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DOI: 10.1177/15280837241267817
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Mechanical and thermal
characterization of
resin-infused cotton fabric/
epoxy composites: Influence of
woven construction parameters
and surface treatments
Macaulay M. Owen
1,2
, Leong S. Wong
1
,
Emmanuel O. Achukwu
3,4
, Ahmad Z. Romli
5,6
and
Solehuddin B. Shuib
7
Abstract
This study explores the mechanical and thermal characterization of epoxy-based
composites reinforced with chemically modified woven cotton fabrics using the resin
infusion technique. The woven fabrics construction parameters were varied in terms of
1
Institute of Energy Infrastructure, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, Malaysia
2
Department of Polymer and Textile Technology, School of Technology, Yaba College of Technology Yaba,
Lagos, Nigeria
3
School of Engineering, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK
4
Department of Polymer and Textile Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria
5
Centre of Chemical Synthesis and Polymer Composites Research & Technology, Institute of Science IOS,
Universiti Teknologi MARA UiTM, Shah Alam, Malaysia
6
Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA UiTM Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
7
School of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA UiTM Shah Alam,
Malaysia
Corresponding author:
Macaulay M. Owen, Institute of Energy Infrastructure IEI, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Putrajaya Campus, Ikram
UNITEN, Kajang 43000, Malaysia.
Emails: macaulay.owen@uniten.edu.my;macaulay.owen@yabatech.edu.ng
Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the
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reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as
specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
weft yarn counts (16, 20, and 24 Tex) and pick densities as defined by pick wheel teeth
(PWT) (30, 36, and 41 T). The fabrics were surface treated with 6% concentration of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) using the alkali treatment method. The obtained results
revealed that mechanical strength improved with decreasing weft yarn count and in-
creasing PWT. Notably, chemically treated composites with the highest PWT exhibited
superior strength compared to untreated counterparts, attributed to more compact
microstructures, reduced fabric/fiber breakages, and enhanced interfacial bonding be-
tween the reinforced plain-woven cotton fabric and epoxy matrix. Thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) showed that all composites have higher thermal stability above 300°C,
with untreated fabric composites exhibiting the highest resistance to degradation,
whereas the treated composite quickly degraded at an onset temperature of 288.4°C due
to the removal of the hemicellulose, decomposition of the cellulose, and lignin content. In
conclusion, the study indicates that surface treatment and woven construction pa-
rameters such as weft yarn counts and pick wheel teeth, as well as the resin infusion
technique, significantly influence the mechanical, microstructural, and thermal properties
of resin-infused woven cotton reinforced composites for potential application in in-
dustrial and automotive sectors, offering lightweight, durable solutions for components
such as construction and building panels, doors, and roof panels.
Keywords
Cotton, composites, weft yarn counts, pick densities, mechanical property, surface
treatments
Introduction
In recent years, natural fibers have been considered an alternative replacement for
synthetic fibers as reinforcement materials in polymer-based composites due to envi-
ronmental concerns. These natural fibers, such as cotton, jute, kenaf, flax, hemp, and sisal,
are commonly used for the production of natural fiber-reinforced composites due to their
availability, lower cost, low density, specific high mechanical properties, renewability,
recyclability, eco-friendliness, and biodegradability.
1,2
Whereas their synthetic coun-
terparts, which include glass and carbon fibers, among others, are expensive and non-
biodegradable, with adverse environmental impacts due to high carbon emissions.
Thermoset polymers such as epoxy resin are commonly used for composites
manufacturing due to their excellent interface compatibility potentials in matrix com-
posites and for coatings, anti-corrosion, and adhesive agents for a wide range of ap-
plications in aircraft and aerospace, electronic parts and electrical appliances,
construction, and transportation due to their high mechanical strength, chemical resis-
tance, high adhesion and corrosion resistance, and thermal stability when compared to
other hydrophobic vinyl polymers like polymethyl methacrylate and polystyrene.
3
Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) are sustainable and light-
weight, thus being used in automobiles, aerospace parts, the building and construction
2Journal of Industrial Textiles
industries, and a wide range of engineering applications such as interior door panels, fiber-
reinforced concrete, boat hulls and decks, geotextiles, bicycle frames, biodegradable
casings, etc.
4–10
Despite the huge advantages and applications, the major disadvantages
are the incompatibility between the hydrophilic natural fibers and the hydrophobic
polymer matrix. Others include high moisture absorption properties, low thermal and
dimensional stability, and property variations, thus resulting in difficulties in accurate
predictions of the developed composites’properties.
11–17
However, these disadvantages
can be overcome by enhancing the fiber/matrix interfacial adhesion with appropriate
chemical modifications and surface treatments. Treatments such as physical treatment
(e.g., cold plasma treatment and corona treatment),
18
alkali treatment,
19,20
acetylation,
1
as
well as compatibilizations via the use of maleic anhydride, organosilanes, isocyanates,
permanganate, and peroxide treatment agents for adhesion promotion,
21
chemical
modification of the resins,
22
doping of the woven fabric,
23
and the use of coupling
agents
24,25
are effective to enhance and improve the properties of natural fibers
26–29
and
have been employed to enhance fiber/matrix adhesion for high performance of the
obtained composites. Although different chemical treatments have proven to be suitable
for enhancing the mechanical properties of natural fiber-based composites to a certain
degree, consequently, the difficulties in choosing the best treatment method for a par-
ticular reinforcing fabric substrate. However, the choice of appropriate treatment methods
for the different classes of natural fibers remains a challenge; hence, there are still rooms
for further improvements in mechanical properties using the right treatment method.
Natural fibers in the form of woven fabrics have been reported to provide the pos-
sibility of producing better dimensionally stable structural components, excellent strength
and durability, and superior functionality due to the interlacing of fiber bundles in both
directions of the warp and weft, which increases the strength of the laminate.
30–37
Thus,
the merits of using woven fabric-reinforced polymer composites produce balanced in-
plane mechanical properties, better strength and stiffness, excellent drape ability, and
enhanced resistance to impact damage.
