(PDF) From elephants to cats to ants: Monitoring biodiversity of Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi (September 2023)

EXPEDITION REPORT

Expedition dates: 17 September – 29 September 2023

Report published:

August 2024

From elephants to cats to ants:

Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi

Ireland, USA

Conservation of Nature and the European Citizen Science Association.

1

EXPEDITION REPORT

From elephants to cats to butterflies:

Monitoring biodiversity of Vwaza

Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi

Expedition dates:

17 September – 29 September 2023

Report published:

August 2024

Authors:

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

Matthias Hammer

Sophie Hammer (editors)

Biosphere Expeditions

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ABSTRACT

Biosphere Expeditions citizen scientists supported Lilongwe Wildlife Trust (LWT) research projects

for a fourth time, between 17 and 29 September 2023, conducting the following research activities:

Elephant herd sightings and dung sampling: In recent years, human-elephant conflict has

become an increasing threat to people’s livelihoods, but also for the local elephant population. A

new fence was constructed in 2021 along the southern and eastern boundaries of Vwaza Marsh

Wildlife Reserve (VMWR), aiming to keep elephants within the reserve and reduce conflict.

Participants counted 218 elephants in 22 sightings (5 of single bulls, 17 of herds). A larger proportion

of adult individuals was observed during this expedition compared to the previous year (68% and

51% respectively). Additionally, ID profiles for 17 elephants were created (6 bulls and 11 matriarchs)

to aid in future monitoring of natality and mortality. 28 dung samples were collected ad lib around

camp and Lake Kazuni to evaluate diet. No cultivated food items were found in the samples,

indicating that the fence is still sufficient at preventing elephant outbreaks in VMWR southern

regions.

Hippo transects: VMWR is the only protected area in Malawi’s northern region to host a stable

hippo population. However, no consistent monitoring of their populations is being done. As Lake

Kazuni and the adjacent South Rukuru River are the only perennial water sources in the reserve,

the majority of the population should be concentrated there. Four transects were completed along

the northern shore of the Lake, during which a total of 446 hippos were counted. The largest count

during a transect consisted of 133 hippos. Only one transect could be completed in a single session,

during which the count was 120. Hippo counts were similar to the previous expedition year,

indicating no substantial change in their population.

Camera trapping: Camera trapping is used worldwide as a non-intrusive remote monitoring

method, particularly for elusive and cryptic species that are difficult to monitor through older, more

conventional methods. 14 camera traps were deployed and captured 648 pictures of animals over

168 capture days. A total of 22 species were identified from the camera trap footage. Elephants

were captured most frequently, and a noteworthy increase in leopard captures was observed during

this expedition.

Hyaena call-ins: Spotted hyaenas are the most abundant and widespread large carnivore in Africa.

However, their conservation status is often overlooked; they can influence other species’

populations and can serve as indicators of ecosystem health. Call-ins via audio playback to attract

animals are a commonly used method to estimate hyaena populations. Two call-in events were

conducted at baited sites and camera traps deployed to monitor hyaena activity after departure. No

hyaenas were observed during the call-ins, nor were vocalisations in response to the call-ins

recorded. One leopard was attracted to the bait two days after the call-in event.

iNaturalist: iNaturalist is an online platform and application compiling evidence-based observations

of organisms globally, making the data publicly accessible to researchers. As VMWR remains

relatively understudied, iNaturalist provides simple comparison of species capture rates across the

years. Participants uploaded a total of 144 observations of 102 different species, with birds and

mammals constituting the largest proportion (47% and 19% respectively).

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CHIYAMBI

Mzika za kafukufuka wa Biosphere zinathandiza ma pulojekiti a kafukufuku wa Lilongwe Wildlife trust

kachinayi pakati pa 17 kufikila pa 29 seputembala , ndipo iwo anathandiza zochitika zotsatilazi

Njobvu zammagulu zomwe zinaonedwa ndi ndikutenga ndowe.

Munzaka zapanozi, nkangano pakati pa anthu ndi njobvu ukuchulukilabe kukhala chiopsezo pa miyoyo ya

anthu komanso chiwelengelo cha njovu. Mpanda wachitetezo unamangidwa mchaka cha 2021 mbali mbali

mwa malire aku mwela ndi mzambwe kwa Vwaza Wildlife Reserve (VMWR), Ndicholinga choti Njovu

zisamatuluke komanso kuchepetsa mkangano. Atengambali anaona Njovu kokwana ka 22 ndipo

anawelenga Njobvu zokwana 218(Zazimuna zoyenda zokha ndi magulu 17). Zambiri zomwe zinaonedwa

zinali zikulu zikulu kusiyana ndi zomwe zinaonedwa chakachatha (68% and 51% motsogozana). Kuphatikiza

apo mabuku azizindikilo za njobvu 17 anapangidwa (16 zazimuna, 11 zazikazi) ndichifukwa chotathandizila

kuyanganila mibadwo ndi infa za Njobvu. Ndowe milu 18 zinatoleledwa pomwe zimapezeka kuzungulira

camp komanso Nyanja ya Kazuni ndicholinga chofufuza zakudya zomwe zikumadya. Palibe zaulimi zomwe

zinapezeka mu ndowe zomwe zinatoleledwazi, kusonyeza kuti mpanda wachitetezo ukugwilabe ntchito

yoletsetsa kutuluka njobvu ku mmawa kwa VMWR

Hippo Transects: VMWR ndi malo okhawo otetezedwa ku mpoto kwa Malawi omwe ali ndi chiwerengelo

cha Mvuwu chokhazikika, ngakhale chiwerengelo cha Mvuwuzi sichimayang’anilidwa mokhazikika.

