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RESEARCH ARTICLE
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Cyanobacterial Artificial Plants for Enhanced Indoor Carbon
Capture and Utilization
Maryam Rezaie and Seokheun Choi*
Indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are often significantly higher than those
outdoors, which is a growing health concern, particularly in urban areas where
people spend over 80% of their time indoors. Traditional CO2mitigation
methods, such as ventilation and filtration, are becoming less effective as
outdoor CO2levels increase due to global warming. This study introduces a
novel solution: cyanobacterial artificial plants that enhance indoor carbon
capture while converting CO2into oxygen (O2) and bioelectricity. These
artificial plants use indoor light to drive photosynthesis, achieving a 90%
reduction in indoor CO2levels, from 5000 to 500 ppm—far surpassing the
10% reduction seen with natural plants. In addition to improving air quality,
the system produces O2and enough bioelectricity to power portable
electronics. Each artificial leaf contains five biological solar cells that generate
electricity during photosynthesis, with water and nutrients supplied through
transpiration and capillary action, mimicking natural plant systems. The
system generates an open circuit voltage of 2.7 V and a maximum power
output of 140 μW. This decentralized approach offers a sustainable,
energy-efficient solution to indoor environmental challenges, providing
improved air quality and renewable electricity amid rising global CO2levels.
1. Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) has designated poor air
quality as the foremost environmental threat to public health
worldwide.[1]It is alarming that 90% of people globally are
M. Rezaie, S. Choi
Bioelectronics & Microsystems Laboratory
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering
State University of New York at Binghamton
Binghamton, NY , USA
E-mail: sechoi@binghamton.edu
S. Choi
Center for Research in Advanced Sensing Technologies & Environmental
Sustainability
State University of New Yorkat Binghamton
Binghamton, NY , USA
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
can be found under https://doi.org/./adsu.
© The Author(s). Advanced Sustainable Systems published by
Wiley-VCH GmbH. This is an open access article under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License,
which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications
or adaptations are made.
DOI: 10.1002/adsu.202400401
exposed to air that does not meet the
WHO’s recommended quality standards.
Indoor air quality is often significantly
poorer than outdoor air quality because
of persistent pollution sources within
buildings.[1,2]Those sources include
materials used in construction and
household products, as well as human
activities such as cooking, heating, and
cleaning.[3]Additionally, the human
metabolism contributes to indoor pol-
lution, particularly in tightly sealed
environments designed to maintain
stable indoor temperatures.[4]With most
people now spending more than 80%
of their time indoors, both the duration
and intensity of exposure to poor air
quality have markedly increased.[1–3]
Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic
has underscored the critical impor-
tance of maintaining good indoor air
quality.[5]Identified indoor air pollutants
encompass a wide range of substances,
including particulate matter, biological
organisms, allergens, and organic and inorganic chemical
compounds.[1–3]Additionally, various reactive chemicals such as
ozone and sulfur dioxide are present.[1]
Among various air pollutants, carbon dioxide (CO2)stands
out as the primary greenhouse gas, contributing to 80% of all
human-caused climate-changing emissions globally.[1,2]Addi-
tionally, as CO2levels typically correlate with the presence of
other pollutants, they are often used as an indicator of indoor air
quality.[6]However, CO2is a direct indoor pollutant that threatens
human health.[1,2,4]Elevated concentrations ranging from 1000
to 3000 parts per million (ppm), even for just a few hours, can
significantly impair cognition and decision-making.[2]Exposure
levels of 2000 to 4,000 ppm for several hours can trigger inflam-
matory responses and lead to health issues such as headaches,
drowsiness, and fatigue.[1]Chronic exposure to very elevated lev-
els of CO2may result in more severe conditions including bone
demineralization, kidney calcification, obesity, and in extreme
cases, respiratory failure and loss of consciousness.[2,4]Several
regulations and standards define acceptable CO2concentrations
to ensure indoor air quality. For example, the European Standard
recommends a maximum of 800 ppm, while countries such
as France, the U.K., and Portugal typically accept an average
concentration of 1,000 ppm.[1,2]The American Society of Heat-
ing also uses 1,000 ppm as a benchmark, making it a common
threshold.[1]Despite the guidelines, studies frequently report
that CO2levels in indoor environments such as schools, offices,
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and underground transportation often exceed 2,500 ppm, with
peaks sometimes surpassing 5,000 ppm.[1,6]
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology has become a
crucial research focus in the 21st century, aimed at capturing
CO2emissions from fossil fuels and securely storing them.[7–9]
Despite their promise, that technology has been met with skep-
ticism because of the significant financial investment and en-
ergy required for the separation, transportation, and storage of
CO2, coupled with uncertainties about the permanence of stor-
age. Consequently, there has been a shift toward carbon capture
and utilization (CCU) technology, where captured CO2is con-
verted into high-value products or chemicals through methods
such as thermochemical, biochemical, photochemical, and elec-
trochemical processes.[1,9–11]The new approach reduces emis-
sions and harnesses CO2as a renewable resource for energy and
resource recovery. However, CCS and CCU are primarily focused
on large-scale outdoor CO2emissions and have not been effec-
tively adapted for indoor CO2management because of their great
expense and substantial space and energy requirements.
