Risk and Protective Factors for Gambling Among Youth by origin: Findings from the three waves of cross-sectional Finnish School Health Promotion Study among 238,939 Students

Abstract

Gambling is a public health problem that can cause many kinds of harm. The aim of this study was to examine youth gambling by origin, and the risk and protective factors associated with it. The data was drawn from the School Health Promotion Study (n = 238,939) conducted in Finland, representative of the 14 to 16-year-old Finnish schoolchildren. Cross-tabulations and multivariate logistic regression were used in assessing the association between origin and weekly gambling. Interaction terms of origin and background variables related to substance use, peer and family relations and leisure time were then calculated to assess inter-group differences. The study showed that foreign-born, migrant origin and youth from mixed families were more likely to gamble weekly compared to youth with Finnish-born parents. The likelihood of gambling was particularly high among foreign-born and migrant-origin youth. Weekly gambling was significantly more common among boys than girls in all studied youth groups, and it was particularly common among foreign-born boys compared to other groups. Substance use was associated with weekly gambling and even more so among foreign-born youth. There were also differences by origin in the strength of association between other background factors and weekly gambling. Foreign-born boys appear to be especially vulnerable to multiple health and social risks including gambling, making them a particularly important group for targeted preventive programs. Preventive efforts are needed to enhance public awareness, boost parental supervision, and limit gambling-related risks. Special attention is needed to prevent migrant-origin boys from developing problems with gambling.

Full text

Vol.:(0123456789)
Journal of Gambling Studies (2024) 40:1905–1919
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-024-10321-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Risk andProtective Factors forGambling Among Youth
byorigin: Findings fromthethree waves ofcross‑sectional
Finnish School Health Promotion Study among238,939
Students
KirsimarjaRaitasalo1,2 · JohannaJärvinen‑Tassopoulos1,3 · ShadiaRask1,3 ·
NataliaSkogberg1,3
Accepted: 12 May 2024 / Published online: 29 July 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
Abstract
Gambling is a public health problem that can cause many kinds of harm. The aim of this study
was to examine youth gambling by origin, and the risk and protective factors associated with
it. The data was drawn from the School Health Promotion Study (n = 238,939) conducted in
Finland, representative of the 14 to 16-year-old Finnish schoolchildren. Cross-tabulations and
multivariate logistic regression were used in assessing the association between origin and
weekly gambling. Interaction terms of origin and background variables related to substance
use, peer and family relations and leisure time were then calculated to assess inter-group
differences. The study showed that foreign-born, migrant origin and youth from mixed
families were more likely to gamble weekly compared to youth with Finnish-born parents.
The likelihood of gambling was particularly high among foreign-born and migrant-origin
youth. Weekly gambling was significantly more common among boys than girls in all studied
youth groups, and it was particularly common among foreign-born boys compared to other
groups. Substance use was associated with weekly gambling and even more so among foreign-
born youth. There were also differences by origin in the strength of association between
other background factors and weekly gambling. Foreign-born boys appear to be especially
vulnerable to multiple health and social risks including gambling, making them a particularly
important group for targeted preventive programs. Preventive efforts are needed to enhance
public awareness, boost parental supervision, and limit gambling-related risks. Special
attention is needed to prevent migrant-origin boys from developing problems with gambling.
Keywords Gambling· Adolescents· Immigrant background· Survey· Finland
* Kirsimarja Raitasalo
kirsimarja.raitasalo@thl.fi
1 Finnish Institute forHealth andWelfare, Helsinki, Finland
2 University ofEastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
3 Faculty ofSocial Sciences, Centre forResearch On Addiction, Control, andGovernance,
University ofHelsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Introduction
Gambling is a public health problem that can cause social, economic, mental health
and health-related harms to individuals and their significant others (Price et al., 2021).