Chiwelengelochi chikuyenekeleka kukhala chachikulu kutengela kut Nyanja ya kazuni ndi mtsinje wa south

Rukulu ndi malo okhawo amene amasunga madzi nthawi yaitali. Chiwelengelo chokwana 446 cha Mvuwu

chinawelengwedwa pa maulendo anayi omwe anayendedwa mbali mbali mwa kumpoto mwa Nyanja ya

kazuni. Chiwelengelo chachikulu chomwe chinawelengedwa pa mayendedwewa chinali chokwana 133.

Ndikamodzi kokha kamene kanayendedwa mbali mwa Nyanja kuimaliza pakamodzi ndipo kunawelengedwa

Mvuwu 120. Chiwelengelo cha mvuwu chinali chofanana ndi chaka cha mbuyo kusonyeza kuti panalibe

kusintha kweni kweni muchiwerengelo chake

Kutchera ma kamera: Kutchera ma kamera kumagwilitsidwa ntchito dziko lonse lapansi ngat njila imodzi

yoyang’anila nyama posaziyandikila kapena posazisokoneza makamaka ku nyama zomwe zili zovuta kupeza

komanso zovuta kuzizindikila ndipo pogwilitsa ntchito njila zakale komanso zawamba. Makamela 14 amene

anaikidwa anatola zithunzi zokwana 648 za nyama pamasiku opyolera 168. Nyama zosiyana siyana zokwana

22 zinazindikilidwa muzithunzizi. Njobu ndizimene zinajambulidwa kwambiri Komanso akambuku anaonetsa

kuchuluka mu zithunzizi pa nthawi ya expedition.

Kukopa afisi: Kutengera nyama zikulu zikulu zodya nyama zinzake mu Africca, Afisi ndi omwe ali ochuluka

komanso omwazikana. Ngakhale zili choncho chisamaliro chawo chimapeputsidwa, nyamazi zimathandizila

chiwerengelo cha nyama zina komanso zimaonetse zizindikilo za ECOSYSTEM HEALTH. Kuitana kwa afisi

posewera wailesi yokopa afisiwa ndi njila imodzi yomwe imagwilitsidwa ntchito kwambiri pofuna kudziwa

chiwelengelo cha afisi. Mchitidwe okopa afisiwa unachitika kawiri pamalo amene anasankhidwa ndipo ma

kamela anaikidwa pa malowa kuta yang’anile ngat afisi anabwera atengambali atachoka. Palibe afisi omwe

anaonedwa nthawi imeneyi ndipo sipanamveke malo aliwonse afisi kuyankha kukakopedwe komwe

kanaseweredwa pa wailesi. Kambuku mmodzi anatsatila pamalopa patadutsa masiku awiri patachitika

mchitidwe okopa afisiwa

Inaturalist: Inaturalist ndi tsamba lapa internet komanso APPLICATION yosonkhanitsa umboni wa

kaonedwe ka nyama pa dziko lonse lapansi, kuonetsetsa kuti ndizopezekelatu kwa akafukufuku onse.

Pamene Game ya Vwaza ikukhalabe understudied. Inaturalist imapeleke chifanizilo cha magulu anyama

zosiyanasiyana zomwe zajambulidwa mu nzaka zosiyanasiyana. Atengambali Anaika zithunzi zokwana 144

pa magulu 102 anyama zosiyanasiyana ndipo zomwe zinachuluka zinali mbalame ndi nyama (47% ndi 19%

motsogozana)

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Contents

Abstract

2

Chiyambi

3

Contents

4

1. Expedition Review

5

1.1. Background

5

1.2. Dates & team

5

1.3. Partner

5

1.4. Acknowledgements

6

1.5. Further information & enquiries

6

1.6. Expedition budget

7

2. Elephant herd sightings

8

3. Elephant dung sampling

12

4. Hippo count transects

14

5. Camera trapping

17

6. Hyaena call-ins

30

7. iNaturalist

33

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1. Expedition Review

Matthias Hammer (editor)

Biosphere Expeditions

1.1. Background

Background information, location conditions and the research area are as per Harwood et al. (2019).

The citizen science expedition in Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve (VMWR) in northern Malawi

focused on biodiversity surveying. All data contributed to a long-term dataset and monitoring

programme in VMWR and the larger Malawi-Zambia Transfrontier Conservation Area, and are

shared with local managing groups to empower and influence effective conservation strategies.

1.2. Dates & team

The project ran for one 13-day group from 17 - 29 September 2023, composed of a team of national

and international citizen scientists, professional scientists and an expedition leader. Dates were

chosen to coincide with the dry season in Malawi and its corresponding ease of access to the

reserve and wildlife sightings.

The expedition team was recruited by Biosphere Expeditions and consisted of a mixture of ages,

nationalities and backgrounds. They were (in alphabetical order and with country of residence):

Berit Askheim (Germany), Janet Bellairs (UK), Michael Bucek (USA), Andrew Down (UK), Ruth

Morlas (USA), Ezekiel Richardson (USA).

On site field scientists were:

Benjamin Hintz – Field Research Coordinator, Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

Chimwemwe Kalulu – Research Technician

The expedition leader was Roland Arnison.

A medical umbrella, safety and evacuation procedures were in place and invoked successfully for a

suspected sleeping sickness case, which turned out to be a false positive.

