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El jaguar (Panthera onca) los últimos reportes de su presencia y su presencia en la cultura de El SalvadorThe jaguar (Panthera onca) the latest reports of its presence and its presence in the culture of El Salvador
Abstract
Los jaguares (Panthera onca) son los felinos más grandes de América y el único representante del género Panthera. El jaguar es un depredador ápice, indicador de la salud de los ecosistemas en los que habita. A pesar de su amplia distribución, sus poblaciones se han visto gradualmente extirpadas de su rango natural (Ceballos et al. 2018). Se encuentra categorizado como casi amenazado en la Lista Roja de las Especies WWF- World Wildlife Fund, s.f.). El jaguar fue el señor de los animales y símbolo divino. A este felino se le relacionaba con el poder, la noche y el inframundo, la fertilidad de la tierra y hasta la muerte. El Jaguar es un animal que aparece representado en todo el territorio Mesoamericano a lo largo de la historia (Solís et.al 2009). Está prácticamente extinto en Estados Unidos, El Salvador y Uruguay. Sus poblaciones están repartidas en 18 países latinoamericanos: México, Belice, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panamá, Ecuador, Guyana Francesa, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, Paraguay, Colombia, Argentina, Perú, Bolivia y Brasil (WWF, s.f).
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Habitat loss and fragmentation have been leading jaguars to constant conflicts with humans, and as a result, jaguar populations have been declining over the last decades. Captive breeding is often a tool for species conservation, and it is not different
for jaguars. However, success is far from optimal due to the lack of basic knowledge about species’ reproductive biology. In the present study, we assessed gonadal hormonal profiles of natural oestral cycles and puberty and compared our data to those of other wild felids. We collected faecal samples from two to seven times per week for 18 months from two adults and three pre-pubertal females. We defined baseline levels for progestins and oestrogens in order to estimate oestrous cycle length and age at puberty. We compared our data with 16 other species through generalized linear model, using weight and genus as two explanatory variables. Cycle length was 38.28 ± 2.52 days, ranging from 25 to 44 days, while sexual maturity was attained within 22 months. Due to our analysis of both hormonal and behavioural data, there is a variation between this research from other studies that employed only behavioural observations. Such difference may be caused by the absence of behavioural
oestrous at the peri-pubertal period. When compared to wild felids of similar size, puberty and oestral cycle durations of the
jaguar females fell within the same range. Our modelling showed that age at maturity was influenced mostly by size and
only Leopardus partially explained the observed variation. Conversely, oestral cycle length did not differ among genera or size
categories. Our study adds to the body literature in the reproductive endocrinology of wild felids, and because female gametes
are more challenging to collect and preserve, a strong understanding on the female reproductive physiology is essential to
assisted reproduction and wild population viability assessment
The relevance of the Jaguar in Brazilian fauna is incompatible with the lack of literature regarding its reproductive behavior, showing that research in this area should be intensified. The knowledge of its basic reproductive behavior is extremely important for understanding the fertility factors of the species and the role it plays in its ecosystem. In this study, we analyzed 210 sequences of sexual behaviors of Jaguars Panthera onca starting from proceptivity of the female and ending with copulation; this sequence is called the copulatory behavior. Behavioral sequences were filmed, and the observed behaviors were analyzed and recorded including occurrence frequency. Different behaviors were observed in association with two types of copulation, it was understood that copulation occurs with and without penile penetration. The information found in the present study is valuable for the reproductive management of Jaguars.
