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Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org
Variations in positive well-being
as a function of the interaction
between paranormal belief and
schizotypy
NeilDagnall
1
*, KennethGrahamDrinkwater
1, AndrewDenovan
2
and AlexEscoláGascón
3
1 Department of Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom,
2 School of Psychology, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom, 3 Department of
Quantitative Methods and Statistics, Comillas Pontifical University, Madrid, Spain
This study examined variations in positive well-being as a function of paranormal
belief and schizotypy. A sample of 2,362 UnitedKingdom-based respondents
completed self-report measures assessing paranormal belief, schizotypy, positive
well-being (meaning in life, satisfaction with life, and self-esteem), paranormal
experience, and belief in conspiracies. The paranormal belief was most strongly
related to the cognitive–perceptual factor of schizotypy. Both paranormal belief
and the cognitive–perceptual factor were associated with reporting paranormal
experiences and endorsement of conspiracist beliefs. Despite commonality,
paranormal belief and schizotypy were dierentially related to well-being.
Paranormal belief correlated positively with meaning in life (presence and
search) and satisfaction with life. Schizotypy correlated negatively with presence,
satisfaction with life, and self-esteem and positively with search. Latent profile
analysis identified four subgroups: Profile 1, low belief and schizotypy (49% of the
sample); Profile 2, low belief and cognitive–perceptual, moderate interpersonal
and disorganised (13.6%); Profile 3, high belief, moderate cognitive–perceptual
and interpersonal, low disorganised (24.3%); and Profile 4, high belief and
schizotypy (13.1%). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) found that low
belief with mixed schizotypy was associated with lower presence, and low belief
and schizotypy (vs. high) were related to higher presence. Paranormal belief and
schizotypy were associated with greater search, higher scores on paranormal
experiential factors, and endorsement of generic conspiracist beliefs. Finally,
lower belief and schizotypy were concomitant with higher satisfaction with life
and self-esteem. Overall, paranormal belief was related to positive well-being,
whereas schizotypy was associated with lower positive wellbeing.
KEYWORDS
paranormal belief, schizotypy, well-being, paranormal experience, belief in
conspiracies, latent profile analysis
Introduction
Surveys consistently report that paranormal belief persists within modern Western
societies (Drinkwater etal., 2021a). Illustratively, a 2005 Gallup survey found that 73% of
Americans endorsed belief in at least one paranormal phenomenon (Moore, 2005). A sizeable
proportion of the population also claimed to have experienced supernatural phenomena (see
Dagnall etal., 2016). As researchers have operationalised paranormality in diverse ways, this
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Preethi Premkumar,
London South Bank University,
UnitedKingdom
REVIEWED BY
Sarah Tholl,
University of Konstanz, Germany
Reza Rastmanesh,
American Physical Society, UnitedStates
Jordan Randell,
University of Winchester, UnitedKingdom
*CORRESPONDENCE
Neil Dagnall
n.dagnall@mmu.ac.uk
RECEIVED 05 March 2024
ACCEPTED 08 July 2024
PUBLISHED 26 July 2024
CITATION
Dagnall N, Drinkwater KG, Denovan A and
Gascón AE (2024) Variations in positive
well-being as a function of the interaction
between paranormal belief and schizotypy.
Front. Psychol. 15:1396485.
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
COPYRIGHT
© 2024 Dagnall, Drinkwater, Denovan and
Gascón. This is an open-access article
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Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The
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TYPE Brief Research Report
PUBLISHED 26 July 2024
DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org
paper adopted the delineation of Irwin (2009). is states that ‘a
paranormal belief is dened on a working basis as a proposition that
has not been empirically attested to the satisfaction of the scientic
establishment but is generated within the non-scientic community
and extensively endorsed by people who might normally beexpected
by their society to becapable of rational thought and reality testing’
(Irwin, 2009, p.16, 17).
Despite the enduring popularity of supernatural credence,
researchers typically regard beliefs as maladaptive and/or indicative of
so psychopathology symptoms (Dagnall etal., 2022a). is pejorative
view prevails even though the evidence is inconsistent (i.e., dated and
focused on restricted facets of belief such as superstition) and derives
from correlations between overall belief and variables allied to poor
psychological adjustment (e.g., depressive attributional style and
increased negative emotional states; Dudley and Whisnand, 2000).
Assuming paranormal powers/forces do not exist, the everyday
nature of belief in general populations suggests that it is best
conceptualised as an individual dierence (i.e., a continuous
quantiable variation) rather than a distinct point of classication.
Accordingly, personal endorsement arises from limited consideration
of empirical evidence. is is especially true, as corroborating
substantiation is limited (e.g., Bem, 2011) and criticised by the
scientic community (Wagenmakers etal., 2011).
Acknowledging this, cognitive theorists view paranormal beliefs
as a manifestation of preferential thinking style and/or truncated
reasoning (Williams et al., 2022). For instance, dual-processing
explanations ascribe validation to an inclination for subjective/aect-
based (vs. objective/logic) data. e advantage of the cognitive
approach is that it regards paranormal belief as domain-specic.