The most common, albeit passive, method for controlling in-
door CO2levels involves manually opening windows or oper-
ating building ventilation systems to equalize indoor and out-
door CO2concentrations.[2]While these approaches have been
widely used to improve indoor air quality, they are inefficient
for precisely controlling CO2levels and are becoming less effec-
tive as outdoor air quality deteriorates as humans pump more
global-warming gases into the atmosphere. A more active and re-
liable alternative involves integrating filters or sorbent materials
into ventilation systems, similar to outdoor CCS techniques but
designed for temporary CO2containment.[1–3,12]However, once
these materials become saturated, they require replacement or
the captured CO2needs to be released. This cycle escalates costs,
reduces air quality efficiency, and may increase outdoor CO2
emissions. The most economical and environmentally friendly
method uses houseplants, which naturally absorb CO2and re-
lease oxygen (O2).[13–16]That strategy mirrors large-scale outdoor
CCU techniques that use the natural carbon cycle to convert cap-
tured CO2into beneficial compounds, thus sustainably improv-
ing air quality. Additionally, indoor plants help purify the air by
eliminating other pollutants and airborne microbes, while effec-
tively regulating indoor humidity levels.[13,14]However, this ap-
proach is constrained by its substantial maintenance demands,
which are time-intensive and costly. Furthermore, the presence
of indoor plants can increase pollen levels and potential aller-
genicity, often accompanied by strong fragrances.[3]Challenges
such as the need for regular maintenance, coupled with their
slow growth and gas exchange rates, hinder the practical imple-
mentation of houseplants in indoor environments. Additionally,
the limited portability of houseplants and their requirement for
specific environmental conditions render them less suitable as a
widespread decentralized system for managing indoor air quality.
In this study, we introduce a groundbreaking artificial plant
that harnesses cyanobacterial CO2fixation to generate oxygen
and bioelectricity during their photosynthesis, acting as a minia-
turized version of CCU technology tailored for indoor environ-
ments (Figure 1a). This system is designed to be compact, re-
quiring minimal space and maintenance, while offering signifi-
cantly faster growth and gas exchange rates sustainably. The ar-
tificial plant uses indoor light to enable cyanobacteria to convert
CO2and water into oxygen, thereby improving indoor air quality
(Figure 1b). This system features artificial leaves, each contain-
ing five biological solar cells (called biosolar cells) (Figure 1c).
A single biosolar cell comprises a cyanobacteria-infused anode,
a cathode, and an ion exchange membrane (Figure 1d). These
cells are interconnected electrically, via metallic paths, and fluidi-
cally, through a microfluidic channel. The selected cyanobacte-
ria, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803, is known for its exoelectrogenic
properties,[17,18]enabling it to produce bioelectricity during pho-
tosynthesis. Transpiration and capillary action bring water and
nutrients to each biosolar cell, mimicking the nutrient distribu-
tion systems in living plants and trees. A porous anode effec-
tively captures CO2molecules and it is decorated with iron oxide
nanoparticles (Fe2O3NPs) to enhance light capture and electro-
catalytic activity. Additionally, the cathodic function is augmented
by a coating of palladium nanoparticles (Pd NPs). Our innovative
integration of material science and biological entities presents a
very promising solution for the simultaneous capture and utiliza-
tion of CO2. This approach offers a valuable decentralized system
for enhancing indoor air quality and generating electricity.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Design and Structure of Artificial Plants, Leaves, and
Integrated Biosolar cells
As shown in Figures S1 and S2 (Supporting Information), a
1.6 mm-thick poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) plant scaffold
was crafted using a precision laser cutting technique. The
PMMA structure was designed to incorporate five leaves, each
embedded with five biosolar cells (Figures 1a,b). The biosolar
cells comprised a cyanobacteria-infused anode, an ion-exchange
membrane, and a cathode (Figures 1c,d). Initially, the PMMA
scaffold was engraved with fluidic and electrical channels.
Subsequently, specific areas were further engraved to accommo-
date the biosolar cells. Materials essential for the biosolar cells’
functionality were systematically introduced into these areas. Hy-
groscopic materials were integrated into the fluidic branches and
trunk to facilitate the absorption of water and nutrients through
capillary action and transpiration. Concurrently, electrical chan-
nels were embedded with conductive silver paste to ensure
efficient conductivity. This intricate assembly was achieved
using our well-established inkjet printing technique.[19,20]To
optimize the system’s functionality, all anodes across the leaves
were interconnected fluidically via branches extending from
the main trunk. Meanwhile, the biosolar cells within each leaf
were wired in series, and all five leaves were interconnected in
series to enhance the overall energy efficiency and distribution.
The assembled plant-like scaffold can be placed into a soil-
containing pot, much like a conventional plant (Figures 1a,b).