1.3. Partner

The Lilongwe Wildlife Trust (LWT) was established in 2009 and has grown into one of Malawi’s

leading conservation NGOs. LWT’s mission is to save wildlife, campaign for conservation justice

and inspire people to value and protect nature in Malawi. Working in collaboration with local and

international partners, the trust responds to urgent conservation challenges and drives long-term

social and institutional change. It runs several projects across five programme areas: wildlife rescue

and rehabilitation, biodiversity research, conservation justice, environmental education, advocacy

and campaigning. LWT has >100 staff working across two sites in Lilongwe and several field sites

across the country. The government of Malawi has appointed LWT to administer several national

wildlife management and conservation justice programmes. LWT is also a member of the

International Union for Conservation of Nature, the Malawi representative for the Species Survival

Network, and the Secretariat for the Malawi Parliamentary Conservation Caucus.

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1.4. Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to all the expedition citizen scientists, who not only dedicated their spare time

to helping but also, through their expedition contributions, funded the research. We would also like

to thank our key partners, the Department of Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) for supporting our

programme and assisting with local expertise, logistics and of course assistance from the wildlife

rangers. We would like to thank Elephants for Africa (EfA) for developing the elephant research

protocols. Biosphere Expeditions would also like to thank members of the Friends of Biosphere

Expeditions and donors for their sponsorship. Many thanks to the LWT team: Benni Hintz and

Chimwemwe Kalulu for leading the research activities, the Operations and Placements teams for

organising the in-country logistics and making the expedition a reality, and to Luka for producing

wonderful meals at camp.

1.5. Further information & enquiries

More background information on Biosphere Expeditions in general and on this expedition in

particular including pictures, diary excerpts and a copy of this report can be found on the Biosphere

Expeditions website www.biosphere-expeditions.org. Enquires should be addressed to Biosphere

Expeditions at the address given on the website. Also available are:

All expedition reports, including this and previous expedition reports:

https://www.researchgate.net/lab/Biosphere-Expeditions-Matthias-Hammer

Expedition diary/blog:

https://blog.biosphere-expeditions.org/category/expedition-blogs/malawi-2023/

Pictures, videos, media coverage of the expedition:

https://www.biosphere-expeditions.org/malawi

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1.6. Expedition budget

Each citizen scientist paid a contribution of €2,880 per person per 13-day period towards expedition

costs. The contribution covered accommodation and meals, supervision and induction, special

research equipment and all transport from and to the team assembly point. It did not cover excess

luggage charges, travel insurance, personal expenses such as telephone bills, souvenirs etc., or

visa and other travel expenses to and from the assembly point (e.g. international flights). Details on

how this contribution was spent are given below.

Income

€

Expedition contributions

17,757

Expenditure

Base camp

includes board & lodging and all services

5,790

Transport

includes hire cars, fuel, taxis and other in-country transport

3,828

Equipment & hardware

includes research materials & gear etc. purchased internationally & locally

1,744

Staff

includes local and Biosphere Expeditions staff salaries and travel expenses

9,326

Administration

includes miscellaneous fees & sundries

10

Team recruitment Malawi

As estimated % of annual PR costs for Biosphere Expeditions

7,334

Income – Expenditure

-10,457*

Total percentage spent directly on project

159%*

*This means that this expedition ran at a loss in 2023 (due to the low

number of participants) and was supported by the income from other

expeditions. Biosphere Expeditions sometimes runs expeditions at a loss to

ensure continuous data collection and to support local partners.

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2. Elephant herd sightings

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

2.1. Introduction & methods

The rationale, background, and methods for this study are unchanged from Hintz and Hammer

(2023).

In addition, ID profiles of elephant bulls and matriarchs were created by recording noticeable

notches and tears and their respective sizes and shapes in their ears, any discernible scars or

markings on their skin, features of the tail, such as kinks, lack of hair on either side or injuries (e.g.

tail stump), and finally the shape of tusks, their direction of growth, and any damage to them (e.g.

broken, chipped). The ID profiles were linked to the respective herd observation sheet via an

assigned ID number to enable identification of herd size and composition.

2.2. Results

Figure 2.2a. Location of elephant observations conducted during the 2023 expedition.

Higher intensity of heat clusters indicates larger group size.

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Nine herd observations were conducted, resulting in a total of 218 elephants counted in 22 separate

sightings (5 of single bulls, 17 herds) over nine days. During the last two days, no elephants were

encountered. Of those herd observations, nine were recorded from basecamp, ten from a vehicle,

and one during a walking transect. Two of the sightings were later established to be the same herd

as recorded previously during the same day.

Mean breeding herd size was 31.41 ± 11.75 SD (range 7-58) per day. Mean herd size overall

observed, excluding single bulls, was 13.25 ± 12.20 (range 2 – 43).

Most sightings were recorded on the northern shore of Lake Kazuni, particularly in proximity of the

DNPW lodge (Figure 2.2a). Only one herd was recorded on the southern shore of the lake.

The majority of observed elephants were categorised as adults (68%), with subadults making up

12% and juveniles/infants making up 20% of the recorded individuals. This represents a shift

towards a more mature community observed compared to the 2022 expedition, where adults only

made up 51% and juveniles/infants 29% of all observed individuals.

ID profiles of 6 bulls and 11 matriarchs were created to help with future IDing of herds and bulls.

Figure 2.2b. Total elephant counts per sample day with demographic composition indicated.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Number of elephants

Sample day

Adult males Adult females Adults unknown Subadults Juveniles Infants

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Figure 2.2c. Proportion of age classes observed during the expedition elephant counts.

Infants/juveniles (≤10 years), subadults (11-15 years) and adults (≥16 years).

