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Vol. 1 No. 1, June 2024
The South China Roots of Minangkabau Culture: An Anthropological and
Historical Study
Fikri Surya Pratamaa 1 Nurul Izzati Husnia
a Universitas Islam Negeri Imam Bonjol Padang, Indonesia
Article Information:
Received 2024-04-07
Revised 2024-06-06
Accepted 2024-06-23
Published 2024-06-30
Keywords: South China,
Minangkabau Culture,
Anthropology and History,
Tambo
A b s t r a c t
Based on the information obtained in Tambo as a historical source for the
Minangkabau tribe, it can be seen that Tambo presents a narrative of the
relationship between the Minangkabau and Chinese tribes on various issues. The
Minangkabau tribe has cultural products with Chinese names, such as the guntiang
cino clothes worn by princes and the aka cino motif found in traditional
Minangkabau houses, namely the rumah gadang. This article used historical
research to explore the relationship between Minangkabau and Chinese ethnicities.
Source collection was carried out using library research techniques. Data analysis
used a historical-anthropological approach. Based on research findings, it is worth
noting that two waves of Proto-Malay and Deutero-Malay human races arrived in
Sumatra from the South China region. Data analysis in Tambo, cultural aspects, and
literary sources concluded that the Minangkabau tribe has a history and culture
similar to the Zhuang tribe in Guangxi Province, southern mainland China. This is
based on the similarities in the cultural products of the two ethnic groups, such as
traditional Minangkabau women's clothing in the form of tingkuluak and suntiang
items. Both ethnic groups also uphold the buffalo as one of their traditional animals.
Matrilineal descent is a unique connecting factor in the Minangkabau tribe. In
contrast, the Zhuang ethnic group has abandoned this system due to socio-political
developments, the dominance of the Han ethnic group, and patriarchal culture.
© 2024 The Authors, published by Yayasan Inteligensia Bhumiputra Indonesia.
This is an open access article under the CC BY SA license.
I. Introduction
The island of Sumatra has a strategic role in developing Indonesian civilization because of its
location as a trading area. According to Elizabeth E. Graves (2007), Sumatran residents have a high
level of mobility and travel long distances (merantau) with various motivations. According to Van
Vollenhoven in Koentjaraningrat's work (2009), the Minangkabau tribe is one of the 19 main tribes
that inhabit Indonesia. The history of the tribe's arrival is complicated based on archaeological
evidence. However, the tribe's history can be traced through oral cultural traditions passed down
from generation to generation through Tambo. From a traditional historiographic perspective,
1 fikrisurya28@gmail.com
How to cite: Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I. (2024). The South China Roots
of Minangkabau Culture: An Anthropological and Historical Study.
Multicultural Landscape, 1(1), 21–40. Retrieved from
https://multicultural.ibnusantara.com/index.php/mtl/article/view/4
Multicultural Landscape
https://multicultural.ibnusantara.com
E-ISSN: | DOI:
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 22
Tambo has similarities with the genealogical approach in explaining Minangkabau ancestors,
namely linking them to essential figures such as the Prophet Adam AS. and King Iskandar
Zulkarnain. However, Tambo is less clear regarding chronology and biographical details (Abdullah
T., 1985). From an academic point of view, Tambo is more often considered a literary work than a
historical work because its historical content only reaches 2% (Mansur, 1970; Djamaris, 1991).
However, oral sources remain an appropriate choice for writing history, as African history was
primarily documented through oral sources before the arrival of European nations (Vansina, 2014).
In Tambo, Iskandar Zulkarnain had three children who later founded their civilizations in various
parts of the world. Among them are Nan Tuo Maharadjo Alif, who spread towards the Rum
Continent, Nan Tangah Maharadjo Depang, who headed to China, and the youngest Nan Maharadjo
Diradjo, who headed to Tanah Basa (India), then headed to Paco Island, which is now mainland
Sumatra, and anchored precisely at Mount Marapi land (Basa & Permato, 1966). According to
Tambo, the ancestors of the Minangkabau tribe were immigrants who had traveled long before
arriving on the mainland of Sumatra. The complex genealogical structure of the Minangkabau tribe
makes it attractive to study, especially in the assumption of its genealogical connection with
community groups in the past region of Southern China.
Research has been conducted on the relationship between the Minangkabau tribe and other
tribes, such as the Jambi Malay tribe, both in political and cultural contexts. Rahim (2021) uses a
genealogical approach to explain the connection between the Minangkabau elite and the
establishment of the Malay noble elite in Jambi. Research findings show that tracing inter-ethnic
relations can start from population migration from the area of origin to new areas or through the
influence of political hegemony and the spread of cultural practices from one area to other affected
areas. Apart from using a genealogical approach, a historical, anthropological approach was also
used by Auliahadi and Pratama (2023) to research the relationship between the Minangkabau Tribe
and the Anak Dalam Tribe. The research analysis emphasizes the cultural closeness of the two
tribes being compared, which are culturally related in terms of language and matrilineal descent.
Research on the relationship between the Minangkabu ethnic group and other ethnicities was also
carried out using a phenomenological approach by Sahputri, Agustono, and Zuska (2021) about the
Minangkabau merantau culture, which produced the Aneuk Jamee Tribe in Aceh. The results show
that migration from one ethnic group to another can lead to changes in identity and resilience of the
culture of origin. Research linking local ethnic relations with Chinese has been carried out by
Prasetyo (2015), Said (2019), Sya (2019), Utami (2020), Pattiasina (2021) and Abelio & Junaidi
(2021). This research does not explore the possibility of ethnic Chinese descendants in one of the
Indonesian ethnic groups. However, it focuses on social interactions between ethnic Chinese and
Indonesian society during the interaction process of their arrival. These interactions can lead to
changes in the cultural identity of an ethnic group, both from an interactionist perspective and
through cultural evolution. Research linking Minangkabau and Chinese ethnicities conducted by
Ridzki (2017), Makmur (2018), Sjofjan (2018), and Kurniawan (2023) all highlight the cultural
acculturation of Chinese people after arriving and settling in Minangkabau land. The Minangkabau
people believe in adapting to the surrounding environment, as reflected in their saying, 'Dima bumi
dipijak, disinan langik dijunjuang or where the earth is stepped on, there the sky is upheld.' The
acculturation of Minangkabau and Chinese culture can be seen in various wedding decorations,
including motifs of phoenixes, peacocks, butterflies, deer, lotus flowers, chrysanthemums, and the
gold color of the threads (Rahmanita, 2012; Fitra, 2022).