Believers can process/reason at a high evaluative level but employ
awed reasoning in the context of the paranormal. Hence, errors arise
because judgements derive from personal (rather than objective)
appraisal of evidence (Dagnall etal., 2010a, 2015).
Irwin (2003) referred to this awed decision-making process as
reality testing failure. Within this conceptualisation, belief and
mentation are reciprocally reinforcing and provide a skewed
interpretive lens (Irwin etal., 2013; Lange etal., 2019). is is also
commensurate with the notion that supernatural credence is a form
of subclinical psychosis (e.g., Van Os, 2003; Unterrassner etal., 2017),
whereby characteristics found in psychosis (magical thinking, ideas of
reference, unusual experiences, etc.) present in a milder form within
general populations (Unterrassner etal., 2017). Correspondingly,
paranormal beliefs/experiences represent non-clinical delusions and
hallucinations (Irwin etal., 2012a,b).
Recent research designates that supernatural credence is not
necessarily related to poor psychological adjustment/well-being. Whilst
there is correlation-based evidence to support the assertation that
paranormal belief is associated with reduced well-being, this ignores
the heterogeneous nature of believers and the fact that personal
credence is qualied by the presence of other psychological factors (e.g.,
schizotypy; Denovan etal., 2018). Interactions between belief and these
factors dierentially inuence relationships with well-being outcomes.
Testing this, Drinkwater et al. (2024) assessed whether subgroup
membership, determined by paranormal belief and psychopathology
(schizotypy and manic-depressive experience), predicted well-being
(i.e., stress, somatic complaints, life satisfaction, and meaning in life)
over time. e analysis found that the highest psychopathology scoring
prole (vs. lower) predicted higher negative and lower positive
well-being. Transliminality and fearful attitude (positively) and sceptical
attitude (negatively) mediated this outcome. us, in the absence of
psychopathology, paranormal belief had no inuence on well-being.
In a related study, Dagnall et al. (2022c) reported that higher
scores on transliminality and psychopathology-related variables (i.e.,
the unusual experiences and cognitive disorganisation subscales of
schizotypy and manic-depressive experiences) were associated with
stronger paranormal belief and somatic complaints relationship.
Furthermore, as levels of transliminality and unusual experiences
increased, the strength of the relationship between paranormal belief
and perceived stress also increased. ese outcomes demonstrated
that cognitive–perceptual personality factors qualied the eect of
supernatural credence.
In the case of transliminality, higher scores reect reduced ability
to suppress irrelevant information (albourne, 2009). Regarding
unusual experiences, positive symptoms (e.g., magical thinking,
perceptual aberrations, and hallucinations) are expressed as
broadening cognitions (e.g., hallucinations and paranoia). Combined,
transliminality and unusual experiences increase perceptual sensitivity
to stimuli and decrease the ability to discriminate between internally
and externally generated data (Dagnall etal., 2008). is explains why
the presence of these constructs, alongside paranormal belief,
amplies awareness of somatic complaints and stress.
A study by Dagnall etal. (2022a), using network analysis, further
demonstrated the inuential eects of transliminality, unusual
experiences (positive schizotypy), and depressive experiences on the
paranormal belief well-being relationship. Transliminality acted as a
connecting variable between belief, positive schizotypy, and
psychopathology. Additionally, depressive experiences bridged the
transliminality and well-being relationship.
e nding that levels of cognitive–perceptual factors qualify
paranormal beliefs concurs with studies using latent prole analysis
(LPA). Dagnall etal. (2022b) identied subgroups using paranormal
belief and psychopathology (schizotypy, depression, manic experience,
and depressive experience) and examined dierences in well-being
scores (i.e., perceived stress, somatic complaints, and life satisfaction).
Subgroups with higher psychopathology reported lower well-being.
However, higher paranormal belief was not necessarily associated with
lower psychological adjustment and reduced well-being. ese results
indicated that belief in the context of well-being was not maladaptive.
Noting the benign inuence of paranormal belief on negative
well-being, the present study explored whether credence had adaptive
benets. is was important since few studies have examined the
positive eects of belief. Moreover, studies reporting benets have
typically focussed on experience (Kennedy and Kanthamani, 1995),
employed small samples (e.g., Parra and Corbetta, 2014), and/or used
qualitative approaches (Betsch et al., 2021). Whilst these reports
enhanced well-being (e.g., increased happiness, condence, optimism,
and meaning in life), researchers have not established the degree to
which outcomes extrapolate to broader, general populations.
Noting these factors, the present study, alongside direct
relationships, used LPA to examine belief-related dierences in
perceived well-being. Based on previous research, LPA amalgamated
paranormal belief with schizotypy. Corresponding with studies
using general populations, the authors conceptualised schizotypy
as a personality trait, assessed on a continuum, ranging from
psychological health to schizophrenia (psychosis; Barrantes-Vidal
etal., 2015). e advantage of this delineation is that it recognises
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org
that schizotypy is both a source of healthy variation and an
indicator of susceptibility to psychosis. Hence, schizotypy
comprises facets that approximate features of schizophrenia or
schizotypal personality disorder (Kwapil and Barrantes-
Vidal, 2015).