2.3. Discussion

Elephants have interbirth intervals of 3–7 years and gestation periods lasting 22 months (Hanks and

McIntosh, 1973). Females typically begin breeding at around the age of 7 years, producing their first

offspring by age 11, whereas males only begin puberty between 12 and 22 years of age (Buss and

Smith, 1966). As a result, reproduction in elephants is slow and population recruitment can be

severely affected by negative impacts on natality or mortality rates. Due to the lack of a consistent

population monitoring programme at VMWR, there is no available information on natality and

mortality rates of the reserve. Efforts should hence be implemented to evaluate population trends.

The elephant composition recorded by the 2023 expedition consisted of mostly mature individuals,

especially compared to the 2022 expedition. The lower number of total observed elephants

compared to the previous year (457 and 218 in 2022 and 2023 respectively) could simply represent

a smaller proportion of the elephant population, and bias age representation towards a more mature

community.

The total count of elephants was substantially lower than the previous year. For two consecutive

days, no elephants were observed, which is an uncommon occurrence for the late dry season. The

LWT received notice of an injured sub-adult elephant during the first week of the expedition and

together with the Department of Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) organised a veterinary intervention to

provide treatment for the individual. This involved locating and darting the animal from a helicopter.

It was found with a fracture to one hindleg likely to be from a natural cause. It was not possible to

treat the animal for this injury. The animal was subsequently euthanised by DNPW staff.

It is interesting that during the search operation, we observed that the presence of the helicopter

alarmed other elephants in the area and made them noticeably anxious in the days following the

operation - on several occasions elephants reacted sooner and more nervously to our vehicles,

showing signs of distress through trumpeting, forming protective circles around younger herd

members and retreating hastily. On several occasions, herds were encountered on the lake shore

at night, where they reacted adversely to the sound of the approaching vehicles, thus preventing

the recording of the observation.

Adults Subadults Juveniles/Infants

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The elephant population in VMWR was estimated at 310 individuals in 2013 and decreased to 203

individuals in the following two years (Macpherson 2015). ID profiles have been established by LTW

and others, but the elephant ID kit is not yet completed and detailed enough (i.e. not all individuals

have a profile and not all profiles are sufficiently detailed) to ensure the avoidance of double counting

herds within the same day. It is therefore important to continue to add to the ID database over

coming years to accurately identify more herds and bulls in order to assess their use of the VMWR

landscape and to inform the recapture rate of the same herds/bulls over the monitoring period.

Having said this, herd sizes and compositions were recorded by the expedition, and from this it was

determined that double counting on a single day did not occur. This in itself is an important outcome

of the expedition.

The monitoring activity took place during the end of the dry season, during which elephants generally

forage within 16 km of the closest water source and rely on accessing water every one to two days

(Kerley et al. 2008). Corroborating this, elephants were most frequently observed by the expedition

approaching the shoreline to drink or leaving this area. Lake Kazuni therefore should be a focus for

law enforcement patrols as an ‘intensive protection zone’ for the VMWR elephants during dry season

(May-November).

2.4. Outlook for future expedition work

Monitoring elephant populations in protected areas is an integral part their management. The

population’s well-being can be recorded through long-term monitoring of natality and mortality. This

is further enhanced through identification to individual level, allowing monitoring on smaller scales

and providing information on changes in herd demographics. Understanding their movements,

especially within set boundaries through electric fences, allows for implementation of ‘intense

protection zones’. These zones require particular focus for anti-poaching and conflict negation

strategies.

2.5. Literature cited

Buss, I. O. and Smith, N. S. (1966) Observations on Reproduction and Breeding Behavior of the

African Elephant. The Journal of Wildlife Management. Vol 30(2), pp. 375-388

Hanks, J., and McIntosh, J. E. A. (1973) Population dynamics of the African elephant (Loxodonta

africana). Journal of Zoology. Vol. 169(1), pp. 29–38

Hintz, B. and Hammer, M. (2023) From elephants to cats to butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report for expedition Sep/Oct 2022. DOI

7969227, accessed 26 June 2024.

Kerley, G. I. H., Landman, M., Kruger, L., Owen-Smith, N., Balvour, D., de Boer, W. F., Gaylard, A.

Lindsay, K. and Slotow, R. (2008) Effects of Elephants on Ecosystems and Biodiversity. In:

Mennell, K. G. and Scholes, R. J. (ed). The 2007 scientific Assessment of Elephant Management

in South Africa. Pretoria: CSIR, pp. 101-147

Macpherson, D. (2015) Report on an aerial wildlife census of Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve,

Malawi – October 2015. Unpublished, Department of National Parks and Wildlife. Malawi.

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3. Elephant dung sampling

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

3.1. Introduction

The rationale, background, and methods for this study are unchanged from Hintz and Hammer

(2023).

3.2. Results

Twenty-eight dung samples were collected and analysed for the presence of cultivated food items.

No cultivated crops were detected in any of the samples, they only contained food items naturally

occurring within VMWR. Most samples were collected along the northern shore of Lake Kazuni and

the South Rukuru river (n = 18), which previously had experienced high levels of human-wildlife

conflict (Figure 3.2a).

Figure 3.2a. Location of elephant dung samples collected in VMWR during the expedition.

(Note that one sample was collected without entry of GPS coordinates and is therefore missing on the map).

3.3. Discussion

All dung samples during the expedition were collected around Lake Kazuni. Within VMWR, Lake

Kazuni and South Rukuru river originating from it are the only constant sources of water towards

the end of the dry season. Elephants depend heavily on water, generally foraging within 16 km of

the closest water source and relying on accessing water every one to two days (Kerley et al., 2008).