38,39
However, the intrinsic mechanical charac-
teristics of these reinforced woven laminates, such as with plain weave fabrics, depend on
certain processing parameters, which include the type of weaving techniques and weaving
parameters, type of reinforcement in both the direction of weave and the direction of
yarns, degree of fiber loading, and type of matrix-material.
1
Zeinedini et al.
40
investigated
the translaminar fracture of cotton fabric and epoxy resin composite systems and con-
firmed that the cotton/epoxy laminated composites are considerable and can be a strong
candidate to use in place of different types of wood and synthetic fiber-reinforced
laminates.
Furthermore, the behavior of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs)
also depends upon certain factors, such as fiber volume fraction, orientation of rein-
forcement, fiber nature (permeable or impermeable), geometry of exposed surfaces, and
diffusivity.
8
Reports have it that different fiber orientations have resulted in improved
performance of natural fiber composites, with different levels of anisotropy having
superior properties than the fiber in isotropic.
41,42
Furthermore, Rangasamy et al.
43
in-
vestigated the influence of woven jute fiber orientation on the mechanical and thermal
properties of epoxy matrix composites. Their study revealed that composites with a 30°
Owen et al. 3
fiber orientation exhibited superior tensile, flexural, and impact properties compared to
other orientations. Specifically, the maximum flexural strength and highest impact
strength were observed in composites with fibers oriented at 30°. The orientation of the
jute fibers significantly impacted the mechanical properties of the composites. However,
further research is needed to explore the effects of variations in other factors, which
include woven fabric construction parameters such as yarn count and pick spacing, on
composite development. Therefore, the superior mechanical properties are primarily
influenced by fiber orientation, loading percentage, and chemical treatment. However,
despite improvements in strength and durability, the dimensional stability of textile
composites still experiences undesirable structural changes in size and shape under
various conditions, which limits their performance and reliability.
Various woven fabric construction (weaving) parameters such as weave pattern, weave
factor (cover factor), fabric firmness factor, air permeability, yarn type, count, and pick
spacing affect the strength, stiffness, and toughness of the composite.
44
Pick density, also
known as picks per inch (PPI), is a crucial parameter in weaving that quantifies the
number of weft yarns, or picks, inserted per inch of woven fabric. This metric is essential
in determining the fabric’s density, texture, strength, and overall quality. Pick wheels are
devices specifically designed to control and measure the PPI during the weaving process.
The number of teeth on a pick wheel directly influences the spacing of the weft yarns,
thereby determining the tightness or looseness of the weave. This spacing not only affects
the physical characteristics of the fabric but also has a significant impact on the orientation
of the fibers within the fabric. Changes in the pick wheel settings, often referred to as picks
change wheels, can alter the fiber orientation of the cotton fabric, which in turn influences
the mechanical properties of the resultant composite materials. This intricate relationship
between pick density and fiber orientation is vital for optimizing the performance
characteristics of woven composites. Begum and Milaˇ
sius
45
presented recent studies on
the weave factor along with the effect of weave parameters and particularly the weave
structure on various properties of woven fabrics. Other construction elements of woven
structures include fabric packing factor, fabric-specific volume, crimp, float, weave re-
peat, areal density, thread density, etc.
46
These weave structures have been studied
extensively and found to have direct and indirect effects on several application properties
such as tear strength,
47
tensile strength,
48,49
fabric friction properties,
50
shear properties,
51
thermal properties,
52
air permeability,
53
comfort properties,
54
microbial barrier proper-
ties,
55
compressional properties,
56
fabric elasticity,
57
fabric roughness,
58
drapability of
fabric,
59
ballistic properties,
60
and acoustic properties.
61
Aisyah et al.
62
in their study on
effects of fabric counts and weave designs on the properties of laminated woven kenaf/
carbon fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites, assessed how different fabric con-
struction parameters such as weave designs (plain and satin) and fabric counts (5 × 5 and
6 × 6) affect the properties of laminated woven kenaf/carbon fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid
composites. These composites were fabricated using a vacuum infusion technique with
epoxy resin as the matrix, combining woven kenaf yarn (500 tex) and carbon fiber. Their
results showed that plain fabric outperformed satin fabric in achieving higher tensile and
impact strengths. Additionally, composites with a 5 × 5 fabric count exhibited signifi-
cantly higher flexural modulus compared to those with a 6 × 6 count, likely due to
4Journal of Industrial Textiles
structural and design differences. Furthermore, plain woven fabric composites demon-
strated superior adhesion properties over satin woven fabric composites, evidenced by
lower fiber pull-out.
Fabric count refers to the density of warp and weft threads per square inch in woven
fabric, typically represented as “60/60”or “80/70”. The first number denotes warp threads
per inch, while the second denotes weft threads per inch. A higher fabric count indicates a
finer, smoother, and more tightly woven fabric. Fabric construction refers to the specific
way warp and weft threads interlace to create the fabric, influencing its appearance,
texture, strength, drape, and other properties. Both fabric count and construction are
crucial considerations when choosing fabric for different applications, as they signifi-
cantly impact the fabric’s overall properties and performance.
Furthermore, various composites manufacturing techniques such as resin infusion
technique, resin transfer moulding (RTM), vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding
(VARTM), resin film infusion (RFI), hand lay-up, and vacuum bagging have different
degrees of influence on the composites’performance.
63–65
For instance, the resin infusion
technique has some potential effects on the fiber volume fraction and void content of the
composite, which can effectively improve its mechanical and physical properties.
66
The vacuum-assisted resin infusion (VARI) of liquid composites is the most amenable
for fabric-reinforced thermoset composites manufacturing because it produces high-
quality composites with simple technology requirements, uses low processing temper-
atures, and is easily scalable to larger product sizes,
67–69
hence its adopted in the current
study. The vacuum resin infusion technique is a well-established manufacturing process
for high-performance composite structures, owing to its better technology and cost-
effectiveness when compared to other techniques. This fabrication method has a com-
petitive edge, which could improve the composites’physical and mechanical properties
by effectively avoiding a non-uniform distribution of resin in the matrix.
64
Nagaraja
et al.