This arrangement allows for the continuous supply of water and
nutrients, essential for supporting the growth and metabolic
functions of the cyanobacteria within the biosolar cells. When
placed indoors, the plant-like structure in the pot uses indoor
lighting and ambient CO2, along with supplied water, to facilitate
the photosynthetic process of the cyanobacteria. This process
converts CO2into O2, effectively serving as a carbon capture
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Figure 1. Operating principle of cyanobacterial artificial plants for indoor carbon capture and utilization. a) An artificial plant converting captured CO
into Oand bioelectricity during photosynthesis. b) An artificial plant utilizing indoor light, water, and nutrients to convert COinto O, thereby enhancing
indoor air quality. c) A photograph of the artificial leaf of the plant, showing five biosolar cells attached to a stem. The cells are electrically connected
outside the stem, which transports fluids. d) A schematic illustration of the biosolar cell, consisting of a cyanobacteria-infused anode, a cathode, and
an ion exchange membrane. The electrogenic cyanobacteria generate electricity during photosynthesis. (AC: Activated carbon).
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and utilization pathway, transforming indoor greenhouse gases
into breathable oxygen. During photosynthesis, cyanobacteria
generate excess electrons through the bacterial photosynthetic
electron transfer process, which are then transported extra-
cellularly to the anode.[17,18]This transfer creates an electrical
current, providing an alternative route for carbon utilization.
Simultaneously, protons produced alongside the electrons dur-
ing photosynthesis are selectively transported through the ion
exchange membrane to the cathode. Finally, they react with atmo-
spheric O2to complete the cathodic reaction. This crucial process
is essential for maintaining the electroneutrality of the system.
It is important to highlight that cyanobacterial metabolism
relies on the respiration of O2present in the air, while the
cathodic reaction in the biosolar cell also requires O2. Nonethe-
less, the O2produced by photosynthesis exceeds the amount
consumed by these processes, leading to a net increase in the
available oxygen. This will be explored in the final chapter of this
manuscript.
2.2. Design and Characterization of Anodic and Cathodic
Materials
To enhance the practicality of the cyanobacterial artificial plant
for indoor carbon capture and utilization, significant advance-
ments were made in the materials and designs of the biosolar
cell. The anode materials and their architectural configurations
are particularly crucial, profoundly influencing the overall
performance. These improvements affect several key areas: (i)
porosity, which facilitates gas exchange, product removal, and
fluid absorption via transpiration; (ii) the surface area available
for cyanobacterial attachment; (iii) the efficiency of light absorp-
tion and its conversion to electricity; and (iv) the efficiency of
extracellular electron transfer. Our anode replicates the three-
dimensional porous structure of natural leaves, complete with
minuscule pores akin to stomata. The structure is pivotal for
the effective exchange of gases and the release of water vapor
through transpiration. By treating graphene oxide (GO) with an
iron nitrate solution via a hydrothermal process, we created a
reduced graphene oxide (rGO) hydrogel embedded with iron
oxide nanoparticles (Fe2O3NPs).
This very conductive, porous architecture facilitates effi-
cient gas exchange and provides an extensive surface area for
cyanobacterial colonization (Figure S3, Supporting Informa-
tion) and effective removal of bacterial byproducts, thereby
enhancing the capture and conversion of CO2to O2. Notably,
the nanoparticles act as potent light absorbers, which enhances
light harvesting, and electrical conduits, which improve electron
transfer from bacterial photosynthesis, thus boosting carbon
utilization and electricity generation. The scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) image shown in Figure 2aillustrates the
very porous structure and interconnected lattice morphology
characteristic of our NP-decorated rGO hydrogel anode. Energy
Dispersive X-ray (EDX) microanalysis, as shown in Figure 2b,
confirms the presence of carbon, oxygen, and iron elements,
with iron distribution being particularly delineated through map-
ping analysis. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) results,
presented in Figure 2c, verify the presence of these elements
through distinct spectral peaks. Notably, iron exhibits binding
energy peaks ranging from 706 to 723 eV for Fe2p orbitals, which
vary according to its oxidation state. GO, meanwhile, is marked
by a prominent peak at 532 eV; this peak notably diminishes in
intensity following the reduction process of the material, indi-
cating a decrease in oxygen content.[21]Cyclic voltammetry (CV)
measurements, conducted in a three-electrode electrochemical
cell with a scan rate of 100 mV s−1, are detailed in Figure 2d.
These measurements reveal significant electrochemical activ-
ity in the NP-enhanced rGO hydrogel compared to both GO
and rGO alone. The enhanced electrochemical performance
of the rGO hydrogel over the GO hydrogel is attributable to
increased electrical conductivity and improved charge transfer
capabilities, arising from the removal of oxygen-containing
functional groups, as evidenced by Electrochemical Impedance
Spectroscopy (EIS) results (Inset of Figure 2d).
Furthermore, the incorporation of Fe2O3NPs into the rGO
hydrogel substantially augments the electrocatalytic activity,
demonstrated by marked reduction and oxidation peaks in the
CV profile at potentials of +0.72 and –0.62 V, respectively. The
Fe2O3NPs promote electron transfer and enhance the rate of
redox reactions, crucial for effective electrocatalysis, as shown
in the inset of Figure 2d.[22]This integration of Fe2O3NPs not
only improves the electrochemical properties of the hydrogel
but underscores its potential in advanced energy-producing
applications. The UV–vis spectroscopic analysis, as illustrated in
Figure 2e, highlights the enhanced light use and photocatalytic
activity of our cyanobacteria-embedded anode. This analysis in-
dicates that the anode retains the characteristic absorption peaks
of cyanobacteria alone but exhibits increased transmittance. The
elevated transmittance levels are critical for optimizing light cap-
ture, while the inherent absorption capabilities of the material
facilitate efficient photon harvesting essential for photocatalytic
processes. This synergistic interaction between the cyanobac-
teria and our improved anode’s matrix not only maximizes
light absorption but also effectively utilizes this energy in the
photocatalytic conversion of CO2into valuable products such as
O2and bioelectricity. During the photosynthetic process of the
cyanobacteria, this capability is crucial for reducing atmospheric
CO2levels.