After carrying out the study, it is necessary to study further the historical and cultural links
between the Minangkabau tribe and non-local Indonesian (Nusantara) tribes. This research will
analyze the connection or relationship between the Minangkabau tribe and the Chinese tribe in the
Southern China region. This area is used as a benchmark for the origin of the migration area of the
ancestors of the Indonesian people, both during the Proto-Malay and Deutero-Malay waves.
Cultural similarities arise from the historical process of cultural diffusion (Koentjaraningrat, 2007;
Koentjaraningrat, 2009). These scattered cultures can develop and transform into new cultures due
The South China Roots of Minangkabau Culture: An Anthropological and Historical Study
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 23
to environmental influences and interactions with other cultures. So, rather than focusing on the
acculturation aspect, this research tries to explain the historical traces of the Minangkabau and
Southern Chinese ethnicities in terms of their historical and cultural links.
The initial argument of this research is based on the theory of the distribution of ancient
humans in the archipelago originating from southern China, as explained above. Another argument
used is the existence of several narratives in Tambo that explain the relationship between the
ancestors of the Minangkabau tribe and China. The initial argument is based on socio-cultural facts
contained in Minangkabau cultural products. These objects have names related to China, such as the
traditional clothes of traditional leaders called baju guntiang chino and one of the motifs on
Minangkabau traditional houses, namely rumah gadang which features the aka cino motif.
II. Methods
The research was qualitative research using historical research methods consisting of four
stages: 1) collecting sources, which in this case was carried out through narratives in Tambo,
Minangkabau cultural products, as well as a study of relevant books and journal articles; 2) source
criticism, which involves selecting the most relevant data sources from the collection; 3)
interpretation and analysis of data carried out using a historical-anthropological approach; and 4)
writing down the results of historical or historiographic research.
The data collection technique in this research did not adapt the raw information obtained in
the Tambo. As stated in the research introduction, the historical information in the Tambo only
covers approximately 2% of the available data. Therefore, existing archaeological evidence must be
utilized to strengthen the narrative references in the Tambo. Because there is no archaeological
evidence, such as statues or inscriptions, that can explain with certainty the chronology of the
arrival of the Minangkabau tribe to mainland Sumatra, these cultural products are used to trace the
history of the Minangkabau tribe and their relationship with human groups from Southern China.
Thus, the sources used in this research are not only Tambo but also Minangkabau cultural products
(clothing, traditions, arts, and so on), literature that studies Minangkabau history and culture, and
other related references.
This research analysis used a historical and anthropological approach to examine the links and
interrelationships between two groups of people. In analyzing Tambo as a historical source, it was
essential to maintain a critical attitude toward its scientific content while still recognizing its
authority as a cultural, historical, and traditional literary product that holds sacred value for the
Minangkabau people. Tambo provided information about the origins of the Minangkabau tribe, its
distribution, its territory, and the rules that guide community life. According to Koentjaraningrat
(2007), ethnicity is a social unity with cultural roots and identity. It refers to a group with the same
consciousness and desire for cultural and ancestral unity. Based on this theory, researching
relationships between different ethnicities can be done by examining cultural similarities and
origins.
According to Pratama (2019), Siregar (2020), and Haerullah (2021), ethnic migration can be
motivated by various factors, such as the need for new land due to population growth, economic
reasons, nomadic culture, interaction with other groups, beliefs, and even conflict. These factors can
also influence the continuity or change of culture migrants bring from their origin. When examining
relations between different ethnicities, it is essential to consider two trends in constructing ethnic
identity. Romli (2015) describes this tendency as an exclusive and inclusive assessment. Exclusive
assessment prioritizes one's ethnicity and views inclusive ethnic groups as competitors. Meanwhile,
an objective assessment attitude is an attitude that considers all parties to have the same position
and equality with other parties.
Tracing history through human cultural artifacts is possible because they were created
according to the values and conditions of human thought and the environment of the era in which
the artifacts were created. Clifford Geertz defines culture as a pattern of meaning or ideas in
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 24
symbols through which people learn about life and express consciousness (Geertz, 1983). The
symbols in cultural products such as language, clothing, and customs can be used to trace the
interrelationship between the Minangkabau tribe and their early ancestors. This research focuses on
ethnic Chinese in the southern region of China.
III. Results and Discussion
Formation of Early Civilization in the Proto-Malay Migration Era
During the Proto-Malay wave, Austronesian peoples migrated to the archipelago between
2500 and 1500 BC (Ryan, 1976; Horridge, 2006). This migration is considered the beginning of the
two-wave theory of the origins of the Indonesian nation, which historians believe occurred during
the Neolithic cultural era. According to some historians, the area may have been inhabited by
indigenous people from the archipelago. These people are characterized by dark skin, curly hair,
and short stature. In the 19th century, historians, archaeologists, and colonial biologists theorized
that the archipelago's indigenous people were related to Africans (Jinam et al., 2017; Mahdi, 2017).
The groups that came from the north consisted of Austronesian peoples from Taiwan and
Southern China, as stated by Blench (2016). These two groups share common ancestors with 'pre-
Austronesian' people from mainland Fujian, China, and with the Dongson and Hoabinh groups from
the direction of Champa (Vietnam and Cambodia) (Bellwood, 1988; Barnard, 2004). The
distribution route is divided into two routes: one through Taiwan, spreading to the Philippines,
Sulawesi, Maluku, and Papua, and another through mainland South China to reach Indochina, the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Java (Simanjuntak, 2017). The assimilation and
acculturation of immigrants and native populations took place peacefully, as evidenced by the birth
of various ethnic groups in the archipelago and Polynesia. These groups are a mixture of
Austronesian, Negrito, and Melanesian relations. Immigrants and natives assimilate each other's
identities and blend.