Broad scale population estimates of declining species are desired for conservation efforts. However, for many secretive species including large carnivores, such estimates are often difficult. Based on published density estimates obtained through camera trapping , presence/absence data, and globally available predictive variables derived from satellite imagery, we modelled density and occurrence of a large carnivore, the jaguar, across the species' entire range. We then combined these models in a hierarchical framework to estimate the total population. Our models indicate that potential jaguar density is best predicted by measures of primary productivity, with the highest densities in the most productive tropical habitats and a clear declining gradient with distance from the equator. Jaguar distribution, in contrast, is determined by the combined effects of human impacts and environmental factors: probability of jaguar occurrence increased with forest cover, mean temperature, and annual precipitation and declined with increases in human foot print index and human density. Probability of occurrence was also significantly higher for protected areas than outside of them. We estimated the world's jaguar population at 173,000 (95% CI: 138,000-208,000) individuals, mostly concentrated in the Amazon Basin; elsewhere, populations tend to be small and fragmented. The high number of jaguars results from the large total area still occupied (almost 9 million km 2) and low human densities (< 1 person/km 2) coinciding with high primary productivity in the core area of jaguar range. Our results show the importance of protected areas for jaguar PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.
Understanding how large felids use space is essential for the design of conservation plans that are required for their survival. Jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) are the largest felids in the Neotropics, and they are sympatric throughout the entire range of the jaguar. However, there is very little information about the spatial requirements of these two species in the tropical rainforests of Central America. Using satellite GPS collars, we compared the spatial ecology of jaguars and pumas in a tropical rainforest in southern Mexico. We found that jaguars had home ranges that were 2 − 6 times larger than those of pumas. The mean annual home range was 181.4 ± 4.0 km² for female jaguars and 431.6 ± 152.6 km² for males. Annual home range for the only female puma tracked was 34.3 km², and 72.0 ± 85.2 km² for males. Jaguars and pumas with overlapping home ranges showed little overlap of core areas and avoided using the same sites at the same time, which suggested that territoriality and avoidance were in play. Further evidence of avoidance was derived from our observation that pumas exhibited greater movement during the lightest periods of the day and jaguars moved most during the darkest. This temporal separation probably facilitates coexistence. Our data suggest that habitat destruction and fragmentation has more severe effects on jaguars than on pumas. According to our estimates, patches of at least 180 km² of primary forest are required to meet the annual spatial requirements of female jaguars. Thus, to conserve jaguars in this region, large tracts of primary forest should be preserved. Importantly, this population of jaguars depends on the adequate preservation of connectivity between natural reserves in Mexico and Guatemala.
The IUCN Red List is widely used to guide conservation policy and practice. However, in most cases the evaluation of a species using IUCN Red List criteria takes into account only the global status of the species. Although subpopulations may be assessed using the IUCN categories and criteria, this rarely occurs, either because it is difficult to identify subpopulations or because of the effort involved. Using the jaguar Panthera onca as a model we illustrate that wide-ranging species that are assigned a particular category of threat based on the IUCN Red List criteria may display considerable heterogeneity within individual taxa in terms of the level of risk they face. Using the information available on the conservation status of the species, we evaluated the jaguar's current geographical range and its subpopulations. We identified the most threatened subpopulations, using the extent of occurrence, area of occupancy, population size and the level of threat to each subpopulation. The main outcome of this analysis was that although a large subpopulation persists in Amazonia, virtually all others are threatened because of their small size, isolation, deficient protection and the high human population density. Based on this approach, future conservation efforts can be prioritized for the most threatened subpopulations. Based on our findings we recommend that for future Red List assessments assessors consider the value of undertaking assessments at the subpopulation level. For the jaguar, sub-global assessments should be included on the Red List as a matter of urgency.