The performance of the biosolar cell is significantly influenced
by the characteristics of the cathode compartment. This compart-
ment necessitates electron acceptors to facilitate the redox pro-
cesses, as electrons and protons are transported from the anode
to maintain the charge neutrality of the cell. In this study, an
air-cathode was employed because of the advantages of oxygen,
which is abundantly available, sustainable, and biocompatible.[23]
Although there is competition for O2between the cathodic re-
actions and cyanobacterial respiration—which can diminish O2
production and potentially affect indoor air quality—the con-
sumption of O2remains considerably low. Furthermore, the
amount of O2generated by photosynthesis substantially exceeds
that consumed by the cathodic reactions and bacterial respira-
tion, underscoring the efficiency of the biosolar cell in using this
electron acceptor. To enhance O2absorption from the air, a novel
porous structure using activated carbon (AC) hydrogel was engi-
neered (Figure 3a).[24]The efficiency of the oxygen reduction re-
action was significantly augmented by the integration of a highly
active palladium (Pd) nanoparticle (NP) catalyst within the AC hy-
drogel. This addition markedly improved the reaction kinetics,
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Figure 2. Structure and characterization of the FeONPs-decorated rGO hydrogel anode in the biosolar cell. a) SEM image of the anode displaying
its porosity. b) EDX spectrum and mapping revealing the presence and uniform distribution of FeONPs. c) XPS survey spectra of dierent hydrogel
samples; graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and rGO with FeOnanoparticles (NPs). d) CV profiles for those hydrogel samples
(inset: EIS profiles). e) Transmittance spectra obtained by UV–vis spectroscopy of rGO, FeONPS, cyanobacteria, and cyanobacteria integrated into
the rGO hydrogel decorated with FeONPS.
leading to an accelerated rate of the oxygen reduction reaction.
Electrochemical analyses, including CV and linear sweep voltam-
metry (LSV), shown in Figures 3b,c respectively, demonstrated
improved electrochemical reactions. Additionally, the EIS profile
revealed a substantially enhanced electron transfer efficiency, ev-
idenced by the reduced impedance at the interface between the
NP-decorated hydrogel and the electrolyte (Figure 3d).
The integration of these functional attributes distinctly posi-
tions our anode and cathode materials as highly effective catalysts
in environmental remediation strategies, particularly tailored for
enhancing indoor air quality. By facilitating the conversion of
CO2into O2and bioelectricity, these materials contribute to re-
ducing CO2levels and generate valuable byproducts that can be
utilized in various applications.
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Figure 3. Structure and characterization of the Pd NPs-decorated AC hydrogel cathode in the biosolar cell. a) SEM image of the cathode displaying its
porosity. b) CV, c) LSV, and d) EIS of the cathode with and without Pd NPs.
2.3. Enhanced Nutrient and Water Supply Management for
Sustained Operation
The fundamental unit of the artificial plant, the biosolar cell, is
theoretically self-sustaining.[17,18]In this system, cyanobacteria
use light, water, and CO2to perform photosynthesis, generating
O2and organic matter. These products are then used in their
respiration processes, recycling CO2and water, thereby forming
a closed-loop cycle. This makes the biosolar cell a promising
self-sustainable power solution. However, practical applications
face challenges because of the cell’s limited lifespan. In a
closed system, essential nutrients required for bacterial growth,
metabolism, and photosynthesis, such as phosphorus, are not
inherently replenished.[25,26]Typically, living plants absorb these
nutrients from their environment as they are dissolved in water.
This discrepancy highlights a significant hurdle in achieving
true self-sustainability for biosolar cells in real-world conditions.
In this study, individual biosolar cells, each containing a hygro-
scopic freeze-dried hydrogel anode, were fluidically intercon-
nected through branches that extended from a central trunk. To
enhance the management of water and nutrient supply from the
base, where these resources were introduced, the branches and
trunk were filled with a hygroscopic gelatin-chitosan hydrogel.[27]
This composite hydrogel features crosslinked polymer networks,
which provide outstanding water absorption capabilities and
facilitate molecular diffusion. These properties are primarily
attributed to the presence of hydrophilic functional groups, such
as amino and hydroxyl groups, within the polymer structure.
This innovative design significantly improves the efficiency of re-
source distribution throughout the biosolar cell system. Here, the
management of water and nutrient supply was engineered to em-
ulate natural plant processes through two primary mechanisms:
transpiration and capillary action, as illustrated in Figure 4a.[28]
Transpiration involves the evaporation of water from the leaf sur-
face, aiding in nutrient transport and cooling. Capillary action,
on the other hand, relies on the forces of adhesion, cohesion,
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Figure 4. Mechanism for nutrient and water supply management. a) Two mechanisms: transpiration and capillary action. b) Transpiration rate of the
hydrogel anode. c) Time-lapse images showing capillary action-driven flow of red ink through the artificial plant.
and surface tension within narrow spaces to move water upward.
