Analysis of the legal framework and evolution of forensic linguistics in Poland and worldwide

Abstract

The article explores the intersection of forensic linguistics with legal and law enforcement frameworks, delineating its status and applications globally and specifically in Poland. It traces the historical evolution of forensic linguistics in Poland, detailing its practical implementations within the justice system. Additionally, the article forecasts future trends and developments in the field. Emphasizing the significant potential of forensic linguistics, the authors highlight the valuable contributions linguists can make to the justice system through their expertise and qualifications.

Full text

130 Jadwiga Stawnicka, Diana Lubandy
Zeszyty Naukowe
Akademii Górnośląskiej
Nr 11/2023, s. 130 - 139
DOI: 10.53259/2023.11.15
ISSN 2956-6673
e-ISSN 2956-6681
Jadwiga Stawnicka
Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego
im. Jerzego Kukuczki w Katowicach
Katowice, Polska
e-mail: j.stawnicka@awf.katowice.pl
ORCID 0000-0002-0404-5383
ANALYSIS OF THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND EVOLUTION
OF FORENSIC LINGUISTICS IN POLAND AND WORLDWIDE
EXPLORING THE EVOLUTION AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF FORENSIC LINGUISTICS:
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF POLAND AND GLOBAL CONTEXTS
Diana Lubandy
Vienna University of Economics and Business
Wiedeń, Austria
e-mail: diana@diananowek.com
ORCID 0000-0002-9759-2238
Keywords: linguistics, law, forensic linguistics, forensic expertise
Słowa kluczowe: lingwistyka, prawo, lingwistyka kryminalistyczna, ekspertyzy sądowe
Abstract
The article explores the intersection of forensic linguistics with legal and law enforcement frameworks,
delineating its status and applications globally and speci cally in Poland. It traces the historical
evolution of forensic linguistics in Poland, detailing its practical implementations within the justice
system. Additionally, the article forecasts future trends and developments in the  eld. Emphasizing the
signi cant potential of forensic linguistics, the authors highlight the valuable contributions linguists
can make to the justice system through their expertise and quali cations
Streszczenie
Artykuł opisuje status prawny i zastosowania lingwistyki kryminalistycznej, zajmującej przestrzeń pomiędzy
lingwistyką ,nauką o języku: a prawem, w tym organów ścigania. Autorzy podjęli próbę wyznaczenia statusu
lingwistyki kryminalistycznej na świecie i w Polsce. Artykuł przedstawia rozwój lingwistyki kryminalistycznej
w Polsce w ujęciu historycznym, oferuje praktyczne zastosowania dla wymiaru sprawiedliwości oraz podsumo-
wuje przyszły rozwój i trendy w tej dziedzinie w Polsce. Autorzy wskazują na ogromne możliwości, jakie otwiera
lingwistyka kryminalistyczna w zakresie wykorzystania lingwistów, ich wiedzy i kwali kacji w pracy na rzecz
wymiaru sprawiedliwości.
INTRODUCTION
Forensic linguistics, or legal linguistics or language and the law, is a specialised  eld that examines
the interaction and interrelationships between language, criminality, and law [Stawnicka, 2022, p.10].
It encompasses the study of language use in legal contexts, legal texts, and courts and the application
of linguistic analysis to legal issues. Forensic linguistics involves the examination of language
in various legal and forensic se ings, including police and law enforcement interactions, interviews
with witnesses and suspects, courtroom proceedings, legal documents, and linguistic evidence and
expert testimony in trials [Wright, 2020, p.611‒627]. It also encompasses the analysis of authorship and
plagiarism, forensic phonetics, speaker identi cation, and the study of hate speech and disinformation
in legal and social media contexts [Stawnicka, 2022, p.10‒15].