Persons at a higher risk of vulnerabilities, including youth and persons of migrant origin
are disproportionally more likely to gamble than other population groups (Campisi et al.,
2017; Raisamo et al., 2020). Early initiation to gambling, which may occur through one’s
own gambling at a young age or exposure to parents’ gambling or problem gambling,
has been shown to predispose individuals to problems later in life (Donati et al., 2021;
Spångberg & Svensson, 2022). In addition to adverse social, economic and health impacts,
problematic gambling among youth can have a negative impact on their development and
school performance and may increase their risk of other addictions (Armitage, 2021).
Gambling has previously been reported to be more common among youth in Finland
than in most other European countries. On average, 14 percent of European adolescents
in 2019 had gambled within the preceding year, while in Finland the corresponding
proportion was 24 percent (ESPAD Group, 2020). In most European countries including
Finland, all types of gambling are prohibited for minors (Spångberg & Svensson, 2022).
However, previous studies have shown that despite these age limits, European youth still
gamble, both offline and online (Andrie et al., 2019; ESPAD Group, 2020; Molinaro
et al., 2018). Youth are exposed to gambling in various ways, e.g., through marketing,
but also while watching sports and playing online games featuring an in-game gambling
option (Armitage, 2021; Thomas et al., 2023). Furthermore, many countries have a
rather permissive gambling culture, as gambling is seen as a socially accepted form of
entertainment (Derevensky et al., 2005).
Inequalities in health and wellbeing are found in the School Health Promotion Study
with foreign-born youth faring worse than Finnish-born peers across various indicators of
wellbeing. Key risk factors related to the family include parents’ prolonged unemployment,
low education level, and financial problems, as well as parental mental health and other
health problems, or being a single parent (Kääriälä et al., 2020). Individuals of migrant
origin are at a greater risk of unemployment, more likely to be overqualified for their jobs,
and over-represented in low-paid jobs and in-work poverty as compared to their native-
born peers (e.g., Bárcena-Martín & Pérez-Moreno, 2017; Kaida, 2015; OECD, 2017).
Overall, earnings and employment improve with time spent in the country, but the native-
migrant gap often remains in Finland as well (OECD, 2018). Long-term poverty is known
to be detrimental for various outcomes, and even across generations (Lesner, 2018).
Engagement in gambling activities in adolescence has been shown to be associated
with the use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit substances (Castrén et al., 2015, 2021).
Peers also have an important role in and a strong influence on risky behaviors in
adolescence, such as substance use and gambling (Delfabbro et al., 2016; Helmer
et al., 2021; Kristjansson et al., 2013; Zhai et al., 2017). Furthermore, research on
parenting styles has shown that consistency in parenting, parental monitoring and a
positive relationship with parents are important factors that protect youth from various
problematic behaviors, including gambling (Sobotková et al., 2013; Canale et al., 2016;
Kveton & Jelınek, 2016; Molinaro et al., 2018; Kapetanovic et al., 2020; Pisarska &
Ostaszewski, 2020). Individual behaviors such as going out in the evening also increased
the likelihood of being a gambler (Molinaro et al., 2018). These risk and protective
factors may be differently associated with gambling in different migrant-origin groups
(Järvinen-Tassopoulos & Raitasalo, 2017).
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While gender and age are the two socio-demographic factors that have been
consistently shown to be associated with youth gambling and problem gambling,
surprisingly little research has been carried out on the topic among migrant-origin
youth. In countries where migration is a fairly recent phenomenon, the number of
participants of migrant origin has been very small. Also, few studies have used data
which distinguishes between so-called first- and second-generation migrants, and
children born into mixed families (Campisi et al., 2017).