Following the formation of Sumatran society as a result of this mixture, the ancestors of the
Sumatran people who belonged to the Proto-Malay group developed stone culture. This culture is
widely found in Southeast Asia, with the largest concentration in Western Indonesia. Prasetyo
explained that this stone culture is not the original culture of the Austronesian island group but
rather a culture acquired through subsequent interactions with new arrivals from mainland India and
China. Archaeological evidence in the form of large stones is rarely found in Thailand, Vietnam,
and the Philippines (Prasetyo, 2006; Tan, 2016). This stone cultural tradition is often found in
Polynesia and Micronesia, and is thought to have developed due to interactions between island
communities through shipping relations. The island's people developed a new culture, including
mystical beliefs in magical and natural powers associated with objects like boulders. This belief is
based on animism and dynamism (Liston & Rieth, 2010; Carson, 2012; Peterson, 2012; Richards et
al., 2015; Rainbird & Wilson, 2015; Watts et al., 2015).
In terms of architectural similarities, Austronesian groups in Taiwan, South China, the
Islands, and Polynesia had houses built on stilts. This design is intended to avoid natural disasters
such as floods and wild animals. The basement of the house was also used as a livestock pen. House
buildings are usually supported by pillars (Sato, 1991; Arbi et al., 2013) and consist of a main
house, living room, community room (called balai in the Minangkabau language), and a hut or food
storage area (in Minangkabau gadang houses it is called rankiang), lepau for food storage (or lapau
in Minangkabau language). Meanwhile, the terms kamalir room (men's room) and banua (group
area) are not used in Minangkabau houses (Fox, 1993; Blust & Trussel, 2013).
Archaeological findings reveal evidence of life in the Stone Age in the West Sumatra region,
specifically at the ancient site in Nagari Maek, Limapuluh Kota Regency. This site displays a vast
expanse of menhirs. The first Austronesian human groups to inhabit the region arrived via the South
China-Indochina-Malay Peninsula-East Sumatra route, and the prehistoric lands of West Sumatra
were located in the Maek area. It is still being determined whether the Austronesian people who
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founded the stone civilization in Nagari Maek were the ancestors of the Minangkabau people
known today. The prehistoric inhabitants of Nagari Maek are believed to be related to the
Austronesian tribes of the Proto-Malay wave, including the Batak in North Sumatra and the
Mentawai in Mentawai, West Sumatra. It is uncertain whether the structure of Minangkabau
society, as it is known today, existed in the Stone Age. Historians and anthropologists include
Minangkabau in the Deutero Malay group.
Figure 1. Menhir Situ in Nagari Maek. Source: (Katik News, 2021) .
The Formation of West Sumatran Civilization in the Era of Deutero-Malay Migration
Deutero Malay Wave was marked by the emergence of the Austronesian civilization, which
shifted from stone culture to the management of metals such as iron and bronze (Ooi, 2004). This
metal processing culture originated from Mainland Asia and spread through the South Indochina-
Malay Peninsula-Nusantara route and the previous wave's entry route. This second wave of society
no longer lives a nomadic life. They began to settle and cultivate their agricultural land using more
advanced equipment than in the Stone Age. They formed their villages, especially near water
sources such as rivers, lakes, and coastlines, and interacted with other immigrants, primarily
through waterways. This society is considered the ancestor of today's Malay society, including the
Minangkabau society (Bakar, 2002).
Apart from metal management, this wave of development also led to the emergence of
language and script among Austronesian people. The script used by this family is the result of
interactions with other cultures (Fischer, 1997). For example, Austronesian people in Southeast
Asia obtained their first letter of the alphabet after interacting with Ancient Indian people who had
Abugida, Brahmi, Grantha, and Pallawa scripts. This process aligns with the Indianization of
Austronesian peoples in Southeast Asia. The shape of the characters is adapted to the writing media
used; round characters are often found in soft writing media, and sharp characters are often found in
complex writing media. They were intended to write about worldly, medical, and even mystical
matters (Adelaar, 2005). The route of distribution of this ancient Indian script also passed through
Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, and the Indonesian Archipelago.
The Minangkabau script is also found in the Tambo book in Nagari Pariangan and Nagari
Sulik Aia. This script is similar to the Lontara script used by the Bugis tribe. The language used in
the Tambo manuscript, written in Minangkabau script, is Minangkabau. Gradually the Minangkabau
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 26
script was lost due to external influences, such as the adoption of the Pallawa script during the
Hindu Pagaruyuang era and the Malay Arabic script ( Jawi Arabic) during the Islamization period.
Figure 2. Minangkabau Script. Source: (Limbago: Majalah Adat dan Kebudayaan Minangkabau No.
5 Tahun 1987).
Note: This is a script found in Nagari Tuo Pariangan. This script is also found in the Baanjuang
Museum at the Kinantan Zoo in Bukittinggi.
As an ethnic group classified as Deutero Malay, the Minangkabau tribe already has its script;
however, the Anak Dalam tribe (formerly known as Kubu), which identifies itself as a community
group tied to the Minangkabau tribe, does not have a similar script. They do not even make the
buffalo the symbol of their tribe, even though they claim to share the same leadership under the
Pagaruyung Kingdom in Minangkabau. Extensive research has been conducted on the Anak Dalam
tribe, focusing on their history and relationship with the Minangkabau tribe and their transition from
a nomadic to a settled tribe. Based on the findings obtained, it is proven that the Anak Dalam tribe
is not among the Austronesian immigrants who came from the Southern China region. The tribe still
belongs to the Weddoid racial group because of their short stature, dark skin, and curly hair
(Auliahadi & Pratama, 2023). Historians and anthropologists argue that the Indonesian archipelago
was once inhabited by a race of dark-skinned, short-bodied, curly-haired humans related to the
African Negrito, before the arrival of the Proto-Malay group (Jinam et al., 2017; Mahdi, 2017).