131Analysis of the Legal Framework and Evolution of Forensic Linguistics in Poland...
Forensic linguistics is a multidisciplinary science that plays a critical role in providing linguistic evidence,
analysing language use in legal and forensic seings, and contributing to the ecient presentation of
evidence in court proceedings. [Ariani et al., 2014, p.222‒225]. The status of forensic linguistics in the world
and in Poland and its development trends are topics of growing interest and signicance in both academic
and practical domains.
In the global context, forensic linguistics has gained recognition as a valuable tool in legal proceedings,
law enforcement, and judicial decision-making. The eld has witnessed signicant advancements in
methodology, technology, and interdisciplinary collaborations, contributing to its evolving status and
expanding relevance in diverse legal systems worldwide [Perkins, 2018, p.68‒78].
In the specic context of Poland, the status and development of forensic linguistics reect the broader
trends observed in the international arena. As a member of the European Union with its unique legal and
linguistic landscape, Poland presents distinct opportunities and challenges for integrating and advancing
forensic linguistic practices within its legal and criminal justice systems.
Thus, exploring linguistic evidence, language analysis in legal contexts, and the training of forensic
linguists are of particular interest to authors in the Polish context, shaping the current state and future
trajectory of forensic linguistics within the country.
APPLICATIONS OF FORENSIC LINGUISTICS GLOBALLY
The use of forensic linguistics in investigations, criminal cases, law enforcement, and court proceedings is
evident in various countries. For instance, in the United States, forensic linguistics has been used in cases
of disputed authorship in police statements [Goźdź-Roszkowski, 2021, p.1515‒1540]. Similarly, in the
UK, the emergence of forensic linguistics as a discipline is closely related to cases of disputed authorship
in police statements [Goźdź-Roszkowski, 2021, p.1515‒1540]. In Australia, forensic linguistics has been
applied in asylum seeker cases, highlighting the role of applied linguistics in questions of national
origin [Eades, 2005, p.503‒526]. In Germany, linguistic analysis has been conducted in trademark cases,
demonstrating the application of systemic and sociolinguistic approaches in analysing legal contexts
from the perspective of forensic linguistics [Okawara, 2008, p.101‒104].
In Indonesia, forensic linguistics has been applied in broadcasting talks, specically in the “Indonesia
Lawyers Club, ” to study honesty in language in a particular fugitive scandal, showcasing its role in
analysing language use in legal and forensic contexts [Musawir et al., 2022, p.40‒49]. In England and Wales,
streamlined reporting of forensic evidence has been implemented, emphasising the proportionate use and
staged production of forensic evidence at court through abbreviated forensic reports, contributing to the
ecient presentation of linguistic evidence in legal seings [Sallavaci, 2016, p. 235‒249]. Additionally,
the Aston Forensic Linguistic Databank (FoLD) has been developed, aiming to improve justice delivery
through language analysis, highlighting the signicance of linguistic analysis in legal contexts [Petyko et
al., 2022, p.9‒24].
These examples demonstrate the diverse applications of forensic linguistics in dierent countries,
showcasing its role in analysing language use in legal and forensic contexts, providing linguistic evidence
in criminal cases, and contributing to the ecient presentation of evidence in court proceedings.
THE CURRENT STATE OF FORENSIC LINGUISTICS IN POLAND
In Poland, experts use several terms to name this discipline: forensic linguistics, criminal linguistics,
and investigative linguistics. There has been interest in the language for legal and forensic purposes
since the mid-19th century. One of the rst researchers to use quantitative methods in linguistic
research was Wincenty Lutosławski, the creator of the term stylometry.
The rst doctoral dissertation devoted to the issues of forensic linguistics was the dissertation by Antoni
Feluś, defended in 1976 at the Department of Criminalistics of the Faculty of Law and Administration
of the University of Silesia, and the problems raised in it were reected in the monograph Identykacja