Despite the growing size of the migrant-origin population in Finland (458,000, 8.3%
of the Finnish population at the end of 2021) (https:// www. stat. fi.), only a few studies
have reported differences in risk behaviors between native and migrant origin youth in
the Finnish context (e.g., Matikka et al., 2014; Kataja et al., 2022). According to the
Finnish School Health Promotion Study 2013, migrant-origin youth gambled (any kind
of gambling product) more often than Finnish-origin youth. A gradient in gambling
was reported according to origin. Foreign-born youth reported higher prevalence of
gambling compared to youth of migrant origin born in Finland, youth born into mixed
families and youth with Finnish-born parents. The probability of gambling was higher
among foreign-born youth who have lived in Finland for less than 10 years. In all
groups of origin, gambling was associated with substance use (Räsänen et al., 2016).
Another study based on Finnish data from the European School Survey on Alcohol
and Drugs Project (ESPAD) focusing on slot machine gambling among youth also
included analyses by gender and found no differences between migrant and Finnish-
origin boys, whereas gambling was significantly more common among migrant-origin
girls compared to Finnish-origin girls (Järvinen-Tassopoulos & Raitasalo, 2017). Still, a
comprehensive understanding of factors associated with gambling by origin is lacking.
This study is set in Finland, a Nordic country characterized by a generous welfare
state, a relatively high level of income equality, and comparatively well-developed
policies for migrant integration (Malmusi et al., 2010). The Finnish gambling system
is based on a state monopoly, and since 2017, there has been only one state-owned
gambling company (Veikkaus). Since 2011, the age limit of all types of gambling has
been 18 years. A particular characteristic of Finland is the prevalence of electronic
gambling machines in everyday locations, such as supermarkets, kiosks, and gas stations
(Järvinen-Tassopoulos et al., 2021).
In this study, we are interested in whether there are differences in the probability
of gambling among youth by origin. We also aim to shed light on different risk and
protective factors associated with gambling among youth and whether these differ by
origin. We expect to find variation in the prevalence of gambling across the studied
groups, with gambling being more prevalent among migrant-origin than among Finnish-
origin youth. We also expect to find gender differences, with gambling being more
prevalent among boys than girls in all of the studied groups.
The research questions are:
1. Are there differences in the prevalence of weekly gambling between different migrant-
origin and Finnish-origin youth groups?
2. How are other known risk and protective factors for gambling (substance use, sports
activity, school orientation, general health, life satisfaction and peer- and family-related
factors) associated with weekly gambling and do these possible associations differ by
origin?
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Methods
Sample
This study utilized data from the Finnish School Health Promotion Study (SHP)
administered by the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare from three cross-sectional data
collection waves in 2017, 2019 and 2021 (THL, 2023). SHP gathers information on well-
being, health, schoolwork, attendance and participation of children and adolescents and
has been administered every second year since 2013. All students in Finland in 4th, 5th,
8th and 9th grades in primary education and 1st and 2nd year students in upper secondary
schools and vocational schools are invited to participate in the study. Students responded
anonymously, independently, and voluntarily during the school day under supervision.
Data were collected with an online or a paper and pencil survey. The study was conducted
according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics
Board of the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.
The data used in this study consists of the answers of the 14 to 16-year-old students
studying in the 8th and 9th grade in primary school from three consecutive data collection
years: 2017 (N = 68 992, data coverage 64%), 2019 (N = 82 875, data coverage 75%) and
2021 (N = 87 072, data coverage 77%). These three data sets were pooled together to get
more respondents in each origin-based subgroup of students.
Measures
Outcome Variables
Weekly gambling was assessed with the question ‘How often do you gamble?’ (‘6–7days a
week’, ‘3–5days a week’, ‘1–2days a week’, ‘less often than once a week’, ‘less often than
once a month’, ‘I have not gambled during the past year’. Those responding, ‘6–7days a
week’, ‘3–5days a week’ or ‘1–2days a week’, were defined as weekly gamblers.
Independent Variables
Origin was categorized based on respondents’ own and their parents’ country of birth: 1)
respondent and both parents born in Finland (later in the text referred to as youth with
Finnish-born parents); 2) respondent with one parent born abroad, other parent born in
Finland (later in the text referred to as ‘youth from mixed families’); 3) respondent born
in Finland with both parents foreign-born (later in the text referred to as ‘migrant-origin
youth’), 4) respondent and both parents foreign-born (later in the text referred to as
‘foreign-born youth’).