70
have reported obtaining extremely high mechanical strength with treated woven
fabric-reinforced epoxy composites fabricated with the resin transfer moulding RTM
technique. Furthermore, it has been reported
3
that composites prepared by the resin
infusion technique will have fewer defects such as voids and air pockets when compared
to the traditional hand lay-up method, as air bubbles inside the layers of fibers are readily
eliminated during resin flow using negative pressure to suck the resin into the mould
cavity.
Even though a few isolated studies have been conducted in the past to link the weave
structure to the mechanical characteristics of woven fabrics, no work on the variation of
weft yarn counts and pick densities, which are defined by the pick wheel teeth (PWT), and
their subsequent application in composites development using resin infusion, to the best
of our knowledge, has been reported, thereby justifying the basis for the current study.
Despite considerable efforts to study the properties of woven composites with different
woven fabric construction parameters, the effect of their simultaneous variations in the
pick densities and weft yarn count using vacuum-assisted resin infusion processes is not
fully understood. Thus, this study seeks to explore the potential of woven cotton-epoxy
composites using the resin infusion technique, and to study the effects of the woven fabric
Owen et al. 5
construction parameters (changes in pick wheel and weft yarn count) and surface
treatment on the mechanical, microstructural, and thermal properties of the composites.
Materials and methods
Materials
Three weft yarns of different counts spun from 100% cotton were obtained from the textile
industry. The infusion epoxy resin (Part A) and infusion hardener (Part B) supplied by
CASTMECH Technologies SDN BHD were used as the matrix polymers. Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), supplied by Sigma Aldrich Chemical Company, Malaysia, was used
for the surface treatment of the woven fabrics.
Preparation of woven cotton fabric
The weaving of the cotton fabrics was done
61
on a Northrop loom model 157 running at
180 r/min using three different pick wheels (30 T, 36 T, and 41 T), weft yarn counts of
16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex, and a warp yarn count of 16 Tex (Figure 1).
Details of the woven fabric parameters are as follows: weave = plain, average warp
density = 60–62 ends/cm, warp yarn count = 16 Tex. Construction details of the fabrics are
shown in Table 1.
Surface treatment of woven cotton fabrics by alkali method
After the weaving process, the woven cotton fabrics underwent alkali treatment to en-
hance their properties. The fabrics were immersed in a 6% sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
solution at room temperature for 3 h,
29
increasing fiber surface area, crystallinity, and
wettability while removing impurities. Following the treatment, the fabrics were thor-
oughly washed and rinsed with distilled water, neutralized with 2 wt% acetic acid, and
Figure 1. (a) Weft yarn samples (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) used for weaving the cotton fabrics
and (b) A plain-woven cotton fabric used as reinforcing material for the composite.
6Journal of Industrial Textiles
washed again. Finally, the alkali-treated fabrics were oven-dried at 70°C for 12 h, en-
suring complete moisture removal before composite fabrication using epoxy resin in-
fusion, which ensures improved mechanical properties and optimal performance of the
final composite material.
Characterization of woven cotton fabrics
The tensile strength tests were carried out on all samples (untreated and alkali-treated),
specifically in the warp and weft directions, using an Instron tensile machine (model
1026) fitted with a load cell of 300 kg capacity and a speed of 250 mm/mm at a standard
atmospheric condition of 27 ± 2° and 60 ± 2% RH per the ASTM D5035 standard test
method. The mean breaking load and elongation at break were determined with a sample
dimension of 140 mm × 50 mm for an average of five (5) specimens per sample.
Composite preparation process
The epoxy-woven cotton fabric composite was prepared by the vacuum resin infusion
technique and cured in a vacuum-infused sealing bag. The pictorial fabrication setup
process is shown in Figure 2(c). Firstly, the infusion epoxy resin Part A and hardener Part
B were mixed according to the manufacturer’s directive in a plastic container, from which
it was subsequently fed through a vacuum hose to a pre-assembled sealing bag containing
a layer of untreated woven cotton fabric laid for the resin mixture to get complete
impregnation of the substrates inside the infusion bag prior to curing.
Secondly, acetone was used to clean and prepare a high-tempered glass table, ensuring
the removal of residual resin from previous infusion processes and eliminating any dust
particles. Subsequently, a wax mold release agent was applied to the table surface to
facilitate the easy removal of the composite laminate after fabrication. After placing the
woven cotton materials on the table, the peel ply and mesh flow were placed. The fitting
pipes for the inlet and exit were covered in a chopped strand mat (CSM) and wrapped with
a spiral tube before being positioned above the table. After that, a vacuum mesh bag was
Table 1. Woven fabric Construction Details.
Fabric sample Pick wheel Picks Per centimetre Weft yarn count (Tex) Fabric thickness (mm)
A 30 34 16 0.35±0.05
30 33 20 0.36±0.03
30 31 24 0.38±0.04
B 36 46 16 0.35±0.02
36 55 20 0.37±0.03
36 41 24 0.36±0.06
C 41 43 16 0.35±0.04
41 46 20 0.35±0.05
41 40 24 0.33±0.02
Owen et al. 7
covered with pleated sticky tape and sealed over the mould. The outlet resin was attached
to the vacuum pump’s pressure pot, and the inlet resin was clamped throughout the drop
test. The pressure applied forced out all the air in the mould. The pump was turned off after
20 min, and the mould area was examined for any leaks. The prepared epoxy mixture was
infused into the mould, flowing uniformly parallel to the fabric weft direction until the
end. An excessive amount of resin flowed into a resin trap. The woven composite was
demoulded from the mould after 24 h of curing under laboratory condition. The composite
structure was allowed to cure at a temperature and humidity of 20 ± 2°C and 65 ± 2% RH,
respectively for approximately 24 h. This procedure was repeated with treated woven
fabric to obtain another epoxy-based composite structure reinforced with alkali-treated
woven fabric. After adequate curing, the composite laminates were removed and cut into
different ASTM test samples for analysis. The detailed manufacturing processes are
presented in Figure 2.
Tensile property analysis
The tensile characteristics of the composite sample were measured using an Instron
Tensile Tester, Model 1026 universal testing apparatus, running at room temperature and
500 mm/min crosshead speed in accordance with the ASTM D3039-76 standard method.
