grouped based on a generational criterion, universities based on
public and private distribution, and majors based on faculties.
Results
Factors correlation
The data distribution does not yield normal distributions for the factors (p < 0.001). Thus, non-
parametric statistical tests will be used. Spearman correlation tests between factors were conducted
as shown in Table 3:
Validity and reliability scores
The EFA yielded satisfying indices of validation (KMO = 0.934; Chi
2
= 10983.8, df = 780, p = 0.001).
CFA indicated good to very good indices of t (Chi
2
/df = 1,94; p < .000). GFI = 0.866; CFI = 0.94;
NNFI = 0.93) (Hu & Bentler, 1999). RMSEA = 0,052, hence above the minimum criteria (MacCallum
et al., 2010).
Cronbach alphas for all constructs yielded satisfactory indices above 0.7 (Table 4). The
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test revealed that the data distribution does not yield a normal distribution
for the constructs (p < 0.001), hence non parametric statistics tests will be used.
Table 3. Spearman correlation between factors.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 Past Actions as ECn –
2 Knowledge for ECn .084 –
3 Conceptions for ECn −.091 .451** –
4 Skills of ECn −.046 .485** .596** –
5 Attitudes of ECn −.015 .268** .492** .335** –
6 Values of ECn .013 .271** .510** .373** .575** –
7 Future actions inside school −.001 .440** .575** .631** .390** .422** –
8 Future Actions outside school −.110* .347** .488** .537** .349** .361** .689** –
9 Agents of Change −.070 .398** .503** .460** .452** .460** .597** 619** –
10 Extrinsic motivation −.050 .345** .440** .325** .380** .422** .449** .372** .428** –
11 Intrinsic motivation −.025 .337** .422** .315** .397** .392** .438** .363** .434** .894**
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed), * Significant at the 0.05 level (one-tailed).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 9
Research question 1: environmental citizenship expressions
Results show that Lebanese students are both extrinsically and intrinsically (integrated regulation)
motivated for environmental behaviours, scoring the same on the motivation scale (M = 4.50; SD =
1.94) and (M = 4.52; SD = 1.93) respectively (Table 2).
Descriptive results also show relatively high eco-citizenship Competences including Knowledge
(M = 2.5; SD = 0.98), Conception (M = 3.14; SD = 0.76), Skills (M = 2.66; SD = 0.87), Attitudes (M = 3.45;
SD = 0.69) and Values (M = 3.44; SD = 0.65) of an eco-citizen. Additionally, Lebanese students present
high eco-citizenship Intentions including Future actions inside and outside school (M = 2.86; SD =
0.82 and M = 2.77; SD = 0.79, respectively), as well as high intentions to act as Agents of change (M =
3.15; SD = 0.72). Conversely, participants expressed low ECn Past actions (M = 1,77; SD = 0.92). Thus,
answering RQ1, Lebanese higher education students globally express environmental citizenship and
motivation to a moderate to high extent, except for past actions, which yielded rather low results.
Comparisons between past actions, competences, and intentions
We then ran within-factors’ comparative analyses to understand obtained results from an ordinal
point of view. We rst calculated the grand mean scores for Competences (M = 3.04; SD = 0.593) and
Intentions (M = 2.932; SD = .679). Results show that HE Lebanese students’ environmental citizenship
Past Actions (M = 1.77; SD = .92) scores are signicantly lower from Competences score (Z = −3.955;
p = .000; eect size = 0.209) and Intentions score (Z = −5.11; p = .000; eect size = 0.271), with a mean
dierence of M = 2.26; SD = 0.335 and M = 1.162; SD = 0.249 respectively.
We also found that students’ Competences’ mean scores are signicantly higher than Intentions
(Z=−.4.4; p = .000), with a mean dierence of (M = 1. 67; SD = 0.086).