As a result, more elephants should be expected around Lake Kazuni during the dry season

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compared to other areas of the reserve. This was indeed what the expedition observed during

elephant herd counts, which at times demonstrated that over half of the estimated population of

elephants in VMWR visited Lake Kazuni during the day. Therefore, collecting dung samples around

Lake Kazuni, although geographically restricted, should provide a representative sample of the

population’s diet. Dung collection during 2018, 2021 and 2022 focused efforts on the same area

(Sievert et al., unpubl.), which allows for comparison of results over these years.

Only the southern boundary and parts of the eastern boundary of VMWR were fully fenced at the

time of the expedition, Hence, there was a possibility of displaced conflict within the reserve, for

example through elevated conflict in areas that were not yet fenced. However, all seeds found within

the dung samples were from plants naturally occurring in VMWR and there was no evidence that

elephants fed on cultivated crops during the expedition. As food retention is approximately 12 hours,

the elephants’ diet prior to the expedition could not be evaluated. However, no elephant conflict was

reported to the LWT in the months leading up to the expedition, which suggests that the fence is

working successfully in preventing human-elephant conflict. It is, however, important to note that

many frequently cultivated food items such as bananas, potatoes, cassava and crop leaves are not

as easily observable as seeds and whole food items, and could therefore be entirely overlooked.

Graham et al. (2009) have argued that elephant breakouts predominantly occur at night to avoid

human detection. While assessment of dung has some clear biases and thus does not cover all

potential food items consumed, it provides a reliable method to survey elephant diet without having

to observe the animals directly.

3.4. Outlook for future expedition work

Data collected by the expedition strongly suggests that the fence constructed in 2021/2022 has

successfully reduced human-elephant conflict along the southern boundary of VMWR to near zero.

Despite this, it is still possible for elephants to break through the fence or traverse as yet unfenced

areas to venture into agricultural land. An extension of surveying to the end posts of the fence at

Bambanda and Mpoto Hills will provide insights into different elephant feeding behaviours there and

would help establish if human-elephant conflict has shifted to other areas along the VMWR

boundary. In conjunction with boundary surveys and gathering reports from farmers, the diet study

helps to inform DNPW management decisions regarding human-elephant conflict.

3.5. Literature cited

Graham, M. D., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Adams, W. M. Lee, P. C. (2009) The movement of African

elephants in a human-dominated land-use mosaic. Animal Conservation. Vol. 12(5), pp.445-455.

Hintz, B. and Hammer, M. (2023) From elephants to cats to butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report for expedition Sep/Oct 2022. DOI

7969227, accessed 26 June 2024.

Kerley, G. I. H., Landman, M., Kruger, L., Owen-Smith, N., Balvour, D., de Boer, W. F., Gaylard, A.

Lindsay, K. and Slotow, R. (2008) Effects of Elephants on Ecosystems and Biodiversity. In: Mennell,

K. G. and Scholes, R. J. (ed). The 2007 scientific Assessment of Elephant Management in South

Africa. Pretoria: CSIR, pp. 101-147

Sievert, O., Sankhani, P. and Hintz, B. (unpublished) Using elephant pathways and dung to

investigate human-wildlife conflict around Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve. NVT Final Grant Report

2022

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4. Hippo count transects

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

4.1. Introduction

The rationale and background for this study are unchanged from Hintz and Hammer (2023). The

methods are largely unaltered; the only change to the parameters recorded was the addition of a

compass bearing.

4.2. Results

Four transects along Lake Kazuni up to the mouth of the South Rukuru River were conducted, during

which 446 hippos were recorded (Figure 4.2a). The mean pod size was 3.30 ± 3.47 SD.

Figure 4.2a. Locations around Lake Kazuni where hippos were observed during the expedition period.

Total counts of hippos per transect ranged from 78 to 133, with a maximum observed pod size of

23 (Figure 4.2b). The previously observed minor negative trend in total counts persisted through

the 2023 monitoring activity. There was no significant difference between total counts of the 2023

expedition and the previously conducted ones in 2018, 2019 and 2022 (F(3,34) = 1.7526, p =

0.1748).

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Figure 4.2b. Total number of hippos counted per transect and maximum pod sizes observed during

2018, 2019, 2022 and 2023 expeditions. 2018 consisted of three different groups, while 2019

consisted of two groups, and 2022 and 2023 of a single group each (i.e. repetition of transect numbers).

4.3. Discussion

There was a higher concentration of hippos towards the South Rukuru River in 2023, just as the

previous year. This is most likely due to the area adjacent to Lake Kazuni containing predominantly

dense woodland, reducing the hippos’ ability to graze there. Instead, it appears that the hippos have

to travel further in search of suitable grazing grounds. In contrast, the South Rukuru River is

surrounded by floodplains that provide adequate grazing and hence support a higher density of

hippos.

During the day, hippos use water bodies to cool down and escape the sun, before emerging after

sunset to forage (Lewison and Pluháček 2017). Lake Kazuni and the attached South Rukuru River

are the only perennial water sources in VMWR, so the majority of the reserve’s hippo population is

expected to remain nearby. Thus, total counts of hippos on foot can also function as population

estimates in relatively small areas, where most of their diurnal range can be monitored. The only

transect concluded in a single session was transect 4 with a total count of 120 individuals. During

each other transect, the possibility of hippos moving to different areas in the lake or river between

the two parts of the transect cannot be excluded. There was evidence of hippos occupying parts of

the South Rukuru river further west of the monitored transects. However, these areas were not

easily accessible either on foot or by car.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

Transect 5

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

Transect 5

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

Transect 5

Transect 6

Transect 7

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

Transect 5

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

Transect 5

Transect 6

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

Transect 5

Transect 6

Transect 1

Transect 2

Transect 3

Transect 4

2018 2019 2022 2023

Total count

Maximum pod size

Linear (Total count)

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4.4. Outlook for future expedition work

A negative population trend was discernible from the data collected over all four Biosphere

expeditions (2018, 2019, 2022 and 2023). We will therefore continue to prioritise hippo population

monitoring over the coming years, which will allow the DNPW to intervene should populations

become unsustainably low.