Heavy episodic drinking (HED) during the past 30days was measured by asking ‘How
often do you consume alcohol until you are heavily drunk?’ (‘once a week or more often’,
‘about 1 to 2 times a month’, ‘less frequently’, ‘never’). The responses were collapsed into
a dichotomous variable (0 = ‘no’, 1 = ‘once or more often’).
Daily smoking was assessed with the question ‘Which of the following responses best
describe your current smoking habits?’ (‘I smoke once a day or more often’, ‘I smoke once
a week or more often, but not every day’, ‘I smoke less often than once a week’, ‘I have
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quit smoking’.) Those who responded ‘I smoke once a day or more often’ were defined as
‘daily smokers’.
Lifetime drug use was measured using the following series of questions: ‘Have you
ever tried or used…?’ a) marijuana or hashish (cannabis), b) ecstasy, c) amphetamines, d)
subutex, e) heroin, f) cocaine, g) LSD, h) gamma or similar narcotic substances. (‘never’,
‘once’, ‘2–4 times’, ‘5 times or more’). Those who selected any other response than ‘never’
for any of these questions were defined as ‘lifetime drug users’.
Weekly sports activity was assessed with the question ‘How often do you exercise or
participate in sports a) led by an instructor or b) on your own initiative in your leisure
time?’ (‘almost daily’, ‘every week’, ‘every month’, ‘less frequently’, ‘never’). Those who
responded ‘almost daily’ or ‘every week’ to either of these options were defined as ‘active
in sports’.
Liking school was defined using the question ‘How do you like school at this moment?
I like school… (‘very much’, ‘quite a lot’, ‘fairly little’, ‘not at all’). Those who responded
‘very much’ or ‘quite a lot’ were defined as ‘liking school’.
The students were asked ‘How satisfied are you with your life at the moment?’ (‘Very
satisfied’, ‘Fairly satisfied’, ‘Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied’, ‘Fairly dissatisfied’, ‘Very
dissatisfied’. Those who responded ‘Very satisfied’ or ‘Fairly satisfied’ were defined as
being ‘satisfied with life’.
General health was assessed with the question ‘How is your health in general?’ (‘very
good’, ‘fairly good’, ‘average’, ‘fairly or very bad’). Those who responded ‘very good’ or
‘fairly good’ were defined as ‘being in good health’.
Having close friends was defined using the question ‘At the moment, do you have a
close friend with whom you can talk confidentially about almost everything concerning
yourself?’ (‘I do not have any close friends’, ‘I have one close friend’, ‘I have two close
friends’, ‘I have several close friends’). Those who selected any response other than ‘I do
not have any close friends’ were defined as ‘having close friends’.
Dialogical connection with parents was assessed with the question ‘Can you talk about
things that concern you with your parents?’ (‘Hardly ever’, ‘Occasionally’, ‘Fairly often’,
‘Often’). Those who selected any other response than ‘hardly ever’ were defined as ‘having
a dialogical connection’.
The family’s financial situation was defined as ‘good’ if the student chose either of the
two first response options to the question ‘How would you rate your family’s financial
situation?’ (‘Very good’, ‘Fairly good’, ‘Moderate’, ‘Fairly poor’, ‘Very poor’).
Sex (boy/girl) was based on self-report.
The variables with their distributions used in the analysis are presented by study year in
Table1.
Statistical analysis
Cross-tabulations were used to study how weekly gambling as well as the selected back-
ground factors were distributed among youth by origin and gender. Multivariate logistic
regression was used in assessing the association between origin and weekly gambling. All
the background variables along with the year of study were added in the adjusted model to
see whether these factors have any effect on the association between gambling and immi-
grant background status. Finally, separate models were conducted for youth by origin to see
whether the risk and protective factors were similar or different in separate groups. Inter-
action terms of origin and each background variable were then calculated to assess the
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statistical significance of possible between-group differences. The SAS enterprise guide 8.3
was used in all the analysis (SAS/STAT®, 2011).