Research question 2: demographic predictors
To answer RQ2, each factor from the ECQ and the Motivation Toward the Environment Scale were
veried as dependent variables against demographics as independent variables. Results are shown
in Table 5:
Past actions
Lebanese university students showed on average a low engagement in environmental past
actions (M = 1.77; SD = .92) such as organization collecting money for an environmental
purpose, human rights organizations, animal rights or animal welfare groups, and environ-
mental organizations overall. Dierences between students in terms of past environmental
actions were found between students from dierent academic levels (U = 26.79; p = .000),
dierent age ranges (H = 25.89; df = 2; p = .000), and dierent universities (U = 9151;Z = −2.727;
p = .006). Indeed, as shown in Table 3, students in their 6
th
or plus academic year (M = 2.23;
Table 4. Cronbach alpha, mean, standard deviation.
Dimensions Factors Mean SD Cronbach alpha Normality
Eco-Citizenship Activities Past Actions as ECn 1.77 .92 0.857 .202*
Eco-Citizenship competences Knowledge for ECn 2.50 .98 0.879 .100*
Conceptions for ECn 3.14 .76 0.874 .133*
Skills of ECn 2.66 .87 0.827 .092*
Attitudes of ECn 3.45 .69 0.875 .217*
Values of ECn 3.44 .65 0.872 .199*
Eco-Citizenship intentions Future actions inside school 2.86 .82 0.824 .115*
Future Actions outside school 2.77 .79 0.844 .082*
Agents of Change 3.15 .72 0.761 .179*
Eco-citizenship motivation Extrinsic motivation 4.50 1.94 0.942 .121*
Intrinsic motivation 4.52 1.93 0.945 .115*
*p < 0.001.
10 M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
Table 5. Inferential tests between factors and demographics.
Demographics
factors
Gender
(Mann Whitney U)
Academic year (Kruskal Wallis
Bonferroni Correction (BC)
=0.0033)
Age
(Kruskal Wallis
BC=0.016)
University
(Mann Whitney U) Major (Kruskal Wallis BC=0.0033)
Past Actions as ECn n.s. H=26.79
df=5
P=.000
Differences between:
1
st <
6
th
2
nd
<6
th
H=25.89
df=2
P=.000
Differences between:
less 20Yo <20-30Yo
U=9151
P=.006
Effect size=0.14
Differences
between:
Public<private
n.s.
Knowledge for ECn n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Conceptions for ECn n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Skills of ECn n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Attitudes of ECn U=12172
P=.004
Effect size=0.15
Differences
between:
Females>males
n.s. n.s. U=9540.5
P=.009
Effect size=0.13
Differences
between:
Public<private
H=14.224
df=5
P=0.014 No differences detected in post-hoc
tests
Values of ECn U=12627
P=.024
Effect size=0.12
Differences
between:
Females>males
n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Future actions inside
school
n.s. H=22.144
df=5
P=.000
Differences between:
1
st
-<3
rd
3
rd
>5
th
n.s. n.s. H=15.326
df=5
P=.009
No difference detected in post-hoc tests
Future Actions outside
school
n.s. H=12.895
df=5
P=.024
Differences between:
3
rd
>5
th
n.s. n.s. n.s.
Agents of Change U=12168.5
Z=−2.458
P=.014
Effect size=0.13
Differences
between:
Females>males
H=15.074
df=5
P=.010
Differences between:
2
nd
>6
th
H=6.075
df=2
P=.048
No difference detected in post-hoc
tests
n.s. n.s.
Extrinsic motivation n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
Intrinsic motivation n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s.
BC=Bonferroni correction; KW= Kruskal Wallis.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 11
SD = .68) were found to be more engaged in environmental activities than students in their
1st (M = 1.63; SD = .70) (U = 1328.5; P.000) and 2
nd
(M = 1.66; SD = .65) (U = 769; P.000) academic
years. Likewise, activity engagement dierences were also found (U = 10570.5; P.000) between
students aged less than 20 (M = 1.61; SD = .67) and students between 20 and 30 years old (M
= 1.97; SD = .69) more engaged in environmental activities. Results display a tendency for
older students to be ‘better environmental citizens’, in terms of past environmental activities.