The test specimen dimensions were a gauge length of 50 mm, a width of 6 mm, and an
average thickness of 3 ± 0.1 mm. An average of five (5) specimens per sample were used
to generate the results.
Figure 2. Pictorial images of (a) infusion epoxy resin and hardener, (b) woven cotton fabric, (c)
resin infusion process of woven cotton-epoxy composite, (d) resin-infused woven cotton-epoxy
composite sample, (e) flexural strength testing machine showing the 3-point bending configuration
and (f) tensile strength testing procedure showing the test specimen.
8Journal of Industrial Textiles
Flexural property analysis
Flexural tests were performed using the 3-point bending method according to the ASTM
D790-99 standard procedure. The samples were tested at a crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/
min. The test specimen utilized in the 3-point bending experiment had gauge lengths (L),
widths (d), and thicknesses (t) of 100 mm, 20 mm, and 3 mm, respectively. Figure 2(e)
displays an image of the experimental setup.
Scanning electron microscopy
Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM ZEISS FE-SEM SUPRA 40VP
Germany) was deployed to determine the microstructural characteristics of the tensile
fractured surfaces of untreated and treated cotton-epoxy composites for the different pick
wheel teeth. Using a Quorum Sputter-Coater (Quorum model Q150RS, UK), a thin layer
of platinum was sputter-coated onto the samples.
Thermogravimetric analysis
In studying the thermal properties of neat epoxy, untreated and alkali-treated cotton-epoxy
composite structures, with emphasis on the impact of alkali treatment on the composite’s
thermal behavior. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) analyzer (NETZSCH TG
209 F3 Tarsus) model follows the ASTM D3850 standard procedure, which is a thermo-
analytical technique employed to examine the onset degradation and decomposition
temperature behavior of the composite’s specimens. The TGA was at a tem perature range
of 30 °C–600°C with a 10°C/min heating rate in a nitrogen gas environment using 5 mg of
sample weight, and all data analysis was obtained using in-built Proteus software.
Results and discussion
Tensile properties of woven cotton fabric
The results of the tensile strengths and extension-at-break of untreated and alkali-treated
woven cotton fabric are shown in Table 2. The results show that the untreated cotton fabric
had an initial strength value of 21.5 MPa and 17.8 MPa and an extension at break of 7.9%
and 6.5% for warp and weft directions, respectively, before surface treatment. The woven
fabric showed a higher strength and extension along the warp direction as compared to the
weft. This observation might be due to the increase in tension between the warp yarn and
the fabric during weaving, as confirmed by Mebrate et al.,
71
on the tensile strength of the
plain cotton woven fabric, with a significant effect on the warp direction of the fabric.
However, after alkali treatment of the cotton fabrics, the treated cotton fabric showed
relatively increased tensile strength and extension at break of 22.8 MPa and 18.7 MPa and
of 9.7% and 8.4% on the warp and weft-wise directions, respectively, when compared to
the untreated. Similarly, Aruchamy et al.
37
reported a 24% variation in tensile strength in
the warp and weft directions with cotton/cotton-woven plain fabrics. The warp-direction
Owen et al. 9
cotton yarn recorded a higher breaking strength than the weft-direction cotton yarn, which
had a lower breaking strength and a similar yarn linear density.
55
From the results obtained, it can be observed that the alkali-treated woven cotton
fabrics recorded higher tensile strength and extension-at-break with maximum im-
provements of 5.7% and 4.8% and 18.6% and 22.6% on both warp and weft directions,
respectively, as compared to untreated cotton fabric, which is because of the effective
impart of the surface treatment on the raw cotton fabrics. The treated woven cotton fabrics
showed maximum tensile strength and extension-at-break in both directions of warp and
weft. The higher percentages of extension at break along the warp direction may be
associated with the presence of the applied size (starch) on warp yarns during weaving and
the subsequent alkali treatment, which increased the percentage of breaking extension.
The low extension values in the weft direction could be attributed to the considerable weft
crimp percentages of the fabrics.
31
Furthermore, the improvement in tensile strength is due to the increased closely packed
cellulose crystals and higher cellulose content present in the treated woven cotton fabrics
after treatment resulted from the removal of lignin and other non-cellulosic components
from the natural cotton fabrics, thereby increasing the amount of cellulose per unit mass of
the fiber. The formation of hydrogen bonds between the cellulose chains freed by the
removal of hemicellulose and lignin binding structures resulted in rearrangement and
increased crystallinity of the fiber, which in turn improved the overall fiber strength.
72
The
improved fiber strength further increases the strength of its reinforced epoxy composites
due to increased reinforcing ability and effective stress transfer within the composite, as
extensively discussed in subsequent sections. The tensile strength and breaking extension
of the woven cotton are higher in the warp direction than in the weft-wise direction for
both untreated and alkali-treated fabrics. However, the alkali-treated cotton fabrics
showed improved tensile properties compared to untreated cotton fabrics prior to
composites fabrication, indicating that surface treatment is a major factor in the strength
behavior of cotton fabrics with an optimum alkali NaOH treatment of 6% concentration
which effectively enhanced the fabric properties by removing the non-cellulosic com-
ponent such as lignin, hemicellulose, pectin and other impurities such as dirt, natural oil
and waxy substances from the cotton fiber which could impair the fiber/matrix adhesion
reaction during exposure of the hydroxyl group to the resin,
27
hence, in order to achieve a
maximum utilization of the fiber strength in the composites, a good interface is required
for effective stress transfer from the matrix to the fiber thereby facilitating the mechanical
Table 2. Tensile properties of untreated and alkali-treated plain woven cotton fabric.
Sample Untreated Alkali-treated
Properties
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Extension at
break (%)
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Extension at
break (%)
Direction Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp Weft Warp Weft
Plain woven
cotton
21.5 ±
0.5
17.8 ±
0.3
7.9 ±
0.4
6.5 ±
0.6
22.8 ±
0.2
18.7 ±
0.2
9.7 ±
0.4
8.4 ±
0.7
10 Journal of Industrial Textiles
interlocking during composite formulation. The impact of surface treatment on the cotton
fabric obtained is in tandem with findings by other researchers
72
on the alkali treatment of
harakeke flax fiber in PLA matrix composites.