To facilitate conceptual understanding of proles, the study
adopted the three-factor model proposed by Raine etal. (1994).
Within this, there is a clear correspondence between factors and
clinical symptoms. Cognitive–perceptual factors align with positive
symptoms (i.e., delusions and hallucinations), specically odd beliefs
and magical thinking, unusual perceptual experiences, ideas of
reference, and paranoid ideation. Interpersonal encompasses features
aliated with negative symptoms (i.e., social anxiety, constricted
aect, paranoia, and no close friends). Finally, disorganised (i.e., odd
speech and odd behaviour) reects thought disorder and bizarre
behaviour (Arndt etal., 1991).
e three-factor model was used in preference to the four-
factor model (Mason, 2015) because it provides a narrower
denition of schizotypy, which more easily maps on to classically
dened symptomology (i.e., positive, cognitive disorganisation,
and negative, see Kemp etal., 2021). is is advantageous in terms
of parsimonious identication of proles. To enable comparisons
with prior investigations (Kennedy and Kanthamani, 1995; Parra
and Corbetta, 2014; Betsch et al., 2021), meaning in life,
satisfaction with life, and self-esteem were employed as well-
being indices.
is study built on previous research in two notable ways. First, it
established whether interactions between paranormal belief and
schizotypy produced proles similar to those described in previous
LPA studies (e.g., Denovan et al., 2018). is was particularly
important because alternative measures of schizotypy exist. As
previous studies (e.g., Denovan etal., 2018; Drinkwater etal., 2024)
have typically employed the Oxford–Liverpool Inventory of Feelings
and Experiences (O-LIFE short; Mason etal., 2005), the present study
used the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire—Brief (SPQ-B; Raine
and Benishay, 1995).
Second, the investigators included a broader range of positive
well-being measures, a further development is a separate analysis of
meaning in life dimensions (i.e., presence and search). is was
important because presence correlates positively with arming
outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction and joy) and negatively with adverse
indicators (e.g., depression and sadness; Steger etal., 2006), whereas
search is associated with negative emotions (Cohen and Cairns, 2012)
and reduced well-being (e.g., depression, sadness, and rumination;
Dakin etal., 2021).
Consistent with previous ndings, the authors predicted that
positive well-being outcomes would correlate positively with
paranormal belief and negatively with schizotypy. In line with
these hypotheses, the authors anticipated that relationships
between emergent proles and well-being outcomes would vary as
a function of levels of belief and schizotypy. To ensure that proles
possessed conceptual coherence, the study included an assessment
of paranormal experience and belief in conspiracies. As these
factors correlate positively with both supernatural credence and
schizotypy, especially the cognitive–perceptual dimension, the
authors anticipated that proles with higher levels of these
constructs would report more paranormal experiences and greater
conspiratorial endorsement.
Materials and methods
Participants
A sample of 2,362 respondents participated in this study
(Mage = 46.73, SD = 12.97, and range = 18 to 82). ere were 1,244 men
(Mage = 47.83, SD = 12.70, and range = 18 to 78), 1,103 women
(Mage = 45.61, SD = 13.12, and range = 18 to 82), 13 non-binary
(Mage = 37.61, SD = 14.08, and range = 18 to 59), and 2 did not disclose
gender identity (Mage = 39.0, SD = 29.69, and range = 18 to 60). e
researchers recruited participants through Bilendi, which is an
acknowledged supplier of quality data (Fladerer and Braun, 2020). e
use of participation pools is equivalent to traditional recruitment
measures (Kees etal., 2017). e advantages are the ability to sample
a broader range of ages and control for gender bias. e researchers
hosted the survey within Qualtrics (a web-based soware) and
participants accessed it via a web link. Bilendi disseminated the link
to members of their participation pool in accordance with the
researcher’s instructions. ese stipulated a UnitedKingdom-based,
gender-balanced sample with a minimum participant age of 18 years.
Bilendi provides data from established respondent pools, where
individuals have consented to participate in online research studies.
Measures
e study employed established self-report measures. e
investigators collated this to produce an online survey. Latent proles
comprised paranormal beliefs and schizotypy.
Revised Paranormal Belief Scale
e Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS, Tobacyk, 2004) contains
26 items that represent core facets of paranormal belief (i.e., traditional
religious belief, psi belief, witchcra, spiritualism, superstition,
extraordinary life forms, and precognition; see Dagnall etal., 2010b). Items
appear as statements (e.g., ‘It is possible to communicate with the dead’),
and respondents answer using a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) (Tobac yk, 2004). Prior to analysis,
consistent with Irwin (2009), responses were recoded (0–6). Hence, scores
range from 0 to 156. Higher scores reect greater paranormal belief.