Regarding the type of university (U = 9151; p = .006), students in private universities (M = 1.97;
SD = .75) were more likely to be engaged in environmental activities than students in public
ones (M = 1.72; SD = .67).
Environmental competences
In regards to students' knowledge for ECn (to contribute to the solution of environmental problems,
achieve sustainability, and full environmental rights and duties); concepts for ECn (to promote
environmental rights, benet the environment, peaceful protests against unjust laws, and to discuss
an environmental conict); and skills for ECn (arguing and writing their view on a controversial
environmental issue), no signicant dierences in terms of gender, age, university major, and
academic year were found (Table 3).
Regarding students’ Attitudes towards ECn (that aims at encouraging measures against
climate change, stricter laws and regulations to protect the environment, and companies’
responsibility towards disposable articles and employee’s equity in rich and poor countries),
gender (U = 12172; p = .004) and major (U = 9540.5; p = .009) dierences between Lebanese stu-
dents were found table 3). Indeed, females reported better Attitudes of ECn (M = 3.54; SD = .62)
than males (M = 3.30; SD = .78). In regards of the type of university, Attitudes of ECn of students
in public universities (M = 2.71; SD = .56) are higher than those of students in private universities
(M = 2.52; SD = .67) (U = 9540.5; p = .009). Unlike the gender and university dierences in terms of
Attitudes towards ECn that were poor (Eect size = 0.15; = 0.13 respectively) but still detectable,
students in dierent majors’ Attitudes towards ECn dierences couldn’t be detected due to the
Bonferroni correction. Although demographical dierences were not systematically veried in
terms of Attitudes of ECn, Lebanese students reported the higher score in this competence
compared to all other factors (Table 2) (M = 3.45; SD = .69). Students reported high scores in
Values of ECn (M = 3.44; SD = .65), female students (M = 3.50; SD = .76) reported higher Values of
ECn than males (M = 3.50; SD = .57) (U = 12627; p = .024), consisting in respecting nature, protect-
ing the environment, preventing environmental pollution, being in unity with nature, and
discouraging war or conicts.
Environmental intentions
Lebanese students’ For future actions inside school (joining a group of students campaigning for an
environmental issue; organizing a group of students to achieve environmental changes at school;
and taking part in environmental discussions in a student assembly), scores diered according to the
students’ academic year (H = 22.144; df = 5; p = .000) (Table 3). Indeed, students in the 3
rd
academic year (M = 3.22; SD = .77) recoded better than students in the 1
st
(M = 2.68; SD = .80)
(U = 1991.5; P.000) and 5
th
(M = 2.58; SD = .71) year (U = 796.5; P.000). Although a dierence has
been seen in terms of student majors, yet the dierence couldn’t be located due to the Bonferroni
correction.
Regarding students’ intentions in Future Actions outside school (participate in an online campaign,
collect signatures for a petition, organize an online group to take a stance on a controversial environ-
mental issue, contribute to an online discussion forum about environmental issues), students’ scores
diered according to students’ academic year (H = 12.895; df = 5; p = .024) (Table 3). Students in the 3
rd
academic year (M = 3.05; SD = .81) recoded better than students in the 5
th
(M = 2.53; SD = .58).
In regards with the factor agents of change (students educate their peers but also adults to act in
eco-friendly ways, change society and promote sustainability), Lebanese students’ scores diered
12 M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
according to their gender (U = 12168.5;Z = −2.458; p = .014) and academic year (H = 15.074; df = 5; p
= .010). While age dierence wasn’t detected between modalities due to the Bonferroni correction,
gender dierence showed that females scored higher (M = 3.23; SD = .68) that males (M = 3; SD = .78)
in terms of being an agent of change. Alongside, scores also diered according to academic year at
university where 2
nd
year students scored higher (M = 3.25; SD = .79) than 6
th
year students (M = 2.93;
SD = .70).