Accurately estimating home range and understanding movement behavior can provide important information on ecological processes. Advances in data collection and analysis have improved our ability to estimate home range and movement parameters, both of which have the potential to impact species conservation. Fitting continuous-time movement model to data and incorporating the autocorrelated kernel density estimator (AKDE), we investigated range residency of forty-four jaguars fit with GPS collars across five biomes in Brazil and Argentina. We assessed home range and movement parameters of range resident animals and compared AKDE estimates with kernel density estimates (KDE). We accounted for differential space use and movement among individuals, sex, region, and habitat quality. Thirty-three (80%) of collared jaguars were range resident. Home range estimates using AKDE were 1.02 to 4.80 times larger than KDE estimates that did not consider autocorrela-tion. Males exhibited larger home ranges, more directional movement paths, and a trend towards larger distances traveled per day. Jaguars with the largest home ranges occupied the Atlantic Forest, a biome with high levels of deforestation and high human population density. Our results fill a gap in the knowledge of the species' ecology with an aim towards PLOS ONE |
Understanding why some species are at high risk of extinction, while others remain relatively safe, is central to the development of a predictive conservation science. Recent studies have shown that a species' extinction risk may be determined by two types of factors: intrinsic biological traits and exposure to external anthropogenic threats. However, little is known about the relative and interacting effects of intrinsic and external variables on extinction risk. Using phylogenetic comparative methods, we show that extinction risk in the mammal order Carnivora is predicted more strongly by biology than exposure to high-density human populations. However, biology interacts with human population density to determine extinction risk: biological traits explain 80% of variation in risk for carnivore species with high levels of exposure to human populations, compared to 45% for carnivores generally. The results suggest that biology will become a more critical determinant of risk as human populations expand. We demonstrate how a model predicting extinction risk from biology can be combined with projected human population density to identify species likely to move most rapidly towards extinction by the year 2030. African viverrid species are particularly likely to become threatened, even though most are currently considered relatively safe. We suggest that a preemptive approach to species conservation is needed to identify and protect species that may not be threatened at present but may become so in the near future.
Camera trapping, radio collars and radio transmission were used to tract jaguars in Cost Rica.
Jaguars are endangered in Mexico and the United States, necessitating careful monitoring of population status. We determined minimum numbers of jaguars and sympatric pumas in a small population in northern Sonora, Mexico, the nearest known breeding population to the United States, by photographic captures supplemented by idiosyncratic features of tracks from track surveys (1999-2005). We also developed a discriminant function to differentiate species (jaguar v. puma) and sexes within species, which also aided in individual identification. Photographic captures identified 5 individual jaguars; this estimate was increased to 12 using idiosyncratic features and discriminant analysis of tracks. Jaguar kittens were only detected by track surveys. All jaguars identified by photographs were previously detected by tracks, but most (7 of 12) known from tracks were not captured in photographs. Jaguar presence was fluid; we identified 6 individual jaguars from 1999-2003, but only 3 of these were still present in 2004. We documented 4 new individuals during 2005, when none of the previously identified jaguars were detected. Similarly, we identified 14 individual pumas by tracks, but only 11 of these were captured in photographs. Four hindfoot measurements varied among species and sexes of jaguars and pumas, and these measurements were able to correctly classify 85-97% of tracks to the correct species and sex. Due to the high turnover of this jaguar population, which is at its fringe of the jaguar range in North America, we recommend constant monitoring of population status with camera traps and track surveys. If only limited resources are available, we recommend monitoring only with track surveys because they detected a greater number of individuals and all age classes of individuals.
Across their range jaguars Panthera onca are important conservation icons for several reasons: their important role in ecosystems as top carnivores, their cultural and economic value, and their potential conflicts with livestock. However, jaguars have historically been difficult to monitor. This paper outlines the first application of a systematic camera trapping methodology for abundance estimation of jaguars. The methodology was initially developed to estimate tiger abundance in India. We used a grid of camera traps deployed for 2 months, identified individual animals from their pelage patterns, and estimated population abundance using capture-recapture statistical models. We applied this methodology in a total of five study sites in the Mayan rainforest of Belize, the Chaco dry forest of Bolivia, and the Amazonian rainforest of Bolivia. Densities were 2.411 observed animals, 16capturesrecaptures2,280 trap nights, and sample areas of 107–458 km2. The sampling technique will be used to continue long-term monitoring of jaguar populations at the same sites, to compare with further sites, and to develop population models. This method is currently the only systematic population survey technique for jaguars, and has the potential to be applied to other species with individually recognizable markings.
Este es el primer reporte de canibalismo en una población de jaguares (Panthera onca) de vida libre. Un encuentro entre jaguares desconocidos pudo haber provocado estrés social, un comportamiento reportado en otros carnívoros de vida libre.