Tensile properties of cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites
Effect of weft yarn count and pick wheel teeth. Figure 3(a),4(a),and5(a) present the results
of the tensile tests conducted along the weft direction for both treated and untreated woven
cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites. These figures show the tensile strength
properties of the composites at different weft counts of 16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex, as well
as varying pick wheel teeth (PWT) numbers of 30, 36, and 41 PWT. Observation reveals
that the tensile strength values for all woven cotton fabric-reinforced composites are
higher than those of the unreinforced neat epoxy (Figures 3,4, and 5). The reason is that
the woven fabrics used as reinforcement have improved the tensile strength values based
on the reinforcing fabric structure. The improvement recorded stood at 19.9% for the
30 PWT (Figure 3(a)), up to 16.4% for the 36 PWT (Figure 4(a)), with the 41 PWT having
an increment of 20.5% (Figure 5(a)). The added woven fabrics are seen to positively
impact the tensile performance of the resultant epoxy composites, which is expected
because of the hard nature of the woven fabrics being included in the epoxy resin. The
results obtained by ¨
Ozdemir and Içten
73
revealed that the tensile properties and the impact
behavior of the woven composites are affected by the weaving pattern. It was observed
that warp rib woven fabric reinforced composite showed the best tensile performance in
the weft direction, whereas 2/2 matt woven fabric reinforced composite showed the best
tensile properties along the warp direction.
On the effect of weft yarn count, it was observed that the tensile strength for both
treated and untreated woven cotton fabric–epoxy composites decreased with an increase
in weft yarn count (Tex) for all the different pick wheel teeth (30, 36, and 41). The
composite strength decreased with increasing linear density from 16 Tex to 24 Tex. The
optimum value was obtained with a weft count of 16 Tex with a value of 77.08 MPa,
which was reduced to 65.11 MPa at a linear density value of 24 Tex (Figure 3(a)). This
behavior was also observed for the 36 PWT and 41 PWT, with the 16 Tex weft yarn count,
respectively, having the highest strengths of 71.13 MPa (Figure 4(a)) and 72.73 MPa
(Figure 5(a)). All the reported values above are for the treated woven fabric rein-
forcements, which had similar behavior but had lower values than their untreated
counterparts. The yarn count (Tex) represents the weight in grams of 1000 m of yarn. It is
a direct measure of the linear density or thickness of the yarn. The lower Tex value yarn
counts indicate finer yarns, which translated to higher tensile strength in the composite
system, and this might have been responsible for the increasing tensile properties as the
weft yarn count reduced.
62
In this study, the reduced yarn count is found to have effects on
the fabric weight, density, strength, and durability, which are also influenced by the yarn
type and the fabric construction parameters. This phenomenon was confirmed by ¨
Ozdemir
& Mert
74
in their study on the effects of fabric structural parameters of weave and yarn
densities on the tensile properties of woven fabrics. They observed that increases in yarn
densities improved the physical properties of cellular woven fabrics, as plain-woven
Owen et al. 11
fabric exhibited better tensile performance than cellular woven fabrics. In a separate study
by Shanbeh et al.
51
on the effects of weft density, weft count, and fiber type on the shear
behavior of woven fabrics in the principal directions of cotton fabric, it was confirmed that
weft density is the most dominant parameter that affects fabric shear properties, fabric
firmness factor, fabric cover factor, and shear rigidity of fabrics along the principal
directions.
Figure 3. The effect of weft yarn count (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) on the tensile strength (a) and
modulus (b) of treated and untreated woven cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites for pick
wheel teeth (PWT) with a number of 30 T.
12 Journal of Industrial Textiles
More so, observations show that with an increasing number of pick wheel teeth from
30 to 36 and then 41, the tensile strength values for treated woven cotton fabric-epoxy
composites at weft counts of 16 Tex showed an increasing trend from 30 PWT to 41 PWT.
On the other hand, the values of tensile strength for the untreated composite also
increased with an increase in the number of PWTs. When the weft count was 16 Tex, the
treated woven cotton fabric-epoxy composite gave tensile strength values of
77.08 Figure 3(a), 71.13 Figure 4(a), and 72.73 MPa Figure 5(a) with respect to 30, 36,
Figure 4. The effect of weft yarn count (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) on the tensile strength (a) and
modulus (b) of treated and untreated woven cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites for pick
wheel teeth (PWT) with a number of 36 T.
Owen et al. 13
and 41 PWT, respectively. This is the same for other weft counts of 20 Tex and 24 Tex,
which also recorded improved performances for the higher values of the pick wheel teeth.
The higher PWT means an increasing weft density, which gives tighter structures im-
proved tensile strength and is responsible for the observed behaviors.
Similar behavior was observed by other researchers
36
in their study on the mechanical
characteristics of woven cotton/bamboo hybrid reinforced composites compared to
woven cotton/cotton fabric reinforced composite laminates with epoxy resin as the matrix
Figure 5. The effect of weft yarn count (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) on the tensile strength (a) and
modulus (b) of treated and untreated woven cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites for pick
wheel teeth (PWT) with a number of 41 T.
14 Journal of Industrial Textiles
material. They examined five different fiber loading conditions (30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 wt
%) and found that the cotton/bamboo reinforced composite with 45 wt% fiber loading
exhibited the best mechanical properties and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS), attributed
to the weft direction of the bamboo yarn.
Abou-Nassif
75
whose work was on the effects of weft density and weave structures on
the physical and mechanical properties of micro-polyester woven fabrics with plain, twill,
and satin weave structures, reported that acceleration of the weft density from 61 to
80 picks/inch led to an increase in mechanical properties. Thanikai et al.
47
reported that
the tensile and tear strengths of cotton-woven fabrics depend on the flexibility of the yarn
in the fabric structure and the weave parameters such as the crossing over firmness factor,
floating yarn factor, fabric firmness factor, and weave factor.
Overall, it could be inferred that tensile strength values increased with a decrease in
weft count and an increase in pick wheel teeth (PWT). Thus, it is evident that weft yarn
count and pick change wheel greatly affect the tensile strength properties and performance
of woven fabric-reinforced composites, because when these parameters (weft counts and
pick wheels) changed, the behavior of weft way tensile strength changed as also reported
by Alavudeen et al.