However, because of gravitational forces, capillary action alone
may sometimes be inadequate for transporting water to the up-
per parts of the plant. In these instances, transpiration provides
an additional driving force, enhancing the upward movement
of water and nutrients.[29]Initially, the transpiration capabilities
of the hygroscopic hydrogel anode, simulating the leaf surface
where evaporation occurs, were evaluated under varying con-
ditions of relative humidity (RH) (Figure 4b).AtahighRHof
76.1%, the fully saturated hydrogel anode exhibited slow evap-
oration rates, releasing ≈72 mg of water per hour. As the RH
decreased to 53.5%, the rate of transpiration increased to 129 mg
per hour. At a considerably lower RH of 37.1%, the evaporation
rate further escalated, with 192 mg of water evaporating per
hour. Intriguingly, these transpiration processes actively mod-
ulate the environmental humidity, demonstrating the artificial
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plant’s capacity to regulate relative humidity. Specifically, under
high humidity conditions, the increase in surrounding humidity
was minimal, whereas significant increases were observed
under lower humidity levels. This phenomenon underscores
the potential of our artificial plant system to adaptively manage
environmental humidity through its transpiration dynamics.
To assess the water absorption capacity of the system, which
incorporates hygroscopic branches and trunk, red ink was in-
troduced at the base (Figure 4c). To isolate the capillary force as
the sole mechanism of fluid movement, the experiment was con-
ducted under conditions of 100% RH, effectively eliminating the
influence of transpiration. The capillary action enabled the ink
to ascend against gravity. Notably, the ink progressively moved
through the system, reaching individual leaves and eventually
each biosolar cell in 180 min. This experiment demonstrates the
effectiveness of capillary forces in distributing fluids within the
integrated system.
2.4. Enhanced Indoor Air Quality
In this study, we used a controlled environment chamber mea-
suring 16″×11″×12″, equipped with adjustable temperature,
humidity, and light settings, to assess the CO2capture and O2
generation capabilities of our artificial plant. This setup aimed
to evaluate the potential for indoor air quality improvement.
Along with a continuous supply of BG-11 nutrients, the chamber
was subjected to a diurnal cycle with 12 h periods of light and
darkness, maintaining temperature and humidity at set levels,
with light intensity capped at 700 lux. Initially, the chamber
was filled with CO2gas to a concentration of ≈5000 ppm. The
nanoparticle-enhanced, leaf-inspired porous structure of the
artificial plant without cyanobacteria as a living biocatalyst
demonstrated significant CO2absorption capabilities, reducing
the CO2levels to 1500 ppm solely through physical adsorption
(Figure 5a(i)). This reduction is primarily attributed to van
der Waals forces which trap CO2molecules on the material’s
surface.[30]However, once saturated, the structure did not exhibit
further CO2capture when reintroduced with CO2, indicating a
capacity limit in the absence of active biological mechanisms.
Interestingly, O2levels continuously declined, particularly upon
the reintroduction of CO2.ElevatedindoorCO
2concentrations
can exacerbate O2depletion by displacing available O2, especially
in closed environments influenced by high occupancy and activ-
ities such as cooking and heating. This phenomenon is crucial,
considering that decreased indoor O2levels can lead to serious
health issues, including chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
and other respiratory complications.[31]The critical importance
of O2, particularly highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic
for patient care,[32]underscores the necessity of maintaining
adequate indoor air quality. When cyanobacteria were incorpo-
rated into the system, not only was a CO2reduction observed,
but also an enhancement in O2production (Figure 5a (ii)). The
reintroduction of CO2was effectively mitigated, reducing the
concentration to as low as 500 ppm, well below the commonly
recommended indoor level of 1000 ppm. This represents a
significant enhancement in CO2capture efficiency, achieving
over 90% reduction compared to ≈10% typically observed in
natural plants.[33]Concurrently, O2levels increased steadily,
even accounting for cyanobacterial respiration and cathodic
reactions. Moreover, distinct fluctuations in temperature and
humidity were observed during the diurnal cycles, indicative of
active bacterial metabolic reactions, in contrast to the stability
observed in the non-biological setup. Over 150 h of diurnal
cycles, there was significant growth and reproduction among the
cyanobacteria, resulting in a marked increase in their population
(Figure 5b). However, this population growth eventually stabi-
lized because of limitations in available light, gas, and nutrients.
This chapter demonstrates the profound potential of integrating
cyanobacteria into artificial plant systems for dynamic indoor air
quality management, offering a substantial improvement over
traditional methods and natural plant capabilities.