Results
Table 2 shows that regardless of origin, boys gambled more than girls. Foreign-born
youth gambled remarkably more often than their peers born in Finland. Similar patterns
by origin were also observed with respect to all types of substance use (alcohol, tobacco,
and illegal drugs). Compared to their peers, foreign-born youth were also less active in
sports, perceived their health worse, had fewer close friends and were less likely to discuss
their problems with their parents. On the other hand, foreign-born boys had higher life
satisfaction than their peers, while the opposite was true among girls. Foreign-born boys
perceived their family’s financial situation as good less often than boys in the other study
groups, while the variation among girls was less consistent.
Table3 shows a gradient in gambling by origin, with the lowest probability to gamble
being among youth with Finnish-born parents and the highest among foreign-born
youth. After adjusting for the year of data collection and all the independent variables,
foreign-born youth had over five-fold probability for weekly gambling compared to
youth with Finnish-born parents (AOR = 5.32, 95% Cl 4,91–5,76). Also, youth from
mixed families had higher probability (AOR = 1.26, 95% Cl 1.16–1.38) as well as
migrant-origin youth (AOR = 2.09, 95% Cl 1.82–2.40). All of the studied independent
variables were statistically significantly associated with weekly gambling following
adjustment, except for weekly sports activity.
Table 1 Characteristics of the participants by data collection year
1 HED, heavy episodic drinking
%, 2017 (N = 68 992) %, 2019 (N = 82875) %, 2021 (N = 87 072)
Weekly gambling 6.7% 4.4% 3.9%
Boy 48.1% 48.1% 47.7%
Girl 51.9% 51.9% 52.3%
Both parents Finnish-born 86.8% 86.8% 86.0%
Mixed families 7.4% 7.5% 7.6%
Migrant origin, born in Finland 2.0% 2.2% 2.5%
Foreign-born 3.9% 3.6% 3.9%
Monthly HED 19.7% 9.0% 8.6%
Daily smoking 6.4% 5.2% 5.0%
Lifetime drug use 7.4% 8.4% 7.7%
Active in sports 76.7% 71.9% 72.3%
Likes school 60.7% 60.8% 58.4%
Satisfied with life 71.9% 69.6% 75.8%
Good health 81.4% 79.2% 74.3%
Has close friends 91.8% 91.2% 90.8%
Can talk with parents 92.3% 93.6% 92.2%
Good financial situation 68.0% 74.7% 74.3%
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Table4 shows that girls had a statistically significantly lower probability for weekly
gambling in all origin groups. The statistically significant interaction between sex and
weekly gambling (P < 0.0001) showed a somewhat stronger association among youth
with Finnish-born parents compared to the other study groups. Also, monthly HED and
lifetime drug use were positively associated with gambling in all origin groups. The
significant interaction of HED and lifetime drug use with weekly gambling showed a
stronger association among foreign-born youth compared to youth with Finnish-born
parents (HED P = 0.0058; drug use P < 0.0001). Daily smoking was positively associ-
ated with weekly gambling in all groups and no significant interaction was found.
Weekly sports activity was positively associated with weekly gambling among youth
with Finnish-born parents, while the association with sports activity was negative
among foreign-born youth. The statistically significant interaction showed that these
groups differed with respect to this association (P = 0.0078).
Liking school, having close friends and communication with parents decreased the
likelihood of weekly gambling in all origin groups but the interaction analysis showed
that the effect of friends and parents was stronger among migrant origin youth. The
effect of liking school was similar in all groups.
Satisfaction with life increased the likelihood of weekly gambling similarly in all groups
while perception of good health was not associated with gambling in any of the groups.