When comparing the Anak Dalam tribe with Austronesian tribes such as the Batak, Nias, and
Mentawai, it is important to note that although they adhere to animist beliefs and dynamism, they
do not come from the same ancestral line and have different cultures. The Anak Dalam tribe
adheres to matrilineal customs. Apart from that, the stone civilization in Nagari Maek seems to have
nothing to do with the Anak Dalam tribe. Based on my research experience in the field, it appears
that the Anak Dalam Tribe adheres to animistic beliefs and dynamism, which they express by
attaching themselves to the natural surroundings such as hills, forests, plants, and animals. Not
expressed in rock media. The humans who had previously formed civilization in Nagari Maek had
spread to other areas to form new settlements. Therefore, the Anak Dalam tribe was already the
The South China Roots of Minangkabau Culture: An Anthropological and Historical Study
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 27
original population of Sumatra Island before the arrival of the Proto-Malay group and long before
the wave of Deutero Malays who became the ancestors of the Minangkabau people.
I use the 'Sundaland Distribution' theory developed by Stephen Oppenheimer to support my
theory. Oppenheimer provides his explanation of the indigenous peoples of the Indonesian
archipelago. He stated that there was once land in Southeast Asia called Sundaland, which
connected Kalimantan, Sumatra, Java, and the Malay Peninsula. Part of this land sank and
separated, resulting in the current configuration. Oppenheimer explained that the existing
communities remained in their respective areas and were not submerged. Others spread to other
lands, including the Asian continent (Palmer, 2007; Soares, 2008; Abdullah, 2009; Oppenheimer &
Enfield, 2011).
Minangkabau ancestors were among the many people who built civilization in West Sumatra.
Before his arrival, there were Indigenous Peoples, including the Anak Dalam Tribe, and the Proto
Malay group who formed civilization in Nagari Maek. The Minangkabau people came 'late' in the
Deutero Malay wave, originating from India and South China. Therefore, the customs and culture
of the Anak Dalam tribe do not include the use of buffalo or their attributes as symbols, in contrast
to the Minangkabau people.
Minangkabau Culture Adopting Southern Chinese Tribal Culture?
Awil (2017) discovered interesting information about the Zhuang Tribe, the largest ethnic
minority in Guangxi, during his visit to the region. The Zhuang tribe is a minority group located in
southern China. The Zhuang people are the largest ethnic minority in the Guangxi autonomous
region. They are also spread across the Yunnan, Guangdong, Guizhou, and Hunan regions. In the
Aswil tourism experience in the city of Guangxi, there was an interesting phenomenon: several
portraits of the life of the Zhuang people have similar cultural values to the Minangkabau people.
In his research, Aswil saw that this tribe's traditional clothing was similar to the traditional
clothing worn by the Minangkabau people, especially the use of buffalo horn elements. While
visiting Longji PingAn village, also known as 'sawah terasering, he passed through the Sangjiang
County area and observed that the local residents had the habit of worshiping buffalo. Additionally,
two giant buffalo statues can be found in the area mall. The Zhuang deeply respect the buffalo and
consider it a symbol of their society. Apart from that, the Zhuang people used buffalo to plow the
fields.
Figure 3. Buffalo Statue in Sangjiang County, China. Source: (Aswil, 2017)
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 28
Aswil (2017) found additional information about the tribe's traditional dish, baked in bamboo,
which is similar to how Minangkabau food is served (called lamang). In addition, some tribal
women in China wear head coverings in the shape of buffalo palanquins, similar to the tikuluak and
suntiang head coverings worn by Minangkabau women. The traditional clothing of men from the
Zhuang and Dong tribes is similar to that of Minangkabau men, especially during ceremonies and
traditional arts such as silek and randai. In the traditional house section, the Zhuang tribe's
traditional house also follows the stilt house style. It leaves a ksoong space under the house, in
accordance with the characteristics of Austronesian traditional houses. However, the roof is not
shaped like buffalo horns like the bagonjong roofs of gadang houses in Minangkabau land.
Figure 4. Comparison of Minangkabau and Chinese Traditional Wedding Clothing. Source: (Aswil,
2017)
Note: Minangkabau clothing is on the left, traditional Chinese clothing is on the right.
Figure 5. Comparison of Traditional Minangkabau and Chinese Wedding Women's Clothing.
Source: (Aswil, 2017).
Note: Minangkabau clothing is on the left (Tikuluak and Suntiang), traditional Chinese clothing is
on the right.
Figure 6. Comparison of Minangkabau Men's Traditional Clothing and Men in Yunnan, South
China. Source: (Aswil, 2017)
Note: Minangkabau clothing is on the left and traditional Chinese clothing is on the right.
The South China Roots of Minangkabau Culture: An Anthropological and Historical Study
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 29
Figure 7. Comparison of Minangkabau and Zhuang Buffalo Fighting Traditions. Source: (Aswil,
2017)
Note: Minangkabau (left) and Chinese (right) buffalo fighting.
Additionally, the Zhuang have ethnic relatives, particularly the Nùng tribe of Vietnam (West,
2010). The Nùng tribe in Vietnam experienced a shift in identity due to political pressure from the
majority group in Vietnam. Previously, they were considered immigrants from Southern China by
Vietnamese people. However, they are now recognized as native to Vietnam (Barlow, 1987). The
Zhuang have abandoned their matrilineal culture. These genealogical traces show that the Zhuang
tribe is descended from the Lạc Việt tribe in the North Vietnam region, whose social system
inherited power through the maternal line or matriarchy (Chaisingkananont, 2014). Land ownership
in the Lạc community is communal and not based on individuals. Inheritance rights to land are
given to men and women. In contrast to Chinese society, where sons inherit wealth through their
fathers, in Lạc society both men and women inherit wealth through their mothers (Taylor, 2013).