76
The variation in tensile modulus with different weft counts and pick densities, as
presented in Figure 3(b),4(b),and5(b), indicates significant improvements with alkali-
treated fibers. Among the three weft counts studied (16, 20, and 24 Tex), the maximum
tensile modulus was observed at 16 Tex (2645.3 MPa) for the 30 PWT (Figure 3(b)). This
value gradually decreased as the weft count increased, with 2507.4 MPa at 20 Tex and
2466.6 MPa at 24 Tex.
It was also observed that for all the PWT, the tensile modulus of the treated and
untreated composites decreased with increasing values of weft count. The increase in
tensile modulus (Figure 3(b),4(b), and 5(b)) followed the same pattern as the tensile
strength (Figure 3(a),4(a), and a5(a)) with increasing pick wheel teeth. 41 PWT recorded
the highest stiffness (resistance to deformation) with a value of 2790.8 MPa at 16 Tex weft
yarn count (Figure 5(b)), and 30 PWT had the lowest modulus of 2645.3 MPa at 16 Tex
weft count (Figure 3(b)), indicating the effect of pick densities on the fabric’s performance
properties.
31
Tensile modulus is a measure of the composite’s stiffness. The addition of
the woven fabric increased the material’s rigidity, causing over a 27% increase in its
resistance to deformation compared to the virgin (unreinforced) epoxy resin matrix.
Effect of alkali treatment. On the effect of treatment, it was found that the values of the
treated composites were higher than those of the untreated, irrespective of the weft count
and the changing pick wheel teeth. Improvements of up to 9.8% (30 PWT), 8.7%
(36 PWT), and 8.4% (41 PWT) for Figures 3(a),4(a), and 5(a), respectively, were
recorded for the different weft yarn counts when treated with alkaline solution. None-
theless, the observed result could be attributed to the effect of alkali treatment on the
woven cotton fabric, as the treatment helped to reduce the number of hydrophilic (OH)
groups in the cotton fabric, which in turn decreased the susceptibility to liquid absorption,
resulting in an improvement in the tensile strengths.
77
Ameer et al.
7
also reported similar
improvements in the tensile as well as the flexural strengths of treated fabric composites
Owen et al. 15
compared to untreated. Sawpan et al.
25
also reported that alkali fiber treatments were
found to improve tensile properties due to good fiber/matrix adhesion and increased
matrix crystallinity.
Interestingly, generally, the treated fabric composites showed better tensile properties
than untreated composites due to the enhancement of the bonds between the alkali-treated
cotton fabric and the epoxy resin matrix. The improvement in the tensile properties of the
cotton fabrics with alkali treatment was contingent upon the dissolution of hemicellulose
and the development of crystallinity as well as fibrillation. The observed result was
corroborated by the work of Lai et al.
78
who characterized and studied betel palm woven
hybrid composites.
Flexural properties of cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites
Effect of weft yarn count and pick wheel teeth. The weft direction flexural strength of both
treated and untreated cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites was investigated. The
flexural strength and modulus results obtained are given in Figures 6,7, and 8for the
different pick wheel teeth. Considering the effect of the weft yarn counts, the flexural
(bending) strength and modulus are seen to be behaving differently when compared to the
tensile properties. From the results, the unreinforced neat epoxy showed a flexural
strength of 78.98 MPa, which further improved upon reinforcement with plain-woven
cotton fabric; thus, the cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites exhibited higher
flexural strength with up to 27.37% improvements compared to neat epoxy (Figure 8(a)).
The variation in pick wheel teeth directly impacts pick density (the number of weft
yarns per unit length in woven fabric), which in turn affects fabric properties such as
stability, strength, coverage, flexibility, and insulation. In this study, increasing the pick
wheel teeth from 30 T to 41 T resulted in higher flexural strengths. For the 24 Tex weft
yarn count, flexural strength increased from 131.75 MPa at 30 T to 144.17 MPa at 36 T,
and 156.59 MPa at 41 T. This increase is likely due to the higher weft yarn density, which
enhances the cover factor and subsequently the fabric’s reinforcing ability. Sajn et al.57, in
their study on the influence of constructional parameters on the deformability of elastic
cotton fabrics, found that the type of weave, plain or twill, significantly influenced the
non-recoverable deformation level, and the increase in weft densities in the weft direction
significantly influenced the non-recoverable deformation level. The increased number of
pick densities and weft yarn counts indicate that weaving parameters, such as yarn count
and pick change wheel, significantly influence the reinforcing fabrics and the properties of
the resultant composites.
The results from the current study indicate that optimal flexural properties of woven
composites (strength of 156.59 MPa, and modulus of 2796.4 MPa) can be achieved using
weft yarn counts and pick change wheels in the range of 20–24 Tex and 36–41 PWT. This
suggests that increasing the yarn count and pick change wheel settings enhances the
bending strength and compactness of the composites.
Similarly, the flexural modulus results are presented in Figure 6(b),7(b), and 8(b), and
the improvements recorded were in line with the increases in the weft yarn count and pick
wheel change. The flexural moduli for the 16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex at 30 PWT were,
16 Journal of Industrial Textiles
respectively, 2400.7 MPa, 2609.6 MPa, and 2635.6 MPa (Figure 7(b)). These values
increased with the increment of the pick wheel teeth from 30 T to 41 T. The recorded
improvement of the modulus is a direct effect of the composite’s increased stiffness and
resistance to bending and increased yarn density in the reinforcing fabric. Similarly,
Sathish et al.
5
also obtained maximum flexural strengths with cellulosic fiber fillers
reinforced epoxy composites due to higher cellulose constituents that resulted in higher
degree cellulose polymerization with the epoxy matrix and the capability of tension and
Figure 6. The effect of weft yarn count (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) on the flexural strength (a)
and modulus (b) of treated and untreated woven cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites for
pick wheel teeth (PWT) with a number of 30 T.
Owen et al. 17
bending resistance. The combined effect of hybrid fiber stiffness and strong interfacial
adhesion was also the reason for maximum flexural strength. Other researchers
79
also
observed increased mechanical properties with an increase in the lamina content and fiber
volume fraction in the cotton direction.