The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire—Brief
e Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire—Brief (SPQ-B, Raine
and Benishay, 1995) is a 22-item instrument that assesses schizotypal
personality features/disorders in non-clinical populations. e measure
presents items as statements (e.g., ‘People sometimes nd me aloof and
distant’) and participants respond on a dichotomous scale (0 = No and
1 = Yes). e SPQ-B comprises three subscales: cognitive–perceptual
(eight items), interpersonal (eight items), and disorganisation (six
items). e SPQ-B produces subscale scores and an overall total of
0–22. Higher scores denote greater levels of schizotypy.
Outcomes
Paranormal experience
Paranormal experience (PE) is a short 3-item measure that
assesses personal involvement with the supernatural. Respondents
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org
indicate, using Yes/No responses, whether they have experienced
paranormal phenomena, visited paranormal practitioners, or
demonstrated paranormal abilities. e researchers developed the
PE across a series of studies (e.g., Dagnall etal., 2016; Drinkwater
etal., 2021b), and it has become an established research instrument
(Drinkwater etal., 2021a, 2022). Item totals provide an overall
indication of personal paranormal experience (0–3). Higher scores
reect greater engagement.
Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale—Short
e Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale—Short (GCB-5, Kay and
Slovic, 2023) is a 5-item, abridged version of the Generic
Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (Brotherton etal., 2013), which assesses
the tendency to endorse general (i.e., non-event-based) conspiracy-
related ideas and concepts (Kay and Slovic, 2023). Investigators
have widely adopted the GCBS, and the instrument has attested
psychometric properties (Brotherton etal., 2013; Drinkwater etal.,
2020; Dinić etal., 2023). e GCB-5 is an expedient unidimensional
measure designed for use in lengthy-scale batteries, to reduce
respondent fatigue. e instrument comprises the highest loading
items from the ve GCBS dimensions: government malfeasance,
extraterrestrial cover-up, malevolent global conspiracy, personal
well-being, and control of information. Researchers have recently
validated the GCB-5 (Dagnall etal., 2023; Kay and Slovic, 2023).
Items appear as statements (e.g., ‘A small, secret group of people is
responsible for making all major world decisions, such as going to
war’) and participants respond by completing a 5-point Likert-type
scale (1 = denitely not true to 5 = denitely true). Item summation
produces an overall total (5–25), with higher scores being indicative
of greater levels of generic conspiratorial ideation.
Meaning in Life Scale
e Meaning in Life Scale (MLS, Steger etal., 2006) is a 10-item
instrument that assesses the presence of (5 items) and searches for
(5 items) purpose in life. Presence denotes the extent to which
respondents feel their life has meaning (e.g., ‘My life has a clear
sense of purpose’). Search measures the degree to which individuals
attempt to nd or deepen life meaning (e.g., ‘I amalways searching
for something that makes my life feel signicant’). Items appear as
statements and participants record their responses on a 7-point
Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (‘absolutely untrue’) to 7
(‘absolutely true’). Higher scores reect greater presence (5–35) and
search (5–35).
Satisfaction with Life Scale
e Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS, Diener etal., 1985) is a
5-item measure of the cognitive component of subjective well-being
that provides an integrated judgement of life satisfaction. e SWLS
presents items as statements (e.g., ‘In most ways my life is close to my
ideal’), and participants record responses on a 7-point Likert-type
scale, ranging from 1 (‘Strongly Disagree’) to 7 (‘Strongly Agree’).
Higher scores reect greater satisfaction with life (5–35).
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
e Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE, Rosenberg, 1965) is a
10-item instrument that assesses global self-worth/acceptance.
Participants respond to each item, which appears as statements
(e.g., ‘I take a positive attitude towards myself ’) via completion of a
4-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 4 = Strongly
Agree). Scores range from 10 to 40, with higher values specifying
greater self-esteem.
e measurement instruments selected were theoretically and
psychometrically satisfactory (RPBS, Drinkwater et al., 2017;
SPQ-B, Raine and Benishay, 1995; PEFs, Drinkwater etal., 2022;
GCBS-5, Dagnall et al., 2023; Kay and Slovic, 2023; MLS, Steger
etal., 2006; TSWLS, Guitard etal., 2022; RSE, Monteiro etal., 2022).
Within the present study, scales demonstrated internal
reliability: RPBS, α = 0.96; SPQ-B (cognitive–perceptual, α = 0.77;
interpersonal, α = 0.80; and disorganised, α = 0.76); GCB-5, α = 0.85;
MLS (presence, α = 0.89; search, α = 0.92); SWLS (α = 0.93; and RSE,
α = 0.90).
Procedure
Following the receipt of the hyperlink, participants accessed the
study information. Participants only continued if they provided
informed consent. ose advancing completed a demographic section
(age, preferred gender, and occupation) and then progressed to the
scales. Instructions directed participants to read all items carefully and
work at their own pace. To limit potential order and carryover eects,
Qualtrics’ inbuilt randomiser function rotated scale order across
participants. On completion of the survey, respondents accessed the
study debrief.