4.5. Literature cited

Harwood, A., Stone, E., Shevlin, K. and Hammer, M. (2019) From elephants to cats to butterflies:

Monitoring biodiversity of Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report 2018.

Available via https://www.researchgate.net/lab/Biosphere-Expeditions-Matthias-Hammer

Harwood, A., Stone, E., Peterson Wood, B. and Hammer, M. (2020) From elephants to cats to

butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report

2019. Available via https://www.researchgate.net/lab/Biosphere-Expeditions-Matthias-Hammer

Hintz, B. and Hammer, M. (2023) From elephants to cats to butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report for expedition Sep/Oct 2022. DOI

7969227, accessed 26 June 2024.

Lewison, R. and Pluháček, J. (2017). Hippopotamus amphibius. The IUCN Red List of Threatened

Species 2017: e.T10103A18567364.

https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20172.RLTS.T10103A18567364.en. Accessed on 05 January

2023. National Parks and Wildlife Act (2017). Part IX, sections 73-75.

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5. Camera trapping

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

5.1. Introduction

The rationale and background for this study are unchanged from Hintz and Hammer (2023).

5.2. Methods

A total of 15 infrared camera traps (Bushnell) were deployed along the southern road and parts of

the northern road (Figure 5.2a), with approximately 2 km distance between stations. Similar

locations to the 2022 expedition were selected. Camera traps were attached to trees roughly 80 cm

above ground facing the road. On two occasions, additional camera traps (Gardepro) were deployed

for a duration of four days at baited sites (see Chapter 6). Images from all camera traps, including

those used at baited sites, were included for analysis in this chapter. Camera traps were

programmed with the same settings (16MP image size, 5s interval, low sensitivity, medium night

vision shutter speed) and took two images consecutively for more reliable capture of multiple

individuals in herds or groups. Camera traps were set at the beginning of the expedition and SD

cards were checked after seven days and recovered after fourteen days. All pictures were analysed

using Timelapse2 (v2.3.0.0). Only pictures containing animals were included in the analysis.

Figure 5.2a. Location of camera traps in VMWR during the 2023 expedition.

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5.3. Results

Camera traps were deployed for a total of 167 trapping days (median 9, range 5-12), capturing a

total of 43,518 pictures, of which 648 contained images of wildlife. The wildlife images were grouped

into 309 capture events of 22 species (Table 5.3a). One camera trap malfunctioned during the

expedition period, and another was damaged by a fire, which were consequently unable to be

deployed for the complete expedition length.

Table 5.3a. Species captured with camera traps and total occurrence in analysed pictures.

LC = least concern, NT = near threatened, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered

Common Name

Scientific Name

IUCN Redlist status

Total captures of species

Ungulates

African elephant

Loxodonta africana

EN

140

Common duiker

Sylvicapra grimmia

LC

2

Greater kudu

Tragelaphus strepsiceros

LC

3

Hippopotamus

Hippopotamus amphibius

VU

25

Impala

Aepyceros melampus

LC

2

Puku

Kobus vartonii

NT

6

Warthog

Phacochoerus africanus

LC

10

Carnivores

African civet

Civettictis civetta

LC

23

Bushy-tailed mongoose

Bdeogale crassicauda

LC

1

Ichneumon mongoose

Herpestes ichneumon

LC

1

Large-spotted genet

Genetta maculata

LC

7

Honey badger

Mellivora capensis

LC

2

Leopard

Panthera pardus

VU

8

Selous's mongoose

Paracynictis selousi

LC

2

Spotted hyaena

Crocuta crocuta

LC

15

White-tailed mongoose

Ichneumia albicauda

LC

1

Primates

Vervet monkey

Chlorocebus pygerythrus

LC

22

Yellow baboon

Papio cynocephalus

LC

13

Other mammals

African savanna hare

Lepus victoriae

LC

6

Cape porcupine

Hystrix africaeaustralis

LC

11

Four-toed sengi

Petrodomus tetradactylus

LC

8

Birds

Lilac-breasted Roller

Coracias caudatus

LC

1

Grand Total

309

Of the 22 captured species, one was listed as “endangered” (African elephant) on the IUCN Redlist

of Threatened Species, two as “vulnerable” and one as “near threatened” (Figure 5.3b).

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Figure 5.3b. IUCN Redlist status of species captured on camera traps during the 2023 expedition.

LC = least concern, NT = near threatened, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered

During the 2023 expedition, African elephants in particular were captured more frequently on

camera traps than during the previous year’s expedition (140 compared to 33). Other species more

frequently captured included leopard, vervet monkey, puku, four-toed sengi and warthog. In

comparison, hippo, impala and yellow baboon were captured less frequently (Figure 5.3c). Some

species were captured on several occasions during the 2022 expedition, of which no footage was

obtained during the 2023 expedition (African buffalo, bushbuck, bushpig, helmeted guineafowl,

Sharpe’s grysbok) (Figure 5.3c). There was also no further evidence of African wild dogs still present

in VMWR following the noteworthy camera trap images taken during the 2022 Biosphere Expedition,

which are the first documented evidence of the species in Vwaza and the first record since an

unconfirmed report in 2011 (Sievert et al. 2023).

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

LC NT VU EN

Number of camera trap captures

IUCN Redlist status

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Figure 5.3c. Number of camera trap captures for species across 2022 and 2023 expeditions in VMWR.