132 Jadwiga Stawnicka, Diana Lubandy
kryminalistyczna na podstawie języka pisanego Identykacja kryminalistyczna na podstawie języka pisanego
[Feluś, 2000] and in the monograph Z zagadnień językoznawstwa kryminalistycznego [Feluś, 2011].
There is no tradition of conducting linguistic analysis independently of the analysis of writing, writing
technique, pressure, measurable parameters: and the stylistic “ngerprint” of each author, i.e. individual
features of the language that can be measured, or detected in another way:. A stylistic ngerprint means
unconscious stylistic habits manifested, for example, by the overuse of certain words or phrases [Eder,
2014, p.92].
The development of forensic linguistics is primarily related to Poland, with the scientic activity not
of linguists but of lawyers. In the 1990s, B. Hołyst dealt with the “forensic branch of linguistics”, which
helps identify the creator or author of an evidentiary text [Hołyst, 1997, p.28 – 45]. In turn, the Lingwistyka
kryminalistyczna chapter in the book Psychologia kryminalistyczna [Hołyst, 2011, p.1325 – 1332] contains
indications of the three main bases of stylometry, i.e. the most frequently occurring linguistic features
found in the document, determining varieties and deviations using statistical analysis.
Already in the 1970s, interest in the topic of author identication appeared. Then the articles were
published: Z zagadnień roli języka w ekspertyzie pisma [Feluś, 1975, p.273 – 276], Z zagadnień roli języka
w ekspertyzie pisma [Feluś, 1976, p.769 – 773], and O potrzebie badania języka na użytek kryminalistyki [Feluś,
1979], Granice interpretacji kryminalistycznej śladu języka pisanego [Feluś, 1983]. The linguistic aspect is –
according to the author – a natural source of information in the expert opinion. It should be obligatorily
considered in comparative handwriting research, and the synchronisation of graphic research and
linguistics should become a universally applicable principle [Feluś, 2011, p.125]. Although the book
Identykacja kryminalistyczna na podstawie języka pisanego contains a catalogue of linguistic and content
features, it remains to be examined how to characterise individual documents from the structural and
content point of view.
It should be emphasised that although the perpetrator cannot be unambiguously identied through
linguistic analysis as through DNA analysis or a dactylogram, nevertheless, through linguistic proling,
the linguist can limit the group of suspects, indicate the perpetrator’s age and origin, and determine
whether the perpetrator is a native speaker of the language, what is his/her education, etc. Questions
arise: Can linguistics be used in the criminal proling of unknown perpetrators? Is there a need for
linguistic intervention in the judicial and forensic context? Can analysing the individual use of linguistic
means at the lexical and grammatical-syntactic level contribute to identifying the perpetrator?
A surprising amount can be said about the author of a text-based only on what he wrote. With
a high degree of probability, it is possible to determine gender, age, ethnic and social origin, language
prociency, education, or even the presence of emotion or intoxication.
The rst conference in Poland devoted to forensic linguistics, “Forensic linguistics in Poland. Theory
and Practice”, occurred on June 26, 2017, at the University of Wrocław. The conference became an
inspiration to prepare a publication with the same title, which refers to the history and present-day
forensic linguistics in the world and, above all, presents Polish achievements in this eld [Zaśko-Zielińska,
Kredens, 2019]. Individual articles are devoted to theoretical and practical issues, which is particularly
important due to the need to use the latest research achievements in forensic expert opinions, which have
been veried during the material analysis and can signicantly inuence the objectivity of the opinions
prepared.
In addition, there were several articles published on forensic linguistics by Jadwiga Stawnicka: Co autor
miał na myśli? [Stawnicka, 2012], Twój język Cię zdradza – czy „anonimowy cyberstalker” to oksymoron? [Stawnicka,
2014], Językoznawstwo w służbie wymiaru sprawiedliwości [Stawnicka 2015, p.40‒42]; Psycholingwistyczny
portret sprawcy przestępstw. Wstęp do dyskusji [Stawnicka, 2016, p.27 – 40], Manipulacja w cyberprzestrzeni.
Mity i prawdy o anonimowości [Stawnicka, 2016, p.27 – 40], Typowanie sprawców przestępstw z perspektywy
lingwistyki kryminalistycznej [Stawnicka, 2018, p.263‒274], Restrykcyjność a liberalizacja. Rozważania o mowie
nienawiści i granicach wolności wypowiedzi [Stawnicka, 2020, p.7 – 32], Znaczenie kryminalistycznego śladu
językowego dla rekonstrukcji przebiegu zdarzenia. Czy istnieje „językowy odcisk palca”? [Stawnicka, 2020,
p.146 – 165]; Demaskowanie dezinformacji poprzez cechy językowe. Perspektywa lingwisty kryminalistycznego
[Stawnicka, 2021/3, p.35‒44], Lingwistyka kryminalistyczna [Stawnicka, 2021, p.101 – 114], Maskowanie
przestępstwa poprzez manipulację przekazem komunikacyjnym przez sprawcę [Stawnicka, 2022, p.239‒260],
Metody lingwistyki kryminalistycznej z perspektywy analizy kryminalistycznych śladów językowych, w druku:.