Effect of alkali treatment. When treatment is considered, it is evident in Figure 6(a),7(a),
and 8(a) that the alkali treatment consistently improved the flexural strength of the
Figure 7. The effect of weft yarn count (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) on the flexural strength (a)
and modulus (b) of treated and untreated woven cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites for
pick wheel teeth (PWT) with a number of 36 T.
18 Journal of Industrial Textiles
composite. When compared to the untreated composite, generally, the flexural strength
values for the treated composites were slightly higher than the untreated counterpart, with
a maximum improvement of 44.6%, especially at 41 PWT. For weft count of 16 Tex, at
30 PWT Figure 6(a), the untreated composite had a flexural strength of 102.36 MPa which
increased to 106.38 MPa after treatment. This improvement is seen to increase with
increasing weft yarn count from 20 Tex (118.42 MPa) to 24 Tex (131.75 MPa) for the
composites with treated samples. This behavior is seen to have similar patterns for all the
Figure 8. The effect of weft yarn count (16 Tex, 20 Tex, and 24 Tex) on the flexural strength (a)
and modulus (b) of treated and untreated woven cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites for
pick wheel teeth (PWT) with a number of 41 T.
Owen et al. 19
other pick wheel teeth (36 PWT and 41 PWT). It is known that the direct system of yarn
linear density is proportional to the yarn weight, and higher numbers translate to a higher
weight of yarn. This is the case with the flexural properties, where the increasing weft yarn
count (16 to 24 Tex) increased the flexural properties (resistance to bending). This shows
that higher Tex values are more favourable for stable cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy
composites when bending properties are of great consideration. This indicates that in-
creased yarn weight enhances bending resistance, making it advantageous for applications
in lightweight, durable components across industrial, construction, building, and auto-
motive sectors. These findings align with research by Owen et al.
77
which investigated the
effects of alkali treatment on mechanical properties of woven cotton-reinforced epoxy
composites.
Morphological properties of cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites
Figure 9 shows the morphologies of the fractured surfaces of treated and untreated woven
cotton fabric-epoxy composites at different pick wheel teeth (PWT). From the SEM
micrographs in Figure 9, it can be observed that the alkali-treated woven cotton fabric-
epoxy composites showed more compact microstructures, well-reduced fabric/fiber
pullout, and a good interface region, indicating better interfacial bonding between the
reinforced woven cotton fabric and the epoxy matrix in Figure 9(a)-(i),9(b)-(i), and 9(c)-
(i) compared to the untreated counterpart, which could be the reason for the observed
better tensile properties shown in Figures 3,4, and 5. Similar results have been previously
reported
28
where surface-treated woven structures interacted better in the epoxy com-
posite system due to fiber/matrix compatibility and a robust interfacial bond between the
matrix and reinforced modified woven structures, which consequently resulted in in-
creased composites’mechanical properties. Ameer et al.
6
also obtained higher tensile and
flexural properties due to good impregnation of fiber and a better fiber-matrix interface;
however, they attributed the presence of voids and a weak interface in the microscopic
images to an increased fiber volume fraction. Macedo et al.
18
in their SEM images, also
confirmed improved wettability and interface with plasma modification of the kapok fiber
surface, thus improving matrix/filler adhesion.
Furthermore, the SEM micrographs of the untreated woven cotton fabric-epoxy
composites revealed some pores and fabric/fiber breakages, indicating evidence of
pull-out, fabric de-bonding, and poor interfacial adhesion between the woven cotton
fabric and the epoxy matrix in Figure 9(a)-ii),9(b)-ii), and 9(c)-ii). These observed results
lend credence to the low mechanical properties found with untreated composites.
28,29
Aruchamy et al.
36
also observed a SEM image of a woven cotton/cotton fiber composite
with micro-crack initiation, debonding, crack initiation, voids, and fiber pull-out due to
poor adhesion levels of the fiber and matrix.
Similar observations were reported by Wan et al.
3
that the fiber breakage that occurred
during stress transfer from the epoxy matrix to the fibers was attributed to the non-rich
resin region (not fully embedded) of the epoxy, which resulted in fiber debonding and
poor interfacial adhesion between the matrix and fiber, which led to a reduction in the
composites’tensile properties. It was further observed that resin shrinkage also resulted in
20 Journal of Industrial Textiles
Figure 9. SEM micrographs of the fractured surfaces of (i) treated and (ii) untreated woven cotton
fabric-epoxy composites for 20 Tex weft count at (a) 30 PWT, (b) 36 PWT, and (c) 41 PWT at
1000x magnifications, respectively.
Owen et al. 21
a decrease in residual stresses.
80
When the pick wheel teeth are considered without
treatment, the different pick wheels confer different pick densities, which affected the
fracture behavior of the composites. 41 PWT Figure 9(c)-ii) with higher pick density was
more stable without catastrophic fracture compared to 36 PWT Figure 9(b)-ii) and
30 PWT Figure 9(a)-ii), which recorded higher breakage and distortions. This is therefore
a factor to be considered in the development of woven textile composites for optimum
performance, as a lower tooth change wheel means less tight structure (less pick density)
and vice versa. Similar studies on the mechanical and damage behaviors of carbon/epoxy
woven fabric composites with weave patterns and areal densities under tensile loading
also found that the damage developments essentially related to the fabric geometry
resulted in various mechanical behaviors
10,34
and highest resin permeability, tensile
strength, flexural strength, and modulus due to the high apparent porosity of the fabric
reinforcement and the efficient load-bearing structure of the composite.
Thermal properties of cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites
To determine the thermal properties of the composites, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
was conducted on neat epoxy as well as on untreated and alkali-treated composite samples
that exhibited superior mechanical properties. The summarized TGA results are presented
in Table 3.