Furthermore, it is worth noting that women of the Lạc tribe held high positions in society
(Tessitore, 1989). The Lạc Việt tribe adheres to a matrilocal society system, where a husband and
wife live together or near the wife's parents. As a result, the female descendants of a mother
continue to live in or near the mother's house, forming an extended clan family. After marriage, the
couple often lives with the wife's family. It is important to note that Proto-Vietnamese society was
also matrilineal (O’Harrow, 1979). The status of Lạc rulers was passed down through the maternal
line, and women had inheritance rights. In addition, they practiced levirate, which allowed widows
to marry male relatives of their late husbands. This practice ensures an heir for the mother, protects
the interests of widows, and reflects women's authority. However, some patriarchal societies use it
to maintain wealth in the male family line (De Vos & Slote, 1998; Taylor, 2013; Kiernan, 2019).
The Zhuang tribe follows a matrilineal system in which bloodlines are traced through both male and
female members. Men are actively involved in raising children and usually live with their wives'
families rather than forming their own families (Encyclopedia.com, 2024).
However, the Zhuang tribe no longer practices matrilineal descent. This change is believed to
be due to the political domination of China's other majority ethnic group, namely the Han people.
The Zhuang tribe has had a long history of interaction with the Han tribe since 202 BC – 202 AD
and the two groups have been in intense competition since ancient times. In the past, Northern
Chinese ethnic groups, particularly the Han, held negative views of the Zhuang due to the
prominent social status of Zhuang women (Encyclopedia.com, 2024). Following a conflict between
the two tribes in 1055, the Zhuang were defeated and assimilated into Han culture (West, 2010).
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 30
Interpretation of the Migration Journey of Minangkabau Ancestors in Tambo
In Tambo, Iskandar Zulkarnain is said to be a descendant of the Prophet Adam; during his
life, he had three children, who then spread and founded their own civilizations in various parts of
the world. Among them are Nan Tuo Maharadjo Alif, who spread towards the Rum Continent, Nan
Tangah Maharadjo Depang who headed to China, and the youngest Nan Maharadjo Diradjo who
headed to Tanah Basa (India) then headed to Paco Island which is now mainland Sumatra, and
anchored precisely at Mount Marapi land (Basa & Permato, 1966). According to Tambo, the
ancestors of the Minangkabau tribe were immigrants who had traveled long distances before
arriving on the mainland of Sumatra. On his journey, King Maharadja Diradja was accompanied by
his advisor, Cati Bilang Pandai, and four of his bodyguards: Anjing Mualim (from India), Kambiang
Hutan (from Champa), Harimau Champo (from Champa), and Kuciang Siam (from Siam, Thailand
- Indochina). Please pay attention to the quotations in the Tambo which are quoted from the Tambo
manuscript Minangkabau Law belonging to Surau Parak Laweh, Nagari Tuo Pariangan:
a. The story of the birth of Iskandar Zulkarnain in Tambo:
Adapun tatkala bumi akan terkembang, tatkala Adam akan bertemu akan tapaku isi
dunia ialah anak cucu Adam ‘alaihisalam datang jadi Raja ialah anak Adam nan bungsu.
Adapun anak Adam ‘alaihi salam tiga puluh sembilan orang bernikah antara satu anak
kepada satu anak, maka tiada boleh istri anak adam nan bungsu maka dikirimkan oleh
malaikat kepada awang-kemawang, maka heranlah Adam dengan Hawa dan anaknya. Maka
bertiup angin dalam surga, maka dipalu gendang surga tabuh, maka bertiup serunai
sirundang kacang, dan rebana dan kecapi, maka terkembanglah payung obor, maka menari
segala anak akan bidadari dalam surga, karena suka melihat anak Adam dari awang-
kemawang dari langit yang ketujuh, maka bergoyang yang kayu Sidratul Muntaha. Maka
terbuka pintu baitul ma’mur, maka segala Malaikat itu pergi kepada anak Adam itu, maka
sama-sama memegangkan tangannya dan kakinya maka menangislah Adam serta Hawa anak
beranak kepada langit maka dilihat mereka itu anak itu bertanduk emas sejati. (As for when
the earth will develop when Adam meets my father, the contents of the world will be the
grandchildren of Prophet Adam, who will come to be King, namely Adam's youngest son. As
for the sons of Adam 'alaihi salam, thirty-nine people married one child to another, so the wife
of Adam's youngest child was not permitted so the angel sent them to Awang-Kewang, so
Adam was amazed at Eve and her children. Then the wind blows in heaven, then the drums of
heaven are hammered, then the drums of the peanuts, the tambourine and the harp blow, then
the umbrella of torches spreads, then all the children dance and become angels in heaven,
because they like to see the children of Adam from the clouds of the seventh heaven. , then
the Sidratul Muntaha wooden one sways. Then the door of Baitul Ma'mur opened, then all the
angels went to the son of Adam, and they both held his hands and feet, so Adam and Eve
cried to the sky, and they saw that the child had real golden horns).
Maka takutlah dia, maka kedengaran suatu suara dari pada Pucuk Bukit Kaf, maka
menangislah Adam serta anak beranak kepada Bukit Kaf itu. Maka melihat Adam akan anak-
beranak diatas bukit itu, seperti buih di laut putihnya. Maka heranlah Adam serta Hawa
anak-beranak, maka meminta doalah ia kepada Allah ta’ala “Ya Rabbi al-‘alamin pertemuan
jua hamba serta anak cucu hamba”. Maka hampirlah turun kedunia, maka laut itupun
berombak, maka ikan yang beri bernama Nun pun menyambar, maka bergerak bumi
semuanya antah-berantah rasanya alam. Sebab itulah bernama Tanah Rum bermuka kata
segala anak Adam yang laki-laki serta ibu bapanya. Maka sudipun kita melihat rupanya
maka Malaikatpun menurunkan anak Adam itu kepada bumi yang suci antara Pasirik jo
Pasiruang antara masyriq dan magrib, antara timur dan selatan, antara Bukit Siguntang
Penjaringan, ialah akan namanya Tanah Rum. Maka di keluarkan Allah anak Indera Cati
salapan orang, bernama Cati Dipasudi dia lagi banyak lagi manis mulutnya itulah nan jadi
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angkat-angkatan sembah Adam itu. (So he was afraid, and then he heard a voice from the top
of Mount Kaf, so Adam and his children cried on Mount Kaf. So Adam saw children on the
hill, like foam in the white sea. So Adam and Eve were surprised to have children, so they
asked Allah to pray, "O Rabbi al-'alamin, meet my servant and my children and
grandchildren." Then it almost came down to earth, then the sea was wavering, then the fish
called Nun grabbed, then the earth moved, everything felt like it was in the middle of
nowhere. That is why the name Land of Rum is said to be the name of all the sons of Adam
and their parents. So even if we look at it, the angel sent down Adam's child to the holy earth
between Pasirik and Pasiruang, between Mashriq and Maghrib, between East and South,
between Bukit Siguntang Penjaringan, which will be called the Land of Rum. So Allah gave
birth to the child of Indra, Cati, named Cati Dipasudi. She had much sweetness in her mouth
and became the adopter of Adam's worship).