Environmental motivation
Regarding students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation scores, no demographic dierence in terms of
motivational factors was detected (Table 3).
Discussion
This study aimed to investigate the Lebanese university students’ environmental citizenship actions,
competences, and future actions, as well as their motivation towards environmental behaviour.
Despite the previous empirical and theoretical investigations conducted in Lebanon about educa-
tional practices for environmental sustainability, environmental awareness through education, and
eco-citizenship politics, the gap regarding the dynamics of eco-citizenship concerns remained
insuciently covered.
Lebanese higher students’ environmental citizenship
Results from this study show that Lebanese students were poorly engaged in past environmental
actions. Conversely, they have relatively high knowledge, skills, and willingness to engage in future
actions inside and outside the university. More precisely, the highest scores were observed for
conceptions of environmental citizenship, attitudes, and values. Our results are in line with Hajj
et al. (2017), who investigated Lebanese universities’ sustainability practices and courses integration
into their curricula and whether administrators at these universities are currently or plan to provide
students with positive educational experiences through addressing sustainability concepts and
tools. Feedback from participants showed a clear and urgent need to reform universities’ products
and processes about environmental sustainability and practices, as well as a need for government
support. Although Hajj et al. (2017) reported that universities in Lebanon have been progressively
integrating sustainability into their curricula, to dierent degrees from 50 years ago today, our study
shows that Lebanese students declare environmentally friendly behaviours regardless of past
actions, and no clear correlation was detected between past actions and eco-citizenship predictors
(competence and intention) as well as motivation. According to Christensen (2016), individuals
consider facing a problem based on their own preferences, knowledge gathered from their sur-
roundings, and anity to contribute to the solution, not based on their past experiences, which
justies our results, which do not display a correlation between past actions and their eco-citizenship
intentions. Lebanese students’ environmental behaviours can be inuenced by practices and knowl-
edge of their surroundings, regardless of their own experiences (Khalifé et al., 2022). Hence, it is
possible to propose that future actions could be self-projected regardless of one’s past actions, and
informed based on actual context (in our case, the urgency of environmental issues), as proposed by
the hierarchical and situated approach of motivation (Vallerand & Lalande, 2011).
Results from this study reveal that Lebanese students have strong intentions to engage in future
eco-citizenship activities. Alongside, students’ scores indicated higher perceived ECn intentions than
perceived competences in environmental citizenship. Indeed, university students’ perceived com-
petence is promoted by university curricula, which encourage active participation and collaboration.
Only through pedagogical methods can the essential competencies required to advance sustainable
development be eectively developed (Pálsdóttir & Jóhannsdóttir, 2021). Although no correlation
was detected between students’ past actions and perceived competence, students scored higher on
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 13
their perceived intentions due to their high level of motivation (Howard et al., 2021) found that HE
students ‘motivation is a main predictive variable of their future intentions in acting as agents of
change towards the environment. Our study results thus conrm the self-determination theory of
Pelletier et al. (1998) aforementioned in the literature.
Demographic factors and environmental citizenship
The results of this paper assessed the demographic factors contributing to Lebanese students'
eco-citizenship behaviours. In regards to past actions, students in the 6th academic year were
more engaged in environmental activities than students in the 1st and 2nd years, which
justies the age range dierence, making students between 20 and 30 years old more engaged
than students younger than 20. According to Igalens (2022), older people are more committed
to eco-friendly practices, and they are more willing to act in line with their beliefs than
younger people, according to a recent survey. Another factor of dierence was the type of
university, where students in private universities were found to be more engaged in eco-
citizenship activities. Indeed, Hammoud and Tarabay (2019) investigated higher education
eorts and initiatives for environmental sustainability at Rac Hariri University (a Lebanese
public university). They found that environmental past actions are either too few or too poorly
researched and reported. Regarding competencies linked to environmental citizenship,
Lebanese students showed no dierence in terms of knowledge conceptions and skills
between females and males, students in dierent academic years, universities, majors, and
students with dierent ages. Nevertheless, students reported high scores for environmental
attitudes and values, with females having a higher score than males. Mekhael and Shayya
(2018) studied the inuence of variables such as type of school, gender, the presence of an
environmental club in school, and membership in the environmental club on the levels of
sustainable development knowledge while surveying 437 students from 20 schools in Lebanon.