133Analysis of the Legal Framework and Evolution of Forensic Linguistics in Poland...
A book by Jadwiga Stawnicka was published entitled Innowacyjność metod wykrywania sprawców
przestępstw na podstawie kryminalistycznego śladu językowego [Stawnicka, 2022]. The book is the result of
40 years of research in forensic linguistics by the author. The author introduces the concept of a forensic
linguistic trace. This concept is the starting point in analysing the possibility of using forensic linguistics
when performing expert opinions on determining the authorship of anonymous persons. The book
also addresses the issue of constructing a psycholinguistic prole based on the reconstruction of the
world image, hate speech, and freedom of speech, as well as the basics of determining the likelihood
of commiing plagiarism. The book is intended for judges, prosecutors, police ocers, law students,
psychologists, sociolinguists, linguists, and everyone interested in forensic linguistics.
M. Grądziel is convinced of the usefulness of linguistic analyses in determining the author of the
questioned text [Grądziel, 2018, p.45‒55]. Farewell leers are the subject of analyzes by M. Zaśko-
Zielińska, author of the monograph Listy pożegnalne. W poszukiwaniu lingwistycznych wyznaczników
autentyczności tekstu [Zaśko-Zielińska, 2013].
The author carried out a research project nanced by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
in 2010–2012, and one of its results was the publication The Polish Corpus of Farewell Leers. The corpus
built in these years enables the analysis of this type of text using qualitative and quantitative methods.
It consists of three parts: a corpus of authentic leers, a subcorpus of simulated leers and a corpus of
forged leers collected as a result of the experiment.
THE FUTURE OF FORENSIC LINGUISTICS
The future of forensic linguistics holds promising prospects as it continues to evolve and expand its
applications. The utilisation of corpus-based studies on legal discourse contributes substantially to the
existing literature of discourse analysis, corpus linguistics, and forensic linguistics, oering valuable
insights into future investigations into legal discourse [Zhao & Li, 2021, p.256‒257]. Critical reviews of
forensic linguistics studies aim to chart future directions for forensic linguistic studies and research,
indicating a growing interest in advancing the eld [Rañosa-Madrunio & Martin, 2023]. The increasing
aention given to topics such as fact-checking and forensic linguistics suggests a broader range of
applications likely to come to light shortly [Cardoso et al., 2023, p. 1150‒1187].
Moreover, the role of forensic linguistics in analysing honesty in language [Musawir et al., 2022,
p.40‒49], extremist internet discourse [Galyashina, 2020, p.81‒90], expressive speech on social media
[“Expressive Speech Has a Legal Impact on Social Media of Banyumas People”, 2022], and hate speech
acts “Hate Speech Acts on Social Media [Forensic Linguistics Study 2022” indicates its relevance in
addressing contemporary societal challenges. Additionally, the application of forensic linguistics in
investigating academic plagiarism [Sousa-Silva, 2022, p. 2409‒2433] and fake news detection [Sousa-
Silva, 2014] demonstrates its potential to address academic integrity and disinformation issues.
Furthermore, the construction of discursive identity for forensic linguistic experts [Clarke & Kredens,
2018, p.79‒107] and the assessment of methods and techniques used in forensic linguistics [Toghuj, 2021]
highlight the need for systematic studies and the development of reliable practices in the eld. The future
of forensic linguistics also involves addressing gender-based violent crimes [Benedei, 2023, p.140‒157],
providing evidentiary and investigative support [Toghuj, 2022], and contributing to the analysis of legal
terms and criminal speech acts [Ali, 2020,p.39‒56].
In conclusion, the future of forensic linguistics is characterised by its expanding applications, including
addressing contemporary societal challenges, advancing research in legal discourse, and contributing
to the analysis of criminal speech acts and academic integrity. The eld is poised to be crucial in addressing
emerging linguistic and legal issues, thereby advancing justice and societal well-being.
However, it is essential to note that applying forensic linguistics in criminal investigations is
challenging. The eld faces limitations regarding methodological uncertainties in detecting linguistic
signs of extremist statements, requiring cautious approaches in forensic applications. Furthermore,
challenges exist in the manual extraction and supervision of linguistic data, limiting the processing
of large amounts of data due to the substantial human work needed. Additionally, the eld needs

134 Jadwiga Stawnicka, Diana Lubandy
further research and improvements in computational linguistics and natural language processing
to enhance the accuracy and reliability of forensic procedures, particularly in plagiarism detection.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The authors advocate for incorporating forensic linguistics as a specialisation in linguistic studies within
Polish academia, alongside advanced training for professionals in this eld. They posit that fruitful
research in forensic linguistics in Poland hinges on interdisciplinary collaboration, particularly in
analysing sophisticated forensic interviews and audiovisual recordings from investigative agencies such
as the police and prosecutor’s oce. This includes focusing on verbal and non-verbal communication,
and the accompanying pragmatic phenomena.
The paper aims to stimulate research in forensic linguistics and jurislinguistics. The authors propose
the integration of linguistics expertise, particularly forensic linguistics, into the Government Security
Center’s eorts against disinformation as part of the Government Crisis Management Team for Hybrid
Threats.
Furthermore, they suggest establishing forensic linguistics programmes for students in philology and
developing training for linguists working in agencies under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Interior and
Administration, the Prime Minister, and other central government bodies. Such expertise is increasingly
vital for detective work. As demand for linguistic analysis grows, compiling relevant documentation
becomes essential.
Like DNA testing, forensic linguistic analysis can signicantly narrow down suspect pools or exclude
individuals, aiding in truth discovery in legal proceedings. The authors also stress the importance of
forensic linguistics in authorship aribution, plagiarism detection, intent determination, understanding
criminal dialogue, and interpreting contractual language, particularly in cases of textual ambiguity.
Given its underutilisation in Poland and its broad potential, they hope this paper will encourage law
enforcement and the justice system to reconsider the application of forensic linguistics.
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137Analysis of the Legal Framework and Evolution of Forensic Linguistics in Poland...

138 Jadwiga Stawnicka, Diana Lubandy

139Analysis of the Legal Framework and Evolution of Forensic Linguistics in Poland...