2.5. Power Production
As a pivotal CO2capture and utilization (CCU) technology for
next-generation smart cities and large-scale greenhouse gas mit-
igation, microalgae and cyanobacteria have gained significant
attention.[34,35]These organisms capture, store, and convert CO2
into biomass and valuable products via photosynthesis. O2gen-
eration, discussed in the previous chapter, represents one of the
utilization pathways. Using these biological entities as living cat-
alysts, the biosolar cell presents a sustainable and economically
viable CCU method, transforming captured CO2into bioelectric-
ity. Although its power generation capacity is not suited for large-
scale, high-power demands, it is perfectly tailored for low-power
applications indoors, powered effectively by a stack of multiple
biosolar cells. Our research group pioneered miniaturized bioso-
lar cell techniques applicable to various devices including the
Internet of Things (IoT), surveillance robots, and sensors.[36–39]
Here, we leverage this technology to develop an artificial plant
that enhances indoor carbon capture while concurrently gen-
erating O2and substantial electrical power. Each biosolar cell
achieves an open circuit voltage (OCV) of 0.25 V and a maximum
power density of 9 μWcm
−2(Figure 6a). By connecting five bioso-
lar cells in series within each leaf, we achieve an OCV of 1.0 V and
a maximum power of 46 μW. Significantly, when these leaves are
connected in series within the artificial plant structure, the sys-
tem produces an OCV of 2.7 V and a maximum power of 140 μW,
which is sufficient to power portable electronics. A single artifi-
cial leaf can power a thermometer, while the entire plant can run
a desktop light-emitting diode (LED), showcasing the potential of
our artificial plant as a reliable power source for indoor applica-
tions, simultaneously improving air quality as demonstrated in
the previous chapter.
We also investigated the effect of CO2concentration on elec-
trical performance (Figure 6b). A single artificial leaf was tested
in a chamber with an initial CO2concentration of 5000 ppm. The
initial maximum power was ≈46 μW with a maximum current
of 160 μA. As the experiment progressed and CO2concentration
decreased to 3000 ppm, the electrical performance notably in-
creased to 65 μW and 420 μA. That marked enhancement was at-
tributed to the increased electricity production achieved through
optimized photosynthesis at high CO2concentrations. However,
further reductions in CO2concentration to 2300 ppm and then
1900 ppm over time led to a gradual decline in electrical output.
This decline is primarily because of the limiting effect of lower
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Figure 5. Cyanobacterial artificial plant for enhanced indoor quality. a) Measurements of COconcentration, Oconcentration, temperature, and hu-
midity in an experimental chamber featuring our artificial plant (i) without and (ii) with cyanobacteria was placed. b) Time-lapse fluorescence images
showing cyanobacterial growth and reproduction in the artificial plant.
CO2concentrations on cyanobacterial photosynthesis. Addition-
ally, increasing O2concentrations may induce oxidative stress,
damaging cellular components and disrupting key metabolic
pathways.[40]Elevated oxygen levels can also interfere with
extracellular electron transfer, significantly impairing the overall
power performance of the system.[41]This intricate relationship
between gas concentrations and electrical output underlines
the complex interdependencies within the biosolar cell system
and highlights the challenges and considerations necessary for
optimizing CCU technologies in indoor environments.
3. Future Direction
We anticipate that our artificial plant can be effortlessly installed
in any indoor environment in a cost-effective, maintenance-
free, and eco-friendly manner. Since it is power-free and
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Figure 6. Power generation. a) Polarization curves and power densities from a biosolar cell with and without cyanobacteria. b) Polarization curves and
power outputs from an artificial plant and an artificial leaf. c) A photo of the artificial leaf powering a digital thermometer. d) A photo of the artificial plant
powering a desktop light-emitting diode (LED). e) Polarization curves and power outputs from an artificial leaf during COreduction.
self-sustaining, no external energy sources or accessory compo-
nents are required. However, additional studies are necessary to
further refine its practical applications. Here, the long-term oper-
ation necessary for ideal and permanent improvements in indoor
air quality was not achieved. The use of a single bacterial species
may limit long-term bacterial viability, suggesting that engi-
neered co-culture communities might be more advantageous
for sustained operation.[42]Additionally, exploring the genetic
engineering of bacteria could enhance performance. Moreover,
minimizing maintenance, which can be achieved through opti-
mized water and nutrient delivery systems, is crucial for practical
application. Regarding power performance, generating higher
power output is essential for more practical indoor applications,
such as charging a cellphone. It is anticipated that a minimum
output of more than 1 mW is necessary. To accomplish this,
further improvements in materials and device structures are
required. Increasing the compactness and number of biosolar
cells could significantly enhance power output. Additionally, in-
tegrating energy storage solutions, such as lithium-ion batteries
and supercapacitors, should be considered to make the system
more effective and versatile for real-world applications. These
future directions will pave the way for cyanobacterial artificial
plants to become a viable technology for indoor environmental
management and sustainable energy.
4. Conclusion
This work develops a cyanobacteria-activated artificial plant,
which comprises artificial leaves connected to a stem through
microfluidic channels and electrical pathways. Cyanobacteria
harness solar energy to transform CO2and water into O2, thereby
enhancing indoor air quality. Concurrently, excess electrons re-
leased from the photosynthesis in cyanobacteria are harnessed
as a source of energy for low-power applications. The electricity
generated is captured by an integrated biosolar cell that includes
a cyanobacteria-embedded anode and a cathode, separated by an
ion exchange membrane. The structural basis of the leaves and
plant stems incorporates microporous hygroscopic hydrogels,
which facilitate continuous water and nutrient supply to individ-
ual leaves via capillary forces and transpiration. The hydrogels are
further enhanced with Fe2O3NPs, which not only augment CO2
capture and light absorption but also improve light harvesting
and extracellular electron transfer rates in cyanobacteria, acting
as effective light absorbers and conductive conduits, respectively.