The results showed that female students self-declared better sustainable development skills
than males, and this was due to their greater environmental attitudes and values. Moreover, Li
et al. (2022) studied whether gender inuenced pro-environmental psychology and behaviours
in people in China through surveying a sample of 532 Chinese respondents. This study showed
that gender aected green psychology and behaviours, with females reporting a higher level
of environmentalism. Regarding future actions, students recorded the same in both future
actions inside and outside school, with students in the 3rd academic year more intended for
environmental actions than students in the 1st and last years of university. Further investiga-
tion is encouraged to dig in depth and reveal the possible reasons behind students’
academic year’s impact on students' environmental intentions. As for the students acting as
agents of change, female students reported better scores than males. Those results are in line
with those of Oweini and Houri (2006), who assessed the concern, knowledge, willingness to
act, and present and past behaviour of Lebanese college students regarding the environment,
gender, and age. Overall, the results indicated signicant relationships between knowledge,
experience, and gender, with males reporting marginal associations with willingness to act,
actual behaviour, and experience compared to females. In addition, eco-citizenship compe-
tences and intentions predictors were found to be all correlated, with a strong correlation
between students’ environmental skills, future action inside and outside school, and agents of
change.
Environmental motivation
Regarding students' environmental motivation, students scored high on both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation, with no dierence in terms of demographic factors. Those results are in
line with D’Arco and Marino (2022), who found that student awareness of the consequences
14 M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
of their behaviours is positively related to the attributions of responsibility and personal
norms in both private and public environmental citizenship behaviours, leading to intrinsic
motivation. Wachholz et al. (2014) examined the correlation between knowledge, attitudes,
intentions, and contentment concerning climate change among college students. These
investigations align with ndings indicating that individuals possessing extensive knowledge
and favourable environmental attitudes are inclined towards engaging in eco-friendly actions
(DiGiusto et al., 2018). According to ndings from the study by Shaei and Maleksaeidi
(2020), several factors directly inuenced pro-environmental behaviour, including environ-
mental attitude, self-ecacy, perceived costs of pro-environmental actions, and perceived
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards associated with current environmentally unfriendly behaviours.
The study showed that recognizing the signicance of environmental attitudes and self-
ecacy, implementing strategies and incentives to enhance students’ attitudes towards the
importance of environmental conservation, and bolstering their sense of self-ecacy can
potentially enhance the likelihood of pro-environmental actions within the community.
Implications and limitations
Despite the empirical yield of this paper contributing to lling the gap about Lebanese eco-
citizenship attitudes and competences, this study entails some limitations. On the one hand,
the female participation rate and the demographic spread of the sample don’t reect the
broader cultural and social dynamics in Lebanese higher education, which could inuence
the generalizability of the ndings. On the other hand, data was mainly collected from
universities in Beirut and the suburb of Beirut, limiting the generalization of the sample to
a limited geographical zone in Lebanon. Moreover, the disparity between participants from
public and private universities, as well as the disparity of students’ participation from
dierent majors, were limiting aspects of this paper. Thus, further implications are suggested
for a more complex and nuanced relationship between factors and environmental citizenship,
drawing deeper insights about the tested items proposed in this study. Alongside, further
studies are encouraged to explore how Lebanese eco-citizenship behaviours and motivation
are aected by sustainable awareness workshops to shed light on the potential inuence of
past actions on students’ environmental citizenship behaviours and intended future actions.