Maka berkampunglah segala anak Adam itu. Semuanya berkata kepada saudaranya
takut kami akan tanduknya, itu maka dikeratnya tanduk itu sekerat jadi mangkuto
sangkahani, sekerat jadi lembarang/lambanglamiri sekali, sekerat jadi sirih orang tampuknya
kuning, gagangnya merah rupanya, parutannya jadi tembaga seramaian koto. Turunlah
Malaikat dari pada langit yang ketujuh akan menamai tanduk itu maka dinamai oleh
Malaikat akan tanduk itu ialah bernama Dzulqornain, yang mempunyai dua kerajaan dunia
artinya masyriq dan magrib. Maka dinamai oleh Malaikat Raja Iskandar namanya,
Dzulqornain gelarnya. (So, all of Adam's children settled down. Everyone said to their
brothers that they were afraid of us for their horns, so they cut off a piece of the horn to make
it a mangkuto sangkahani, a piece of it to become a lemang/symbol of lamiri once, a piece of
it to become a betel nut, the tampuk is yellow, the handle is apparently red, the grate is made
of copper like a koto. An angel came down from the seventh heaven and named the horn, so
the angel named the horn Dzulqornain, which has two world kingdoms, Mashriq and
Maghrib. So it was named by the Angel King Iskandar, Dzulqornain his title).
b. The story of the distribution of Iskandar Zulkarnain's children:
Maka beranak raja itu tiga orang sekali seorang bernama Sultan Maharaja, anak nan
surang bernama Sultan Maharaja Diraja, nan seorang bernama Sultan Maharaja Dipang.
Maka sampai baligh ketiganya, maka memandang daulat yang dipituan/dipertuan ke masyriq
tentang itu (...) semuanya, maka memandang ia ke Selatan tentang itu (...) semuanya, maka
memandang ia ke dataran tentang itu semuanya. Maka mufakat ketiganya kemana akan
berjalan, maka ia ke magrib maka terbitlah api antara Bukit Siguntang maha tinggi, ialah
dalam Laut Selatan. Maka seorang hendak mangkuto sungguhan, maka berebut ketiganya
maka maka jatuhlah ke dalam laut. Maka dibuat hasil (...), maka di suruh Cati Bilang Pandai
maka dilihatnya mangkuto itu sudahlah di palaut (...) (...). Maka kembali Cati Bilang Pandai
maka tiadalah diatas perahu maka di dapati daulat yang dipituan dengan seorang ialah
bernama Sri Maharaja Diraja. Maka berpekara Cati Bilang pandangpun melihat emas sejati,
maka diperbuat mangkuto sudah tukang babunuh tidak boleh di tiru lai. Maka heranlah raja
nan baru itu, maka merentaklah akan berlayar nan surang Maharajo Alif, nan pai ka banda
Ruhum, nan surang Maharajo Dipang nan pai ka Nagari Cino, nan surang Maharajo Dirajo
manapek ka pulau ameh nan ko. (So the King had three children: one named Sultan Maharaja,
another child named Sultan Maharaja Diraja, and another named Sultan Maharaja Dipang. So
until his third puberty, then he looked at the ruler who was dipituan/dipertuan to the masyriq
about it (...) everything, then he looked to the South about it (...) everything, then he looked at
the plain about it all. So the three of them agreed on where to go, so they went to sunset and a
fire rose between the highest Siguntang Hill, which was in the South Sea. Then one of them
wanted to mangkuto for real, so the three of them fought over each other, and then they fell
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into the sea. So the result was made (...), then he told Cati Bilang Clever, so he saw that the
mangkuto was already in palaut (...) (...). So again, Cati Bilang Pandai was off the boat and
found the sovereign, who was married to Sri Maharaja Diraja. So Cati said that even if you
look at it, you see real gold; what a murderer has done to a mangkuto, he must not imitate it.
So the new King was amazed, so he set sail to Surang Maharajo Alif, Nan Pai to Banda
Ruhum, Nan Surang Maharajo Dipang, Nan Pai to Nagari Cino, Nan Surang Maharajo Dirajo
Manapek to Pulau Ameh Nan Ko).
c. The story of Sulan Maharajo Dirajo's arrival to Marapi:
Maka berlebur Sultan Sri Maharaja Diraja ke Pulau Jawa orang serta serta pengiring
Anjing Mu’alim, seekor Kucing Siam, seekor Harimau Campa, seekor Kambing Hutan. Maka
(...) perahu kayu jati, maka berlebur dari sananya, maka tibalah di pucuk Pulau Emas maka
pecah perahu di Gunung Sinarung. Maka mufakat (...) karena takut pada titah raja, maka
berpikir Cati Bilang Pandai akan perbaiki kayu perahu itu. Maka minta daulat yang dipituan
kepada aku ambilah jadi menantu maka segala isi perahu itu apabila baik perahu itu
kembali kepada tempatnya, maka aku ambil lah engkau jadi menantu. Maka mari marilah
segala yang berakal dalam perahu maka di perbaiki kayu perahu itu maka kembali kepada
tempatnya. (So Sultan Sri Maharaja Diraja merged with the people on the island of Java and
was accompanied by Mu'alim's dog, a Siamese cat, a Campa tiger, and a forest goat. So (...)
the teak wood boat melted from there, then arrived at the top of Gold Island and the boat
broke apart on Mount Sinarung. So they reached a consensus (...) because they feared the
King's order. Cati Bilang Pandai thought he would repair the boat's wood. So ask the
sovereign given to me to take you as my son-in-law. If all the boat's contents are reasonable, it
will return to its place, and then I will take you as my son-in-law. So come, let everything that
has sense in the boat repair the wood of the boat and return it to its place).