As study data were cross-sectional, collected at one point in time,
the researchers utilised procedural counters to reduce the likelihood
of common-method variance. Particularly, instructions highlighted
scale/construct dierences. is created psychological distance
between survey sections and emphasised construct uniqueness
(Spector, 2019). To reduce the possibility of evaluation apprehension
and social desirability, survey instructions also stated that there were
no correct answers and that responses should reect individual
preferences/thoughts (Krishnaveni and Deepa, 2013).
Ethics statement
e Health and Education Research Ethics and Governance
Committee at Manchester Metropolitan University granted ethical
approval (Project ID, 47784).
Results
Analysis
e researchers conducted analyses of direct relationships and
dierences using SPSS v28 and performed latent prole analysis (LPA)
with Mplus v8 (Muthén and Muthén, 2018). LPA statistically groups
participants using their response patterns to selected variables. In the
present study, the variables were the level of paranormal belief and
schizotypy. Predetermined criteria identied the optimal number of
latent proles, specically the Akaike information criterion (AIC;
Akaike, 1987), sample size-adjusted BIC (ssaBIC; Sclove, 1987), the
Lo–Mendell–Rubin-adjusted likelihood ratio test (LMR-A-LRT; Lo
etal., 2001), and a test of entropy (Ramaswamy etal., 1993).
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org
Lower AIC and ssaBIC denote superior t, and entropy values
>0.8 represent the sound division of proles. e LPA process
iteratively tests models with an increasing number of proles
(commencing at one), until non-signicant improvement occurs. e
LMR-A-LRT and its p-value determined whether a prole model tted
data signicantly better than a competing solution. Multivariate
analyses of variance (MANOVA) then assessed whether latent proles
diered signicantly on outcome variables: paranormal experience,
PE; belief in conspiracies, GCB-5; meaning in life, presence
(MLPresence) and search (MLSearch), and satisfaction with life,
present (SWLS); and self-esteem.
Primary analysis
Normality assessment revealed that RPBS and SPQ-B skewness
and kurtosis values were within the acceptable range of −2 to +2
(Byrne, 2013). Pearson correlation revealed small to large (see Gignac
and Szodorai, 2016) positive, signicant relationships between RPBS
and SPQ-B subscales of cognitive–perceptual (r = 0.54, ‘relatively
large’), interpersonal (r = 0.16, ‘relatively small’), and disorganised
(r = 0.25, typical). Moreover, RPBS correlated positively with PE
(dummy coded), GCB-5, MLPresence, MLSearch, and SWLPresent.
All SPQ-B subscales correlated positively with PE, GCB-5, and
MLSearch and negatively with MLPresence, SWLPresent, and Self-
Esteem (Table1).
Latent profile analysis
Using RPBS and SPQ-B subscale mean scores, t indices
specied that a four-prole solution was superior to competing
models, lower AIC and ssaBIC (vs. three-prole solution), and
greater entropy (vs. ve-prole solution) existed. Additionally, the
ve-prole solution produced a non-signicant LMR-A-LRT p-value
(Table 2). Figure 1 shows a four-prole solution subgroup
constituency. Proles reected relative dierences in scoring: Prole
1 (low belief and schizotypy, 49% of sample); Prole 2 (low belief and
cognitive–perceptual, moderate interpersonal and disorganised,
13.6%); Prole 3 (high belief, moderate cognitive–perceptual and
interpersonal, low disorganised, 24.3%); and Prole 4 (high belief
and schizotypy, 13.1%). Within the mixed schizotypy subgroups,
Prole 2 displayed moderate levels of interpersonal and disorganised
and Prole 3 displayed moderate levels of cognitive–perceptual
and interpersonal.
Conditional response means (Appendix Table S1) indicated
that within paranormal belief, scores varied across proles (i.e.,
Proles 1 and 2 displayed < mean; Proles 3 and 4 displayed >
mean). Within schizotypy, except for Proles 1 and 2 (consistently
low and high scores), less prole variation occurred. Prole 2
exhibited < mean on cognitive–perceptual, and Prole 2 exhibited
> mean on interpersonal and disorganised. Prole 3 exhibited >
mean on cognitive–perceptual and interpersonal, and Prole 3
exhibited < mean on disorganised.
TABLE1 Correlations amongst paranormal belief and schizotypy.