Another insightful investigation is studying the inuence of students' educational back-
grounds on their environmental citizenship behaviours. Findings of such a study can empha-
size relevance across various disciplines targeting environmental education strategies that
address the specic needs and motivations of students from dierent demographic
backgrounds.
Several practical implications were concluded leveraging the strength of an eective approach
to environmental citizenship behaviour through educational institutions. Out of which, designing
educational programmes that consider the dierent motivational factors and interests of male
and female students. Encourage group projects that require collaboration between male and
female students on environmental issues. This can foster mutual learning and appreciation of
diverse perspectives. On a university implementation initiative, it is suggested to create recycling
programme initiatives and sustainability challenges that actively engage students through
a rewarding and recognition system for student environmental contributions. Another practical
implication is fostering environmental sensitization by providing training for teachers and sta
on inclusivity in environmental education. This can help create a more supportive and encoura-
ging environment for all students. Launch campaigns that raise awareness about the importance
of environmental citizenship and the role that every individual can play in sustainability eorts.
In addition, this paper evaluation strategy can help conduct regular assessments to evaluate the
eectiveness of environmental education programmes and initiatives. Furthermore, establishing
feedback mechanisms to gather input from students on environmental programmes can ensure
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH 15
that the feedback process is inclusive and considers the perspectives of students. We also
suggest integrating technology and digital platforms to engage students in environmental issues
(e.g. apps, online platforms, and social media to promote environmental citizenship activities that
appeal to tech-savvy students). Lastly, it is highly encouraged to implement gamication strate-
gies to make environmental activities more engaging in the context of Lebanese universities. As
part of sustainable development, Gough (2018), emphasizes the importance of fostering sus-
tained, inclusive and equitable economic growth, creating more opportunities for all, reducing
inequalities, and promoting equitable social development and inclusion. Through integrating and
sustaining management of natural resources, ecosystem conservation is facilitated, and the
regeneration, restoration and resilience in the face of new and emerging challenges is ensured
(Gough, 2018).
Conclusion
This study provides important insights about how students’ demographics inuence environ-
mental citizenship and motivation in Lebanese higher education. Results show that students in
Lebanese higher education’s ‘Past actions’ did not lead to environmental citizenship behaviours
and motivations for future eco-friendly actions. Despite the resemblance between Lebanese
students regarding eco-citizenship predictors, the gender dierence was signicant. Thus, the
results suggest that, while both genders may engage in similar activities and display similar
levels of motivation, they dier in their intentions and competences in terms of environmental
citizenship. Alongside, this study showed low student engagement in past eco-activities in HEI.
Acknowledging the pivotal role of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) in realizing
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Information and communication technologies,
employed in the age of digital didactics, can take on a propulsive function for change in
schools because of their transformative potential in school and learning environments (Lo
Presti, 2023). In this perspective, HEIs need to adopt an interdisciplinary approach, i.e., to
integrate digital and environmental citizenship competences within their curricula and research
(Borges et al., 2017).
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
The article is based upon work from the COST Action, PHOENIX, CA19123 supported by the COST (European cooperation in
Science and Technology). COST (European cooperation in Science and Technology is a funding agency for research and
innovation networks. Our Actions help connect research initiatives across Europe and enable scientists to grow their ideas
by sharing them with peers. This boosts their research, career and innovation (ref: www.cost.eu).
ORCID
Mira Hajj-Hassan http://orcid.org/0009-0001-3763-1397
Rawad Chaker http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4616-3246
Jinan Karameh Shayya http://orcid.org/0009-0003-7468-4310
Veronica Lo Presti http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2474-7200
Data availability statement
We do not analyse or generate any datasets, because our work proceeds within a theoretical and qualitative approach.
16 M. HAJJ-HASSAN ET AL.
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