High human population density, histories of social conflict, environmental change and negative social attitudes are crucial issues for large carnivore conservation and reintroductions, which may be influenced by human age and gender, animal size and behaviour. Jaguars and pumas are extinct in El Salvador, but conservation and reintroduction schemes are debated across Central and South America. This paper examines public attitudes in El Salvador towards the extinct jaguars and pumas, and the fairly common coyote. One hundred and thirteen people were contacted and classified according to age and gender in San Salvador, La Union, Ahuachapan, Apopa, San Miguel and Santa Ana. The majority of people believed: in the toleration and removal of carnivores rather than shooting; in the introduction of jaguars and pumas into rural and special areas and zoos; that more animal protection was necessary; that the animals were good for human life, yet dangerous to children. Pumas were seen as the most dangerous, followed by jaguars and coyotes, but in most cases all three were seen as similar. Women were less tolerant of large carnivores, were more sensitive to negative impacts, and were more afraid of the animals than men. Younger people were more tolerant, and saw less danger to other animals and people, and were more supportive of animal reintroductions. Gender was irrelevant in the trapping and removal, and shooting of animals, protection levels, reintroductions and dangers to people and cattle. Age was irrelevant to animal protection levels, dangers to people and impacts on human quality of life. These findings are important for conservation policy and environmental geography.
We used microsatellite loci to test the paternity of two male jaguars involved in an infanticide event recorded during a long-term monitoring program of this species. Seven microsatellite primers originally developed for domestic cats and previously selected for Panthera onca were used. In order to deal with uncertainty in the mother's genotypes for some of the loci, 10000 values of W were derived by simulation procedures. The male that killed the two cubs was as-signed as the true sire. Although the reasons for this behavior remain obscure, it shows, in principle, a low recognition of paternity and kinship in the species. Since the two cubs were not very young, one possibility is that the adult male did not recognize the cubs and killed them for simple territorial reasons. Thus, ecological stress in this local popula-tion becomes a very plausible explanation for this infanticide, without further sociobiological implications.
International conservation planning at the end of the twentieth century is dominated by coarse-filter, supra-organismal approaches to conservation that may be insufficient to conserve certain species such as the jaguar (Panthera onca). If we are to retain broadly distributed species into the next century, we need to plan explicitly for their survival across their entire geographic range and through political boundaries while recognizing the variety of ecological roles the species plays in different habitats. In March 1999 the Wildlife Conservation Society sponsored a priority-setting and planning exercise for the jaguar across its range, from northern Mexico to northern Argentina. Field scientists from 18 countries reached consensus on four types of information: (1) the spatial extent of their jaguar knowledge, (2) the known, currently occupied range of jaguars, (3) areas with substantial jaguar populations, adequate habitat, and a stable and diverse prey base, and (4) point localities where jaguars have been observed during the last 10 years. During the exercise, these experts also conducted a range-wide assessment of the long-term survival prospects of the jaguar and developed an algorithm for prioritizing jaguar conservation units occurring in major habitat types. From this work, we learned that the known, occupied range of the jaguar has contracted to approximately 46% of estimates of its 1900 range. Jaguar status and distribution is unknown in another 12% of the jaguar's former range, including large areas in Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil. But over 70% of the area where jaguars are thought to still occur was rated as having a high probability of supporting their long-term survival. Fifty-one jaguar conservation units representing 30 different jaguar geographic regions were prioritized as the basis for a comprehensive jaguar conservation program.
For most carnivore populations, territoriality is the regulating social system ultimately determined by food abundance and/or strife. However, in some food-based territorial felid species such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), the influence of food availability on territoriality remains unclear and may be lessened because of a tendency for individuals to occur at high densities across the landscape. We examined spatial organization and use of food in a population of jaguars in the southern region of the Pantanal, Brazil (2003–04). We predicted that if territoriality plays an important role in determining jaguar population dynamics, exclusive use of territories should be observed and thereby influence prey selection patterns. We determined that home range sizes were comparable between sexes and overlapped little at the core area level. Line transect surveys revealed that large mammals comprised the bulk of available wild prey for jaguars, and scat analysis indicated that jaguars relied mostly on large mammalian prey. The most common wild species killed by jaguars were capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) and caiman (Caiman yacare). We estimated that the wild prey base was adequate to support the jaguar population. Larger wild prey species were considerably more likely to die from predation than from other causes, and predation was more likely to occur in jaguar core areas than in areas of home range overlap. Modest cattle depredation rates had little demographic importance to the local jaguar population. We conclude that spacing patterns in the local jaguar population were likely based on exclusion through territoriality rather than food limitation.