Variable Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. RPBS 89.13 34.44 0.38** 0.54** 0.16** 0.25** 0.32** 0.57** 0.14** 0.36** 0.05* −0.01
2. SPQ-B 8.61 5.47 0.82** 0.83** 0.82** 0.24** 0.36** −0.20** 0.34** −0.24** −0.30**
3. Cognitive–
perceptual
2.75 2.30 0.46** 0.56** 0.33** 0.45** −0.04 0.37** −0.13** −0.14**
4. Interpersonal 4.16 2.50 0.56** 0.08** 0.20** −0.26** 0.20** −0.27** −0.34**
5. Disorganised 1.70 1.82 0.20** 0.25** −0.19** 0.27** −0.17** −0.25**
6. PE 0.08 0.26 0.20** 0.10** 0.15** 0.08** 0.07**
7. GCB-5 15.22 4.77 0.02 0.27** −0.03 −0.03
8. MLPresence 21.60 6.71 −0.01 0.58** 0.62**
9. MLSearch 21.46 7.01 −0.14** −0.13**
10. SWLS 20.34 7.79 0.57**
11. Self-esteem 17.45 3.73
Raw means: RPBS, Revised Paranormal Belief Scale; SPQ-B, Schizotypy Personality Questionnaire—Brief; PE, Paranormal Experience; GCB-5, Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale—Short;
MLPresence, meaning in life presence; MLSearch, search for meaning; SWLS, Satisfaction with Life Scale; Self-Esteem, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.001.
TABLE2 Fit of latent profile solutions.
Model AIC ssaBIC LMR-A LMR-A p-value Entropy
1-class 11164.77 11185.49
2-class 8934.46 8968.14 2184.06 < 0.001 0.83
3-class 8279.88 8326.50 647.90 < 0.001 0.86
4-class 7793.17 7852.74 484.24 < 0.001 0.83
5-class 7579.07 7651.59 218.47 0.085 0.81
AIC, Akaike information criterion; ssaBIC, sample size-adjusted BIC; LMR-A, Lo–Mendell–Rubin-adjusted likelihood ratio test.
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org
Profile variations in paranormal experience,
conspiracy belief, and well-being
MANOVA (Table3) found a significant medium-sized effect,
Pillai’s trace = 0.36, F(18, 7,065) = 53.33, p < 0.001, η
2
= 0.12. On
individual measures, there were significant effects on PE (with
high scores as the reference category), F(3, 2,358) = 77.78,
p < 0.001, η
2
= 0.09 (medium effect); GCB-5, F(3, 2,358) = 180.53,
p < 0.001, η2 = 0.19 (large effect); MLPresence, F(3, 2,358) = 38.35,
p < 0.001, η2 = 0.05 (small effect); MLSearch, F(3, 2,358) = 117.48,
p < 0.001, η
2
= 0.13 (medium effect); SWLS, F(3, 2,358) = 28.32,
p < 0.001, η
2
= 0.04 (small effect); and Self-Esteem, F(3,
2,358) = 48.56, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.06 (medium effect).
Post-hoc pairwise comparisons (rescaled to significance at
p < 0.05 using Bonferroni) assessed between-profile differences.
Regarding MLPresence, Profile 2 scored lower than other
subgroups (Profiles 1, 3, and 4). Additionally, Profile 1 scored
higher than Profile 4. This indicated that low belief with mixed
schizotypy was associated with lower presence, whereas low belief
and schizotypy (vs. high) were related to higher MLPresence. For
MLSearch, higher levels were evident in Profile 4 (vs. Profiles 1,
2, and 3), Profile 3 (vs. Profiles 2 and 1), and Profile 2 vs. Profile
1. These differences indicated that greater MLSearch was
associated with a higher presence of paranormal belief
and schizotypy.
Regarding SWLS, Profile 1 (vs. Profiles 2, 3, and 4) and Profile
3 (vs. Profile 2) demonstrated greater SWLS. The pattern of
responses for self-esteem was the same with the addition that
Profile 4 (vs. Profile 3) scored higher. Lower belief and schizotypy
were associated with higher satisfaction with life and self-esteem.
Additionally, amongst participants with moderate schizotypy
(Profile 3 vs. Profile 2), higher belief was related to higher
satisfaction with life and self-esteem.
For PE and GCB-5, Profile 4 (vs. Profiles 3, 2, and 1), Profile
3 (vs. Profiles 2 and 1), and Profile 2 vs. Profile 1 scored higher.
The levels of paranormal belief and schizotypy were associated
with reporting of experiences and endorsement of conspiracy
beliefs; higher belief and schizotypy showed greater reporting of
experiences and endorsement of generic conspiracy beliefs.
Discussion
Consistent with prior research, paranormal belief correlated
positively with schizotypy and was most strongly related to the
cognitive–perceptual factor (Darwin etal., 2011). is relationship
was attributable to overlapping construct features (i.e., odd/magical
beliefs, unusual perpetual experiences, and ideas of reference).
Paranormal belief and the cognitive–perceptual factor were
associated with higher scores on reporting paranormal experiences
and endorsement of generic conspiracist beliefs, respectively.
Despite commonality, paranormal belief and schizotypy were
dierentially related to well-being measures. Paranormal belief
correlated positively with meaning in life (presence and search) and
satisfaction with life, whereas schizotypy correlated negatively with
presence, satisfaction with life, and self-esteem and positively
with search.
e observation that paranormal belief was associated with
higher presence, whilst schizotypy was associated with lower scores
was important in the context of well-being. Presence correlates
positively with arming outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction and joy) and
negatively with adverse indicators (e.g., depression and sadness;
Steger etal., 2006). Although the relationship between presence and
search is complex and academically debated (Newman etal., 2018),
search typically associated with negative emotions (Cohen and
Cairns, 2012) and reduced well-being (e.g., depression, sadness, and
FIGURE1
Pattern of mean scores on the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) and Schizotypy Personality Questionnaire—Brief (SPQ-B) as a function of latent
profile.