Table 2 Characteristics of the study population by origin and sex: results from 2017–2021
1 HED, heavy episodic drinking
Both parents Finnish-
born
Mixed family Migrant origin,
born in Finland
Foreign-born
Boys, % Girls, % Boys, % Girls, % Boys, % Girls, % Boys, % Girls, %
N = 98876 N = 107854 N = 8080 N = 9777 N = 2445 N = 2856 N = 5165 N = 9051
Weekly
gambling
7.0 0.8 9.0 1.6 14.9 3.4 39.0 13.1
Monthly HED18.6 8.2 9.9 9.9 10.8 5.4 30.3 14.1
Daily smoking 5.3 4.6 5.4 6.1 7.0 4.0 24.1 11.7
Lifetime drug
use
7.4 5.8 12.1 10.1 14.7 8.8 36.9 17.5
Weekly sports
activity
74.7 74.6 72.8 70.6 69.6 58.1 58.9 51.7
Likes school 61.0 59.2 61.0 56.2 67.0 63.1 54.1 59.8
Satisfied with
life
60.6 83.4 64.2 84.8 56.2 75.6 62.9 76.4
Good health 85.9 72.3 82.0 66.3 84.0 69.3 75.2 66.7
Has close
friends
90.3 93.6 87.7 92.0 85.9 89.8 72.6 82.8
Can talk with
parents
96.0 91.2 93.8 89.0 91.2 88.0 76.2 83.7
Good financial
situation
77.7 69.5 72.5 64.4 74.2 70.5 63.0 66.4
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Finally, poor financial circumstances were not associated with gambling in any of the
migrant-origin groups, but good financial circumstances increased the probability of gam-
bling among youth with Finnish-born parents.
Discussion
The present study examined the association of origin with weekly gambling, and
furthermore, the association of other known risk factors (substance use, sports activity,
school orientation, general health, life satisfaction and peer and family related factors) with
gambling behavior in different origin groups.
According to our findings, foreign-born, migrant-origin and youth from mixed fami-
lies were more likely to gamble weekly compared to youth with Finnish-born parents.
Table 3 The associations of origin and risk and protective factors with weekly gambling, odds ratios (OR)
with 95% confidence intervals (CI)
1 AOR, Adjusted odds ratio (adjusted for year of the data collection and all other independent variables)
OR (95% Cl) AOR1 (95% Cl)
Immigrant background Both parents Finnish-
born
Mixed family
Migrant origin, born in
Finland
Foreign-born
1.00
1.31 (1.22–1.41)
2.44 (2.20–2.70)
9.89 (9.38–10.43)
1.00
1.26 (1.16–1.38)
2.09 (1.82–2.40)
5.32 (4.91–5.76)
Year 2017 (ref)
2019
2021
1.00
0.64 (0.61–0.67)
0.56 (0.53–0.59)
1.00
0.57 (0.54–0.61)
0.51 (0.48–0.54)
Sex Boy (ref)
Girl
1.00
0.14 (0.13–0.15)
1.00
0.13 (0.12–0.13)
Monthly HED No (ref)
Yes
1.00
7.85 (7.53–8.19)
1.00
3.29 (3.09–3.52)
Daily smoking No (ref)
Yes
1.00
7.98 (7.62–8.37)
1.00
2.00 (1.86–2.16)
Lifetime drug use No (ref)
Yes
1.00
8.27 (7.93–8.63)
1.00
2.44 (2.28–2.61)
Weekly sports activity No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.66 (0.63–0.68)
1.00
1.03 (0.97–1.09)
Likes school No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.44 (0.42–0.46)
1.00
0.58 (0.55–0.61)
Good health No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.81 (0.78–0.85)