Se llevó a cabo una revisión bibliográfica en varias universidades y bases de datos de los Estados Unidos y México, del mismo modo se estableció contacto con investigadores de carnívoros para tratar de resumir en forma comprensiva el conocimiento actual sobre la ecología del puma (Puma concolor). El objetivo principal fue el actualizar nuestro conocimiento ecológico desde las últimas revisiones bibliográficas publicadas en 1987. Se hacen comentarios sobre los tamaños de muestra, asi como de las diferentes metodologías y como éstas dificultan la comparasión entre áreas y estudios, del mismo modo se sugieren direcciones que deben tomar las investigaciones en el futuro con base en los huecos encontrados de la revisión bibliográfica.
Movement is a critical animal behavior which reflects animal response to its current biological needs and to its environment. Comprehending how and why the animals use the available space and the underlying drivers of animal movements is essential to the management and conservation for both species and ecosystems. This chapter aims to understand and describe the movements of the largest felid of the Neotropics, the jaguar (Panthera onca), through different approaches with the purpose to contribute to the existing knowledge of the spatial ecology of this species and to design strong conservation actions for the jaguar in the tropical forest of Central America. We described the movement ecology of jaguars in tropical forests using the information of five individuals fitted with satellite GPS collars in the Greater Lacandona Ecosystem, Chiapas, Mexico. We estimate the home range of jaguars through the autocorrelated kernel density estimation and compare it with different studies implemented throughout the species range. Using the movement-based kernel approach analyzed under the biased random bridge model, we identify the areas that were intensively used and repeatedly visited by the jaguars inside their home range. The biased random bridge allowed having a more dynamic and realistic approach to describe the space use and habitat selection by jaguars which complement the information about the movements of the species for the region. Finally, we evaluate the movement decisions of jaguars by the step selection function to identify which landscape variables influence the movement behavior of the species in the Greater Lacandona Ecosystem. The development of new movement models and analytical tools have allowed to make more precise inferences regarding the space use and movements of secretive tropical species such as the jaguar which should translate in better conservation strategies to ensure their long-term conservation.
Retaliatory killing of large carnivores in response to their attacks on cattle is recognised as one of the most important factors causing worldwide declines of large carnivores. Conversely, hunting is believed to have been largely eliminated due to national and international protection measures. We studied the prevalence of human-jaguar conflict and the relative importance of retaliatory killing and hunting for jaguar populations in Venezuela by means of field interviews with hunters and ranchers. To predict the spatial distribution of retaliatory killing or hunting we fit a linear regression model. We registered 387 jaguar attacks on livestock and 22 attacks on humans. Subsistence/commercial hunting appeared the most common cause of human-caused jaguar mortality (52%) and retaliatory killing was less common (38%). Jaguars were also killed because of public fear, attacks on pets, by trophy hunters, and in car accidents. Public motivations to kill jaguars did not change through time, suggesting that the protection system introduced in 1996 has not been effective. Methods and tools used in retaliatory killing were different, more sophisticated, and probably more efficient than those used in hunting. However, products collected from harvested jaguars did not differ between motivation groups and included skins, canines, skulls, meat, fat, and cubs. Our model indicated that subsistence/commercial hunting is prevalent over most of the areas still inhabited by jaguars. On the contrary, retaliatory killing was mostly predicted for the areas where jaguars have already gone extinct, suggesting that it is an important driving factor of jaguar extirpations.