Figure 10 illustrates the TGA curves for neat epoxy, untreated cotton-epoxy, and
alkali-treated cotton-reinforced epoxy woven composites. The thermogravimetric anal-
ysis (TGA) curve of neat epoxy shows an onset temperature of thermal degradation at
311.2°C and a maximum thermal decomposition temperature (DTG) at 343.8°C, with a
residual mass of 23.85% non-cellulosic components. In contrast, the untreated cotton-
epoxy composite exhibits improved thermal stability, with an onset degradation tem-
perature of 334.1°C and a maximum decomposition peak temperature of 362.1°C. This
enhanced thermal performance in the cotton-epoxy composite is attributed to the thermal
resistance of the cellulose-rich cotton fibers, which include hemicellulose, pectins, lignin,
waxes, and proteins. These components provide higher thermal stability, allowing the
cotton fibers to withstand greater temperatures before degrading and contribute to a higher
Table 3. TGA results for epoxy, untreated and treated cotton-reinforced epoxy woven
composites.
Specimen
Onset temp
(°C)
Endset temp
(°C)
DTG peak
(°C)
Mass change
(%)
Residual Mass
(%)
Untreated cotton-
epoxy
334.1 394.0 362.1 85.44 11.30
Treated cotton-
epoxy
288.4 436.0 343.5 77.33 18.65
Neat epoxy 311.2 371.4 343.8 68.70 23.85
22 Journal of Industrial Textiles
char residue, thereby delaying thermal degradation and increasing the peak decompo-
sition temperature compared to neat epoxy.
81
Comparing the TGA curves of alkali-treated cotton reinforced epoxy composites with
neat epoxy, the treated composite shows a lower onset degradation temperature of
288.4°C, indicating faster degradation than neat epoxy at 311.2°C. This difference can be
attributed to changes in fiber activation, resulting in a faster reaction for the treated fibers
compared to untreated ones. However, both the treated composite and neat epoxy exhibit
similar thermal stability at approximately 343.5°C and 343.8°C, respectively. The alkali-
treated composites also display a lower residual mass of 18.65% compared to the neat
epoxy’s 23.85%.
From the combined thermographic curves of neat epoxy compared with both untreated
and alkali-treated cotton reinforced epoxy composites, it can be observed that all
composite samples exhibited thermal stability above 300°C. The untreated composite
sample demonstrated the highest onset temperature at 334.1°C, followed by the neat
epoxy with an onset degradation temperature of 311.2°C, and the treated sample with the
lowest onset temperature of 288.4°C. This indicates that the fabric surface treatment
effectively removes lignin content, creating a larger interface area through bond formation
and promoting strong hydrogen bonding between the treated fiber and the polymer matrix.
These findings are consistent with Akindoyo et al.
72
who also observed lower onset
degradation temperatures with treated harakeke fibers due to the increased formation of
intermolecular hydrogen bonds between cellulose molecules. However, their study found
Figure 10. Combined TGA thermograms of neat epoxy, untreated and treated cotton-epoxy
woven composites.
Owen et al. 23
that treated fiber composites were more thermally stable compared to untreated com-
posites. Additionally, the untreated cotton-epoxy woven composites exhibited the highest
onset degradation and DTG decomposition temperatures of 334.1°C and 362.1°C, re-
spectively, indicating higher degradation temperatures and the lowest percentage of mass
residual at 11.30%. This is in contrast to the treated cotton composites and neat epoxy,
which can be attributed to the presence of complex lignin structures, hemicellulose, and
other natural organic components in the reinforced woven cotton fabrics that degrade at
higher temperatures.
The treated cotton-epoxy woven composites exhibited an onset temperature of
288.4°C and a DTG degradation temperature of 343.5°C, indicating that these com-
posites are thermally stable at lower temperatures compared to untreated composites.
This suggests that alkali-treated cotton-epoxy composites require less energy to de-
compose, attributed to the alkali treatment’s effectiveness in significantly removing
non-cellulose components such as pectin, wax, oil, lignin, and other impurities from the
cotton fiber. Consequently, the treated fibers require less energy for degradation.
Similar thermal behavior is observed in other cellulose-based fibers, as reported by
Macedo et al.
18
where thermal degradation transitioned to a second-order reaction
within the temperature range of 280–315°C. Specifically, hemicellulose degradation
occurred at around 280°C, while the degradation of certain cellulose and lignin
structures was noted at 315°C.
52
The alkali-treated cotton-epoxy composites demonstrated superior thermal properties
and decomposed more quickly than the untreated composites, which had the highest
decomposition temperature. The treated composites also exhibited a mass change of
77.33%, compared to 85.44% for the untreated composites, and 68.7% for the neat epoxy.
The thermal analysis results align with the mechanical properties observed, as depicted in
Figures 3-5and 6-8, where all treated composites showed enhanced tensile and flexural
strengths.
Conclusion
The investigation into the effects of woven fabric construction parameters (yarn count
and pick wheel teeth) and alkali surface treatment on the mechanical, microstructural,
and thermal properties of cotton fabric-reinforced epoxy composites via the resin
infusion technique has yielded insightful results. The study demonstrates that these
parameters critically influence composite performance. Lower weft yarn counts
significantly enhance tensile properties, while higher weft yarn counts improve
bending properties, particularly at elevated pick wheel teeth. Additionally, alkali
treatment markedly enhances both tensile and flexural strength. Thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) revealed that untreated composites exhibited higher thermal stability
compared to treated composites and neat epoxy, indicating a more complex thermal
degradation behavior due to the presence of complex lignin structures, hemicellulose,
and other natural organic components in the reinforced woven cotton fabrics that
degrade at higher temperatures. Thus, the developed composites exhibit robust
mechanical and thermal properties, making them viable for a range of technical and
24 Journal of Industrial Textiles
industrial applications. These composites hold considerable promise for use in in-
dustrial and automotive contexts, providing lightweight, durable materials for
products including furniture, building panels, doors, and roof panels. The findings
from this study suggest a pathway for optimizing the mechanical and thermal per-
formance of natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites, thereby advancing their
application potential in various engineering fields.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare there are no competing interests regarding the publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article: This study is supported by Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia;
Fundamental Research Grants Schemes (FRGS) FRGS/1 FRGS/1/2022/TK01/UNITEN/02/1.
ORCID iDs
Macaulay M. Owen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9462-0184
Emmanuel O. Achukwu https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0389-4321
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