Maka heranlah raja itu, maka Allah ta’ala kasih akan raja itu, maka jadikan Allah anak
cu Adam empat orang manusia, lima dengan anak raja maka berlayarlah raja maka
berlayarlah raja ke Pulau Jawa, maka berbalik dari pada nan Negeri Jawa kembali kepada
Gunung Marapi sinar berasa. Maka anak itu sampai bilangnya maka dinikahkan anak itu
lima orang perempuan serta lima orang laki-laki nan perbaiki kayu perahu tadi...
Menjadikan Manusia Kambing itu, megadakan manusia seorang Harimau Campa itu,
mengadakan manusia seorang Kucing Siam, mengadakan manusia seorang maka perempuan,
Raja mengadakan manusia seorang. (So the King was amazed, then Allah loved the King, so
Allah made four human children from Adam, five with the King's children, so the King sailed,
then the King sailed to the island of Java, then he turned from the land of Java back to Mount
Marapi. The light feels. So the child said that the child was married off to five women and
five men who repaired the wood of the boat. He made a Goat Man; he made a Campa Tiger;
he made a Siamese Cat; he made a woman, and the King made a )man.
Maka lamalah antaranya sebulan jo dua bulan sampai empat. Sudah itu nikahi maka
bertanya minantu tadi, maka berapalah lamanya apabila ada engkau (...) adalah bicara
hamba. Maka sudahlah ditanyakan semuanya, maka berbagai jawabnya melainkan seorang
(...) dan (...). Maka raja itu ia nya berfikir dalam hatinya maka (...) antaranya maka lautpun
menyentak kering. Maka ditambahkan Allah jua dia kerah Tanah Datar dan sajurai ke Luak
Agam dan sajurai ke Ranah Lima Puluh. maka disuruhkan lima orang tadi, seorang ke ranah
tanah datar ialah anak (...) namanya, ke luak agam ialah harimau namanya, seorang ke
ranah lima puluh ialah anak kambing namanya, seorang ke koto laweh ialah anak kucing
tadi. (So the length is between a month and two months to four. If you're married, ask your
son-in-law how long it will be if you are there (...)? That's what I am talking about. So, after
asking everyone, there were various answers except one (...) and (...). So the King thought in
his heart, so (...) the sea suddenly dried up. So Allah also added him to the realm of Tanah
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Datar and sajurai to Luak Agam and sajurai to the realm of Fifty. So five people were sent,
one to the land of the plains was the child (...)'s name, one to the realm of the land was the
name of the tiger, one to the realm of the fifty was the goat's name, one to the Koto Laweh
was the kitten).
Maharadja Diradja and his advisor Cati Bilang Pandai traveled from India and stopped in the
South China region, in accordance with the Deutero-Malay Austronesian wave distribution theory.
It is possible that during this stopover, Mahardja Diradja's entourage made contact with matrilineal
tribes in Southern China, such as the Zhuang tribe, which has a culture similar to the Minangkabau.
It is possible that Maharadja Diradja's entourage assimilated into the matrilineal society in Southern
China and then adopted their culture. Then they moved south, near the Indochina region, where
Mahardja Diradja expanded his entourage by recruiting a group of people from that area. The
Tambo mentions the names of four bodyguards from Siam and Champa (Vietnam). Namely Mualim
Dog, Siamese Cat, Forest Kambiang, and Champa Tiger. They continued their journey towards the
archipelago through the Strait of Malacca. They entered the Minangkabau mainland via the East
coast of Sumatra (Siak and Kampar Route in Riau), which was later nicknamed East Minangkabau
in traditional Minangkabau concepts. Upon arrival at Mount Marapi, the settlers cleared land and
founded a new community named Nagari Pariangan. This settler began the 'true' civilization of the
Minangkabau ancestors.
The abovementioned theory shows that Maharaja Diradja's entourage was mixed with
matrilineal tribes in Southern China, such as the Zhuang tribe, and they adopted their local wisdom.
This theory is based on the concept of cultural acculturation. According to Rangkuti and Hasibuan
(2002), acculturation is the process of meeting two cultures, where there is a process of contact and
cultural borrowing while maintaining the characteristics of each culture. Koentjaraningrat (2009)
defines cultural acculturation as a social process that occurs when two groups come into contact
with their respective cultures. This foreign culture is gradually accepted and adopted into its own
culture without eliminating the previous culture.
According to this explanation, the Minangkabau ancestors were immigrants from outside the
Indonesian archipelago who mixed with Southern Chinese society and adhered to matrilineal
culture and descent, and mixed with Austronesian society who lived in the Indochina region
(Champa and Siam). Genealogically, the Minangkabau tribe and the Anak Dalam (Kubu) tribe have
different ancestral paths. The interaction process between the Minangkabau migrant community and
the interior indigenous communities, especially the Anak Dalam Tribe, runs smoothly in their
respective regions. This peaceful coexistence can be linked to using the same family lineage,
namely matrilineal.
Until the birth of the kingdom era in the land of Minangkabau, such as Pagaruyung, 'Orang
Asli', including the Anak Dalam tribe, were sheltered by the Pagaruyung Kingdom as part of the
Alam Minangkabau community. However, they finally separated from the Minangkabau world after
a traditional revolution led by the Padri movement, which integrated Minangkabau customs with
Islamic teachings. The Minangkabau script was replaced by the Malay Arabic script (Jawi Arabic)
during the intensive Islamization of the Minangkabau world. The Anak Dalam tribe, which was
affected by the chaotic Padri conflict and the Dutch invasion, decided to leave Pagaruyung's
authority because they wanted to maintain the beliefs of their ancestors (Pratama & Auliahadi,
2019; Auliahadi & Pratama, 2023).