Below are various images from the 2023 expedition camera trap effort that demonstrate the diversity

of species captured.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

African buffalo

African civet

African elephant

African savanna hare

African wild dog

Bushbuck

Bushpig

Bushy-tailed mongoose

Cape porcupine

Common duiker

Four-toed sengi

Greater kudu

Helmeted guineafowl

Hippopotamus

Honey badger

Ichneumon mongoose

Impala

Large-spotted genet

Leopard

Lilac-breasted Roller

Marsh mongoose

Puku

Roan antelope

Selous's mongoose

Sharpe's grysbok

Southern ground hornbill

Spotted hyena

Vervet monkey

Warthog

White-tailed mongoose

Yellow baboon

2022 2023

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Figure 5.3d. Warthog Phacochoerus africanus.

Figure 5.3e. Spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta.

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Figure 5.3f. Bushy-tailed mongoose Bdeogale crassicauda.

Figure 5.3g. Lilac-breasted roller Coracias caudatus.

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Figure 5.3h. Impala Aepyceros melampus.

Figure 5.3i. Honey badger Mellivora capensis.

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Figure 5.3j. Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius.

Figure 5.3k. Four-toed sengi Petrodomus tetradactylus.

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Figure 5.3l. Leopard Panthera pardus.

Figure 5.3m. Cape porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis.

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Figure 5.3n. African savannah hare Lepus victoriae.

Figure 5.3o. African elephant Loxodonta africana.

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Figure 5.3p. African civet Civettictis civetta.

Figure 5.3q. Large-spotted genet Genetta maculata.

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Figure 5.3r. White-tailed mongoose Ichneumia albicauda.

5.4. Discussion

While there were some new species captured on the camera traps, the diversity was lower than in

2022 (22 species compared to 26). General capture rate of wildlife was also 30.9% lower compared

to the previous year. Camera traps can be used for species presence, occupation and abundance

studies, however, they cannot confirm absence of species. As such, the lack of certain species could

be purely incidental. Some species were observed more frequently, including leopards, which

contributes important information for the status of this large carnivore in Malawi.

African wild dogs, which were captured on four separate occasions during and shortly after the 2022

expeditions, were not observed on camera traps again. The wild dogs captured during the previous

year were believed to be a dispersal group (Sievert et al. 2023). As a dispersal group, they would

have been looking for other dispersing individuals to form a new pack. As no African wild dogs had

been recorded in VMWR in at least two decades prior, the success of a newly formed pack is

unlikely. However, the findings emphasise the value of wildlife corridors and camera trapping to

monitor re-settlement of naturally dispersing species.

The camera traps used during the expedition were infrared models, where images taken at night

were too blurry to identify individual leopards via their rosette patterns. Being able to identify

individuals would allow for continuous monitoring of population trends and habitat use over a longer

timeframe. This would also be applicable to spotted hyaenas and servals.

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5.5. Outlook for future expedition work

Camera trapping is a remote and non-invasive method to monitor species presence, distribution and

relative abundance even in difficult to access areas. They also function at any time of day and can

provide a large amount of data with minimal effort. Captures of elusive or rarely observed species

show the vital role camera traps play in monitoring wildlife community compositions, particularly in

areas which experience low tourism, and where ranger patrols are spread over a larger region. The

camera trap set-up could be improved by adding to the number of traps deployed, covering a wider

area, as well as setting them at other sites of importance for wildlife, such as animal pathways or

waterholes. Furthermore, more white-flash models should be used to help develop a carnivore ID

database.

5.6. Literature cited

Hintz, B. and Hammer, M. (2023) From elephants to cats to butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report for expedition Sep/Oct 2022. DOI

7969227, accessed 26 June 2024.

Sievert, O., Hammer, M., Comley, E., Hintz, B., Mgoola, W. O., & Davis, R. S. (2023). A novel

record of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Ecology and

Evolution, 13, e10671. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.10671

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6. Hyaena call-ins

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

6.1. Introduction

The rationale and background for this study are unchanged from Hintz and Hammer (2023).

The 2022 expedition yielded no results, but only targeted a restricted area of the reserve. Therefore,

the activity was repeated in 2023 to assess its viability in another region with different geographic

variables.

6.2. Methods

The method for this study is largely unchanged from Hintz and Hammer (2023). The only differences

were the call-ins being conducted on two separate occasions in 2023, compared with three in the

2022 expedition. The second call-in event was located 5 km further along the road in 2023,

compared to 3 km further from the previous call-in location in the 2022 expedition.

6.3. Results

No hyaenas responded to the call-ins, neither were any individuals observed vocalising in response

to the audio playbacks.

6.4. Discussion

This activity again yielded no results. The unchanged methodology implied that the factors

potentially limiting hyaena responses largely remained; these consisted of the strength and volume

of the speaker as well as the quality of the audio files, as their sound appeared slightly distorted.

During the 2023 expedition, areas further north were selected, which had no geographic restriction

compared to the previous year. However, during the expedition period, systematic burnings were

conducted by the reserve management, the smell of which may have masked the smell of the

carcass. Additionally, wildlife generally avoids fire, as it poses a risk to their health and ultimately

survival (Engstrom 2010). It is possible, therefore, that the timing was simply not good. However,

Newsome and Spencer (2021) found no significant difference in scavenging activity in regions

experiencing large wildfires in Australia, with no substantial effect on detection of carcasses.

Camera traps deployed to monitor the carcasses after the end of the expedition did not pick up any

hyaenas. No footage of hyaenas was captured investigating the carcass post call-up. However, after

the second call-up event, a leopard came to feed on the carcass for 16 minutes (figures 6.4a and

6.4b).