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 07 frontiersin.org
rumination; Dakin etal., 2021). As paranormal belief and schizotypy
were both positively related to search, their distinct relationship with
presence was potentially important. In the case of believers, high
presence could mediate relationships between search and negative
well-being outcomes (Newman etal., 2018). Future studies should
assess these relationships, employing a broader set of well-
being outcomes.
Regarding satisfaction with life and self-esteem, schizotypy was
associated with lower scores, and paranormal belief was weakly
positively related with satisfaction with life. ere was no signicant
correlation between paranormal belief and self-esteem. Overall
paranormal belief was associated with positive well-being, and
schizotypy was associated with lower scores on positive well-being
measures. is was ascribed to the interpersonal and disorganised
factors, which reect aective and social deciencies (psychological
maladjustment) that are inclined to undermine positive well-being
(Mohr and Claridge, 2015).
e present study also observed that the cognitive–perceptual
schizotypy factor correlated negatively with satisfaction with life.
is nding was commensurate with the supposition that the eects
of positive schizotypy are contingent on concurrent levels of
interpersonal (negative) and disorganised factors (Abbott and
Byrne, 2012). is is because positive schizotypy is more strongly
related to negative aect than life satisfaction (Abbott etal., 2012).
Indeed, positive schizotypy is a weak predictor of life satisfaction
(Abbott and Byrne, 2012). In the context of the present study, it
appears that levels of interpersonal (negative) and disorganised
factors (especially the former) and allied negative aect/absence of
positive aect inuenced cognitive appraisal of well-being (i.e.,
satisfaction with life and self-esteem). is explains why overall
schizotypy is associated with diminished life satisfaction (Abbott
etal., 2012).
Associations and their implications require cautious
interpretation. For example, whilst the relationship between
paranormal belief and life satisfaction was signicant, the eect size
was small. is concurred with prior studies reporting weak to
non-signicant associations (e.g., Dagnall etal., 2022a,b). Indeed,
paranormal belief demonstrates (negative) relationships via the
inuence of attendant constructs, such as transliminality. e
signicant paranormal belief–meaning in life relationship has more
robust support (cf. FioRito et al., 2021; Dagnall et al., 2022a),
indicating a direct (and consistent) link with well-being.
Prole comparisons concurred with the analysis of direct
relationships. Low belief and cognitive–perceptual, moderate
interpersonal and disorganised (Prole 2) was associated with lower
MLPresence (vs. Proles 1, 2, and 4), and low belief and schizotypy
(Prole 1) (vs. high, Prole 4) was related to higher MLPresence.
Generally, paranormal belief and schizotypy (Proles 2, 3, and 4) were
associated with greater MLSearch, higher scores on paranormal
experiential factors, and endorsement of generic conspiracist beliefs.
TABLE3 Relationships of the group (latent profile) with study outcomes.
Dependent variable
PE GCB-5 MLPresence MLSearch SWLS Self-
esteem
ANOVA MANOVA
Fdf (Sig.;
η2)
Fdf (Sig.;
η2)
Fdf (Sig.; η2)Fdf (Sig.; η2)Fdf (Sig.;
η2)
Fdf (Sig.;
η2)
Pillai Fdf (Sig.)η2
Var i a b l e
Group 77.78 3,2,358
(<0.001; 0.09)
180.53 3,2,358
(<0.001; 0.19)
38.35 3,2,358 (<0.001;
0.05)
117.48 3,2,358
(<0.001; 0.13)
28.32 3,2,358
(<0.001; 0.04)
48.56 3,2,358
(<0.001; 0.06)
0.36 53.33 18,7,065
(<0.001)
0.12
Pairwise comparisons (mean dierences) between profiles
Profile
contrast
Mean di.
(Sig.)
Mean di.
(Sig.)
Mean di.
(Sig.)
Mean di.
(Sig.)
Mean
di. (Sig.)
Mean
di. (Sig.)
Prole 1 vs.
Prole 2
−0.03 (0.306) −1.28 (<0.001) 4.39 (<0.001) −2.34 (<0.001) 3.94 (<0.001) 2.31 (<0.001)
Prole 1 vs.
Prole 3
−0.11 (<0.001) −3.86 (<0.001) 0.55 (0.562) −4.48 (<0.001) 2.07 (<0.001) 0.86 (<0.001)
Prole 1 vs.
Prole 4
−0.22 (<0.001) −5.31 (<0.001) 1.65 (<0.001) −6.80 (<0.001) 2.62 (<0.001) 2.03 (<0.001)
Prole 2 vs.