The artificial plant, integrating five leaves each with five serially
connected biosolar cells, achieves a substantial reduction in in-
door CO2levels—from 5000 to 500 ppm—and a corresponding
increase in O2levels—from 13.2 to 22.9 ppm. This setup also
generates a significant power density of 140 μWcm
−2,demon-
strating its potential as a dual-function system for improving air
quality and providing sustainable energy.
5. Experimental Section
Cultivation of Cyanobacteria:The cyanobacterial strain Synechocystis
sp. PCC was revived from an − °C glycerol stock culture. The cul-
ture was inoculated into mL of BG- medium and maintained under
gentle shaking conditions, following a h light/dark cycle. The BG-
medium was prepared with the following composition per liter of distilled
water: . g of NaNO,mgofK
HPO, mg of MgSO,mgof
CaCl, mg of EDTA, and mg each of citric acid and ferric ammonium
citrate. Cultivation took place in a chamber controlled by fluorescent light-
ing at a consistent temperature of ±°C, with continuous aeration
and illumination for two weeks. The growth of the culture was periodi-
cally assessed by measuring the optical density at nm (OD), which
reached a final value of ., indicating successful proliferation.
Synthesis of Anodic and Cathodic Materials:A leaf-inspired FeOdec-
orated rGO hydrogel was synthesized using a hydrothermal method. Ini-
tially, mg of GO was dissolved in mL of distilled water (DIW) and
sonicated for min to ensure a homogeneous mixture. Subsequently,
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mg of FeSO·HO was added and the solution was stirred continu-
ously for h at room temperature. The resultant mixture was then trans-
ferred to a Teflon-lined autoclave and subjected to hydrothermal treatment
at °C for h. During this process, the oxygen-containing functional
groups in the GO were reduced, transforming it into rGO with enhanced
electrical conductivity. Concurrently, FeONPs were synthesized in situ
within the hydrothermal environment. These NPs became uniformly dis-
persed throughout the rGO network, forming a composite hydrogel with
improved structural and functional properties. Following synthesis, the
autoclave was allowed to cool to room temperature. The hydrogel was
then washed three times with DIW to remove any residual reactants and
byproducts, ensuring the purity of the final product. To finalize the prepa-
ration, the hydrogel was freeze-dried for h using a FreeZone Plus .
Liter Cascade Benchtop Freeze Dry System, eectively removing all resid-
ual moisture.
For the cathodic part of the biosolar cells, an AC hydrogel decorated
with Pd NPs was prepared. To begin, mg of AC powder was dissolved
in mL of DIW and vigorously stirred for h. Subsequently, mg of
Palladium (II) chloride was added to the mixture, which was stirred for
an additional hour. This mixture then underwent hydrothermal treatment
under the same conditions as the anodic structure, ensuring consistency
in the processing conditions across both electrodes. Finally, to assemble
the biosolar cells, a solution of PEDOT:PSS and glycerol was prepared and
mixed with the anode and cathode materials. This mixture was carefully
injected into the designated anodic and cathodic regions to complete the
cell assembly.
Synthesis of Ion Exchange Membrane Material:Initially, grams of chi-
tosan powder were dissolved in mL of % (w/v) acetic acid solution
under constant stirring to ensure thorough dissolution. This step is cru-
cial for the uniformity of the membrane matrix. Subsequently, μLof
.% (v/v) glutaraldehyde solution was incorporated into the chitosan
solution as a crosslinking agent. The inclusion of glutaraldehyde is crit-
ical as it facilitates the formation of stable crosslinks within the chitosan
structure, which is rich in amino groups. These amino groups are in-
strumental in promoting ion exchange with oppositely charged ions. The
cross-linking process conferred by glutaraldehyde significantly enhances
the membrane’s stability and selectivity in ion transport, eectively allow-
ing the passage of certain ions while obstructing others.[]These proper-
ties render the chitosan-based membrane highly suitable for applications
as an ion exchange membrane, ensuring ecient and selective ion sepa-
ration critical in various industrial and research applications.
Synthesis of Hygroscopic Gelatin-Chitosan Hydrogel:The preparation of
the hygroscopic hydrogel commenced with the blending of chitosan and
gelatin in a ratio of : in a wt% acetic acid solution within ml of DIW.
This mixture was stirred continuously for h at °C to achieve a homoge-
neous solution. Subsequently, the solution was degassed under vacuum
for h to eliminate any entrapped air bubbles, enhancing the uniformity
of the final product. To facilitate cross-linking, . wt% glutaraldehyde
solution was added to the gelatin-chitosan mixture. This step is critical as
it promotes the formation of stable bonds between the polymer chains of
chitosan and gelatin, significantly enhancing the structural integrity of the
hydrogel. Following the addition of glutaraldehyde, the mixture was freeze-
dried at − °C for h. The freeze-drying is essential as it sublimates the
water content directly from the solid phase to the gas phase, thereby creat-
ing a porous structure within the hydrogel. The hygroscopic properties of
the hydrogel are primarily attributed to the presence of hydrophilic func-
tional groups—namely amino and hydroxyl groups—within the chitosan
and gelatin. These groups exhibit a strong anity for water molecules, en-
abling the scaold to eciently absorb and retain moisture from its envi-
ronment. Additionally, the porosity introduced by the freeze-drying further
amplifies its moisture-absorbing capabilities. The cross-linking induced by
glutaraldehyde not only reinforces the hydrogel’s mechanical stability but
also ensures that it remains intact and does not dissolve upon exposure
to water. This combination of structural and chemical properties makes
the hydrogel ideally suited for applications requiring durable and ecient
water supply management.