Overall, our results indicate that camera trapping along road networks is a more successful method

to monitor the local hyaena population and that call-ins are susceptible to disturbances such as fires.

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Figure 6.4a. Leopard approaching goat carcass set as bait for the second hyaena call-in event.

Figure 6.4b. Leopard leaving the carcass after feeding on it.

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6.5. Outlook for future expedition work

Hyaena call-ins in both attempted years were unsuccessful. However, the methodology may still be

adjusted to obtain results. Pre-baiting the target sites before the call-in activity may increase

likelihood of hyaenas being present. Furthermore, the methodology should be repeated with a

stronger speaker set-up and a larger variety of audio files.

6.6. Literature cited

Engstrom, R. T. (2010). First-order fire effects on animals: review and recommendations. Fire

Ecology. Vol. 6, pp. 115-130.

Hintz, B. and Hammer, M. (2023) From elephants to cats to butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report for expedition Sep/Oct 2022. DOI

7969227, accessed 26 June 2024.

Newsome, T. M. and Spencer, E. E. (2021). Megafires attract avian scavenging but carcasses still

persist. Diversity and Distributions. Vol. 28(3), pp. 515-528.

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7. iNaturalist

Benjamin Hintz

Lilongwe Wildlife Trust

7.1. Introduction

iNaturalist was founded in 2008 and partnered with the California Academy of Science in 2014 and

National Geographic in 2017 to reach its current state as a “community for naturalists”, as stated on

the iNaturalist website, and “an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to

help each other learn about nature” (Loarie 2022). The platform compiles data provided by citizen

scientists around the globe, in the form of evidence-based observations across all taxa that require

confirmation by other users to achieve research grade. The form of evidence required ranges from

pictures of the organisms, recordings of their vocalisations to indirect signs such as tracks, faeces,

feathers or quills. Individual uploads on the platform are labelled as observations. With identifications

provided by other iNaturalist users, these observations aim to analyse an organism as close to

species level as possible. However, if a user is unsure of the exact species, a broader taxon can be

provided, e.g. class Aves if the organism is known to be a bird, but unsure which species.

The LWT started using iNaturalist in 2022 to create species catalogues across all their field sites,

including VMWR. The species catalogues and associated information help any prospective

expedition participants, researchers or volunteers to connect better to their environment and acquire

knowledge about the site they are working in.

7.2. Methods

The methods for this study are unchanged from Hintz and Hammer (2023).

All uploads were added to the project “Biosphere Malawi Expedition 2023 – Biodiversity Monitoring”.

In addition, pictures of the camera trapping activity were added to the project if no other footage of

the same species could be obtained elsewise. Invertebrate sampling images were not included as

no invertebrate sampling took place in the 2023 expedition.

7.3. Results

Figure 7.3. Breakdown of taxa uploaded to iNaturalist during the expedition.

Birds Mammals Plants Insects Arachnids Reptiles

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A total of 144 observations of 102 identified species was uploaded for the expedition period, of which

72.22% achieved “research grade”. Birds constituted the largest proportion of species, making up

47% of the uploads (n = 48). Fourteen of the observations were uploaded from camera trap footage,

adding eight species to the mammal count (leopard, spotted hyaena, African savannah hare, bushy-

tailed mongoose, Selous’s mongoose, African civet, large-spotted genet and four-toed sengi).

7.4. Discussion

Due to low tourism rates and poor research representation in VMWR, the total upload of species (n

= 365) contributed by the iNaturalist community for the area was relatively low for a protected area.

As such, the 2022 and 2023 expeditions made a recognisable difference to the catalogue of species

present, constituting a combined 543 of the 1098 observations recorded on the platform for VMWR.

Unfortunately, iNaturalist does not allow the extraction of species lists to assess how many unique

species the expeditions have contributed for VMWR.

In comparison to the 2022 expedition, the number of observations and species was substantially

lower this year, mainly resulting from the lower number of invertebrate observations previously

submitted from an invertebrate sampling activity. However, the number of bird and mammal species

was also noticeably lower than in the previous year (74 bird and 23 mammal species). This is

probably due to the differing skill sets of citizen scientists, i.e. fewer birders and naturalists in 2023

compared to 2022. Subsequently, the shift in taxon representation can also be explained due to the

participants’ knowledge of biodiversity found in the area, and the equipment carried to record

footage of them. Bird species, for example, can be difficult to distinguish without a birder’s trained

eye and knowledge of the local distribution of species.

7.5. Outlook for future expedition work

The online platform iNaturalist provides a variety of automated tools to summarise statistics of

observed species. The data output allows for a simple comparison of observed taxa between

Biosphere expeditions. Scientists globally can access the data to compile comprehensive species

accounts and update distribution maps and ranges for target regions or species. This includes

species presence, their encounter rates, and seasonality, which provide valuable insight into species

compositions and changes over time. Species cataloguing for VMWR allows future expeditioners

and other visitors to learn what species could potentially be observed in the area and gain quick

access to information about them. The data collection and logging activities will therefore be

continued.

7.6. Literature cited

Hintz, B. and Hammer, M. (2023) From elephants to cats to butterflies: Monitoring biodiversity of

Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi. Expedition report for expedition Sep/Oct 2022. DOI

7969227, accessed 26 June 2024.

Loarie, S. (2022). iNaturalist – What is it? Available at:

https://www.inaturalist.org/pages/what+is+it. Last accessed on 18 December 2023.

From elephants to cats to ants: Monitoring biodiversity of Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve, Malawi (September 2023)

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