Prole 3
−0.08 (<0.001) −2.57 (<0.001) −3.83 (<0.001) −2.14 (<0.001) −1.87 (0.003) −1.44
(<0.001)
Prole 2 vs.
Prole 4
−0.19 (<0.001) −4.02 (<0.001) −2.73 (<0.001) −4.46 (<0.001) −1.32 (0.199) −0.27 (1.00)
Prole 3 vs.
Prole 4
−0.10 (<0.001) −1.45 (<0.001) 1.10 (0.107) −2.31 (<0.001) 0.54 (1.00) 1.17 (<0.001)
Prole 1, low belief and schizotypy; Prole 2, low belief and cognitive–perceptual, moderate interpersonal and disorganised; Prole 3, high belief, moderate cognitive–perceptual and
interpersonal, low disorganised; Prole 4, high belief and schizotypy; PE, Paranormal Experience; GCB-5, Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale—Short; MLPresence, meaning in life presence;
MLSearch, search for meaning; SWLS, Satisfaction with Life Scale; Self-Esteem, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org
Finally, low belief and schizotypy (Prole 1) were concomitant with
higher satisfaction with life and self-esteem.
Conclusions derived from the proles require cautious
interpretation. Although LPA produces statistically sound subgroups,
these were not theoretically informed. Instead, labels reected
characteristics from the observed sample. is was not problematic in
the current study as it was exploratory and focused on dierences
arising from the heterogeneous nature of belief, particularly examining
whether interactions with schizotypy aected scores on positive well-
being outcomes. To enable comparisons across studies, investigators
need to conduct subsequent scholarly work that identies robust
proles. is is problematic with LPA because subgroups arise from
cross-variable heterogeneity within a particular model. Hence, proles
may vary across samples. In this context, replications and cross-
validation using techniques, such as progressive elaboration, are
necessary (Donovan and Chung, 2015). is iterative approach
establishes model t and class constancy, enabling researchers to
produce conceptually valid proles.
ere are also other study limitations that merit consideration.
e use of cross-sectional designs (i.e., collecting data at one point in
time) is oen criticised because single measurements provide only
estimates of complex eects, which may change over time. To examine
variations and establish measurement stability, longitudinal studies
with multiple points are necessary. is would indicate whether
paranormal belief has long-term benets and determine whether
cognitive–perceptual and personality factors inuence eects. In this
context, it is also important to reproduce the results of the study with
independent samples. Additionally, to ensure that outcomes were not
context-specic, this should extend to assessing generalisability across
societies. is will help to determine whether cultural variations
inuence belief adaptivity.
Furthermore, self-report measures are potentially problematic
because they assume that respondents can accurately assess their beliefs
and well-being and/or respond honestly. Additionally, this study used a
narrow set of well-being outcomes. Acknowledging this, future studies
should employ objective measures and a broader range of factors. is
will enable researchers to look more generally at the potential benets
of belief. Recognising this, subsequent investigations could include the
Quality of Life Scale (Burckhardt and Anderson, 2003), which measures
ve conceptual domains: material and physical well-being; relationships
with other people; social, community, and civic activities; personal
development and fullment; and recreation. is will provide a broad
multidimensional assessment of perceived personal well-being.
Due to the exploratory nature of this study and the need to restrict
variable numbers for analysis, proles are derived from
unidimensional measures of paranormal belief. Future investigations
should examine whether facets of credence are dierentially related to
well-being. For instance, the bifactor RPBS structure suggests that
New Age Philosophy (NAP) and Traditional Paranormal Belief (TPB)
reect dierent mechanisms for exerting control over external events.
NAP provides a sense of control at the individual level (Irwin, 2004),
whilst TPB achieves this at a social level.
Given the complex nature of the reported eects, the practical
signicance to clinical and real-world settings is hard to determine
(Achterhof etal., 2019). From a conceptual standpoint, the study
represents an important starting point for understanding
relationships between paranormal belief, schizotypy, and positive
well-being.
Data availability statement
e raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will
bemade available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics statement
e studies involving humans were approved by the Health and
Education Research Ethics and Governance Committee at Manchester
Metropolitan University granted ethical approval (Project ID, 47784).
e studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation
and institutional requirements. e participants provided their written
informed consent to participate in this study.
Author contributions
ND: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding
acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – original
dra, Writing – review & editing. KD: Conceptualization, Funding
acquisition, Investigation, Writing – original dra, Writing – review
& editing. AD: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Writing – original dra, Writing – review & editing. AE:
Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
e author(s) declare that nancial support was received for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Wewould like
to thank the BIAL Foundation for their support (grant no. 051/2022).
Conflict of interest
e authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or nancial relationships that could
beconstrued as a potential conict of interest.
e author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member
of Frontiers, at the time of submission. is had no impact on the peer
review process and the nal decision.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their aliated organizations,
or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
that may beevaluated in this article, or claim that may bemade by its
manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
e Supplementary material for this article can befound online
at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485/
full#supplementary-material
Dagnall et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1396485
Frontiers in Psychology 09 frontiersin.org
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