Fabrication of Artificial Plant:The fabrication of individual leaves on
a . mm thick PMMA substrate was accomplished using a laser micro-
machining technique, specifically employing the Universal Laser Systems
VLS .. This precision engineering process meticulously defines desig-
nated areas for fluidic and electrical channels, alongside the integral com-
ponents of the biosolar cells. During this process, the internal circle of the
biosolar cell, measuring mm in diameter, was segmented into three
equal parts. The cathode and anode materials were meticulously applied
onto the substrate to achieve a consistent thickness of ≈ mm. After this
initial setup, the membrane separating the anode and cathode, as well
as the hydrogel for the branches and stems, and silver for constructing
metallic pathways, were precisely deposited using an ink-jet printing tech-
nique. This advanced method guarantees exact placement and seamless
integration of the various functional materials, ensuring optimal perfor-
mance and structural integrity of the device. The anodes of the individ-
ual leaves were fluidically interconnected, a design feature that ensures
consistent and ecient delivery of water and nutrients to the embedded
cyanobacteria. Moreover, the anodes and cathodes of each leaf were elec-
trically connected, optimizing the electrical output and overall power per-
formance of the system. This interconnected arrangement facilitates the
eective operation of the artificial plant, enhancing its functional eciency
and the scalability of the design for larger systems.
Indoor Air Quality Measurement Setup:The artificial plant and its asso-
ciated leaves were placed within an environmental test chamber (Model
Tenney ) to evaluate their COcapture and Ogeneration capa-
bilities under controlled environmental conditions. The experiment was
structured to simulate natural diurnal cycles, consisting of h of day-
light and h of darkness, with a constant light intensity of lux dur-
ing the daylight hours. Before initiating the experiment, the chamber was
purged with COgas to remove other gases, including Oand N,tocre-
ate a controlled atmospheric environment. Throughout the experiment,
critical environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, Olev-
els, and COlevels were continuously monitored. These measurements
were conducted using an indoor air quality monitor equipped with data
logging capabilities (Model: , Sper Scientific) and an additional
oxygen sensor (AirRadio Combustible Gas Leak Detector Portable). This
comprehensive monitoring allowed for precise data collection and analy-
sis of the artificial plant’s performance in terms of gas exchange under the
specified test conditions.
Electrochemical Measurement Setup:The electrochemical characteri-
zation of the anodic and cathodic materials was conducted using ad-
vanced analytical techniques, including CV, EIS, and LSV. These tests were
performed using a Squidstat Plus potentiostat from Admiral Instruments.
Experiments were carried out in a . KCl buer solution employing
a screen-printed electrode supplied by Metrohm, USA. The CV method
provided insights into the redox characteristics and charge transfer capa-
bilities of the materials. EIS was used to assess the impedance properties
across a range of frequencies, thereby elucidating the materials’ resistance
and capacitive behaviors. LSV was used to further evaluate the electro-
chemical kinetics and reaction mechanisms at the electrode surfaces. The
data collected from these electrochemical tests were critical for assessing
the performance parameters of the materials, oering a comprehensive
understanding of their electrochemical properties within the biosolar cell
system.
Electrical Measurement Setup:The electrical performance of the bioso-
lar cells was rigorously assessed using a Data Acquisition System (Model
DI-U, DataQ, USA). The system facilitated continuous monitoring of
the electrical outputs across various external resistors, ranging from no
resistance to . kΩ. This method allowed for the precise measurement
of voltage across these resistors, which is essential for constructing polar-
ization curves and determining power outputs. Furthermore, to provide
a standardized basis for comparison and analysis, the power and current
densities were normalized to the surface area of the anode. This normal-
ization is critical as it accounts for variations in anode size and ensures
that the performance data are directly comparable across dierent bioso-
lar cell setups.
Statistical Analysis:Statistical analysis was conducted on experimental
data obtained from a minimum of three identical trials. The results were
presented as the mean ±standard error of the mean for these replicates,
providing a robust measure of variability and accuracy.
Adv. Sustainable Syst. 2024,8, 2400401 (11 of 12) © The Author(s). Advanced Sustainable Systems published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
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Supporting Information
Supporting Information is available from the Wiley Online Library or from
the author.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by funding from the Oce of Naval Research
(Grant #: N---). The authors are grateful to the Analytical
and Diagnostic Laboratory at SUNY-Binghamton for providing access to
their facilities. During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors em-
ployed ChatGPT to identify and correct grammatical inaccuracies. After
this assistance, the authors carefully reviewed and revised the manuscript
to ensure accuracy and clarity. The authors accept full responsibility for the
content of this publication.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the cor-
responding author upon reasonable request.
Keywords
artificial plants, biosolar cells, COcapture and utilization, cyanobacteria,
indoor air quality, synechocystis sp. PCC
Received: June ,
Revised: July ,
Published online: August ,
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