Body mass and nine skull measurements of two floodplain (Pantanal and Llanos) and two forest (Amazon and Central America) jaguar (Panthera onca) populations, were analyzed to compare them, relate their morphometric dimensions to preybase and latitude, and examine the relationship with their subspecies status. Analyzing data from males and females separately, jaguar at all sites differed significantly for most variables studied, with the exception of rostral breadth, maxillary teeth row length, and pterygoid fossa breadth for both sexes, and postorbital breadth for females, which were either not or only weakly significant. Individuals from the floodplain populations were consistently larger in almost all parameters than the samples from the forest sites. The difference is independent of the subspecific status. Comparisons among the biomass values of prey taken at each site were also consistently higher for floodplain populations. Jaguar skull size and body mass seem to be more related to biomass of prey taken than to latitudinal location. The differences found in these four populations and the high number of Central American subspecies suggest that a revision of subspecies validity is needed. The reduction in the subspecies number is not only important from a taxonomic point of view but also from an ecological and conservationist one. The increase of our understanding of the phylogenetic heritage and morphological and ecological variation within the species is a priority for conservation.
Translocation is a non-lethal practice used to manage carnivore-livestock conflicts. Nevertheless, its use has been questioned due to its low success rate and high cost. We performed a literature review to assess the effectiveness of translocation, human-related mortality and cost. We estimated the overall effectiveness to be 42% ± 6, felids were involved in 70% of the translocations and 80% of the case studies were conducted in North America and Africa. Human-related mortality accounted for the 83% of deaths after translocations. Translocation cost per individual was estimated at US$ 3,756 ± 357 (N = 16), a sum equivalent to compensate for up to 30 livestock heads. For conservation purposes, translocation is costly and less effective than other alternatives such as compensation with best herding practices.
The recent reintroduction of the gray wolf (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone signifies a constructive change, but the overall record in the United States on large carnivore conservation remains poor. Many developing countries are determined to do a better job of conserving predators, including their critical habitat and prey populations. We describe current efforts to protect tigers (Panther tigris), jaguars (Panthera onca), and large-scale forest habitat in Asia, Central America, and Africa. These initiatives take a comprehensive approach that includes biological field research, the identification of local human interests, and a growing recognition of the need for cooperation across political lines. Though often supported by U.S. technical assistance, this international experience could be used better to inform and improve carnivore conservation efforts in North America. Failure to improve our domestic performance or to fully appreciate the contributions of far less developed countries could weaken global efforts to maintain and restore populations of large carnivores.
Data were gathered on body weight, body length, relative maximum bite force and relative maximum gape for six sympatric species of neotropical cats (Felidae) to see if constant size ratios occur between adjacent species or if the minimum ratio in a series is greater than expected by chance. Although clearly likely to be correlated, these four parameters were thought to have potential for some independent variation and independent influence on prey capture abilities. None of the four sets of ratios was statistically distinguishable from random when all six species were included in the analysis; however, the ratios for relative maximum gape among just the four largest species were significantly more even and the minimum ratio significantly greater than expected by chance among four species. This constancy occurs because of departures of jaw lengths from what would be expected by the average allometric relationship between this parameter and total body size. Competitive character displacement is a possible explanation for the constant ratios in maximum gape of the larger species, but it is not the only possibility.
Large, wide-ranging carnivores face greater threats and more persistent declines than most other mammal species. An important conservation tool for these carnivores has been range-wide priority-setting exercises that have helped identify critical threats and key populations. However, such exercises often fail to identify functional movement corridors or account for genetic connectivity. We present a new model for jaguar (Panthera onca) conservation that uses a geographic information system (GIS) and expert input to create a dispersal cost surface and identify least-cost corridors connecting the 90 known populations across the jaguar’s range. Results indicate 78% of historic jaguar range, an area of approximately 14.9 million km2, still holds potential for jaguar movement and dispersal. We identified 182 potential corridors between populations, ranging from 3 to 1607 km in length; 44 of these corridors are characterized as being of immediate concern due to their limited width, and thus their high potential for being severed. Resultant maps, displaying priority populations and corridors, are used to direct field-based research and conservation efforts. Field assessment and refinement of the corridors is ongoing. This is the first attempt to create and implement such a holistic model of range-wide conservation for a large carnivore species.
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