As the great civilization of the Minangkabau people was formed, they were recognized as one
of the 19 largest tribes in the archipelago (Van Vollenhoven in Koentjaraningrat (2009)). The
Minangkabau tribe also has ties with Chinese civilization. In this new era, the civilization in
question may no longer be the traditional tribal society of Southern China. Instead, it may refer to
interactions with the mainland Chinese state, which established an enormous hegemony and had
powerful dynasties that took turns leading mainland China and dealing with other foreign states.
The Minangkabau tribe also took a similar approach by naming their traditional headdress after the
shirt, which is known as the baju guntiang cino.
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 34
Figure 8. Minangkabau Traditional Leader's Guntiang Cino Clothes
The Minangkabau people have close relations with China, this is reflected in various
traditional proverbs that describe Chinese people as brothers, inspiration and competitors. Several
Minangkabau proverbs highlight the Chinese influence in the carvings of their rumah gadang
(Agustina, Marthala, & Efrizal, 2010):
"The gadang basandi stone house, atok ijuak baukia walls, like a bakilau star. Agarwood
poles with sandalwood floors, tarali gadiang strung, bubuang burak ka tabang, paran ula
ngiang images. Various kinds of Cino carvings, batatah and aia ameh, salo manyalo and aia
silver. The story of karo bajuntai, anjuang batingkek baalun-alun, tampek paranginan puti
there. Lumbuang bajaja in the yard, rangkiang Tujuhah babarih, sabuah sibayau-bayau, for
panolong nan nan trade, sabuah sabuah lauik, for panolong korong jo kampung, lumbuang
nan a lot to feed kamanakan children" (“The traditional house is made of stone, the roof is
thatched, the walls are carved, like sparkling stars. Agarwood pillars, sandalwood floor, ivory
trellis strung. Burak-like ridges will fly, paran with images of snakes ringing. Various Chinese
carvings, inlaid with gold water, interspersed with silver water. Stories like dangling
monkeys, terraced platforms in a square, a place where princesses stay. The barns are lined up
in the yard, seven in a row, one is the bayau-bayau, to help the children of traders who pass
by, another is the sea turtle, to help the village people, there are lots of barns to feed the
children of their children)."
Rumah gadang displays carved motifs known as aka cino motifs . This motif has a Chinese
name (cino) and is a symbol of the strong tradition of wandering adhered to by both Chinese and
Minangkabau tribes. This motif reflects the persistence of the Minangkabau people in their
merantau culture. Therefore, this motif was given the name aka cino to honor the perseverance and
resilience of the Chinese people during their migration. A traditional Minangkabau proverb explains
the philosophical meaning of this aka cino motif:
“Ukia aka induak carvings, depictions of life and nature of nangko. aka nan is filled with
fruit, nan without aka bapiuah is like nan ayahai, traditional clothing jo limbago. At the
beginning of the maso, the first cino became the size, aka labiah bicaro sharp, baguru barajo
maso, painted with sabilah wood, figuratively pilin aka cino." (“Carvings of the main root are
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Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 35
carvings, depictions of the life of nature, the roots that are the fruit, the twisted roots visible,
figures like those worn, traditional clothing and institutions. In the early days, China was the
comparison; the mind was sharper, and learning was a king at that time, painted on one piece
of wood, a symbol of the twisting roots of China)."
Figure 9. Aka Cino motif
The tenacity, toughness, hard work, and steadfastness of the Chinese tribe during their
migration journey were immortalized by their Minangkabau ancestors in the form of a motif of
roots that spread and intertwine with each other. Even though the roots spread everywhere, the roots
and tubers remain unbroken. Likewise, ethnic Chinese have migrated far and wide but have not
been cut off from their cultural roots, traditions, and inherited language. The aka cino motif
symbolizes this unbreakable connection (Agustina et al., 2010).
IV. Conclusion
Explanations regarding the history of the Minangkabau tribe are generally still based on
Tambo sources. However, the use of Tambo as a primary historical reference is limited due to the
presence of myths and the need for literary interpretation. Tambo Minangkabau indirectly gives the
impression that Minangkabau ancestors were immigrants from outside the archipelago. This figure,
named Maharadja Diradja, is believed to have come from India. His journey continued through
Southern China and Indochina, where he recruited bodyguards from the local area. According to a
literature review, prehistoric South China and North Vietnam were inhabited by tribes who adhered
to a matrilineal family system, such as the Lạc Việt and Zhuang tribes. The Zhuang tribe compared
in this article inherited the matrilineal system from its parent tribe, the Lạc Việt tribe and formed
another identity in the form of respect for buffalo. The Mahardja Diradja group experienced
assimilation and adopted this system through interaction with the native population of South China.
He took this culture with him on his journey until he reached the Minangkabau area, where he
developed it further into the Minangkabau culture of today.
It is hoped that the theoretical implications of this research will elevate Tambo's position,
which is often "sidelined" because it is considered too fictional to be used as a source of scientific
reference. Understanding tambo in tracing Minangkabau history can be used with historical
research methods using cultural theory and anthropology. The recommendation for this research is
that works of traditional historiography, oral literature, or other works of local wisdom, both oral
Pratama, F. S. & Husni, N. I.
Multicultural Landscape Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 21-40, June 2024 | 36
and written, can be used as sources of scientific research by using analysis using relevant scientific
theories.
This research has limitations in its analysis because it is only based on literature findings
related to cultural and anthropological approaches. To increase accuracy, research on a society's
history should also include laboratory research using genetic samples.
V. Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank all the lecturers at the Faculty of Adab and Humanities, Imam
Bonjol State Islamic University, Padang, who were willing to provide time for discussion and
exchange of ideas to assist in the process of analyzing the findings of this research.
VI. Author Contributions Statement
FSP was responsible for conceptualization, design, data source collection, analysis, and
writing. NIH was responsible for source data collection, transliteration of the Tambo manuscripts
used, and analysis.
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