1.00
1.07 (1.00–1.14)
Has close friends No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.34 (0.32–0.35)
1.00
0.66 (0.62–0.71)
Satisfied with life No (ref)
Yes
1.00
1.68 (1.61–1.78)
1.00
1.59 (1.51–1.68)
Can talk with parents No (ref)
Yes
1.00
3.68 (3.50–3.86)
1.00
0.44 (0.41–0.47)
Good financial situation No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.79 (0.76–0.83)
1.00
1.06 (1.00–1.12)
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Table 4 The association of risk and protective factors with weekly gambling by origin, odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), adjusted for year of data
collection and all other independent variables
Both parents Finnish-born Mixed family Migrant origin, born
in Finland
Foreign-born Interaction Wald
chisq, Pr(chisq)
OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI) OR (95% CI)
Year 2017 (ref)
2019
2021
1.00
0.56 (0.53–0.60)
0.46 (0.43–0.50)
1.00
0.50 (0.41–0.62)
0.61 (0.50–0.74)
1.00
0.51 (0.35–0.74)
0.80 (0.58–1.11)
1.00
0.80 (0.66–0.98)
0.71 (0.59–0.86)
42.81 (P < .0001)
Sex Boy (ref)
Girl
1.00
0.10 (0.09–0.11)
1.00
0.15 (0.12–0.18)
1.00
0.20 (0.14–0.28)
1.00
0.23 (0.19–0.28)
70.70 (P < .0001)
Monthly HED No (ref)
Yes
1.00
3.16 (2.93–3.40)
1.00
2.92 (2.33–3.65)
1.00
4.46 (3.03–6.56)
1.00
4.45 (3.60–5.49)
12.54 (P = 0.0058)
Daily smoking No (ref)
Yes
1.00
1.86 (1.70–2.03)
1.00
2.37 (1.83–3.06)
1.00
1.81 (1.14–2.88)
1.00
2.35 (1.86–2.97)
5.902 (P = 0.1165)
Lifetime drug use No (ref)
Yes
1.00
2.17 (2.00–2.35)
1.00
2.71 (2.18–3.36)
1.00
3.46 (2.41–4.97)
1.00
3.62 (2.98–4.39)
28.78 (P < .0001)
Weekly sports activity No (ref)
Yes
1.00
1.10 (1.03–1.17)
1.00
1.04 (0.86–1.26)
1.00
0.83 (0.62–1.12)
1.00
0.83 (0.70–0.98)
11.87 (P = 0.0078)
Likes school No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.57 (0.53–0.60)
1.00
0.70 (0.58–0.84)
1.00
0.75 (0.55–1.01)
1.00
0.55 (0.46–0.65)
7.67 (P = 0.0533)
Good health No (ref)
Yes
1.00
1.05 (0.97–1.13)
1.00
1.16 (0.93–1.45)
1.00
0.80 (0.56–1.13)
1.00
1.16 (0.95–1.40)
4.06 (P = 0.2547)
Has close friends No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.80 (0.73–0.87)
1.00
0.51 (0.41–0.65)
1.00
0.52 (0.36–0.75)
1.00
0.57 (0.47–0.69)
21.29 (P < .0001)
Satisfied with life No (ref)
Yes
1.00
1.55 (1.46–1.64)
1.00
1.77 (1.47–2.14)
1.00
1.84 (1.32–2.55)
1.00
1.41 (1.18–1.69)
3.94 (P = 0.2685)
Can talk with parents No (ref)
Yes
1.00
0.50 (0.45–0.55)
1.00
0.42 (0.33–0.54)
1.00
0.35 (0.24–0.51)
1.00
0.32 (0.26–0.39)
18.52 (P = 0.0003)
Good financial situation No (ref)
Yes
1.00
1.09 (1.03–1.17)
1.00
1.06 (0.88–1.29)
1.00
1.01 (0.74–1.39)
1.00
0.88 (0.74–1.05)
5.23 (P = 0.1559)
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1914
Journal of Gambling Studies (2024) 40:1905–1919
The likelihood of gambling was particularly high among foreign-born and migrant-origin
youth. The association also remained statistically significant when other known risk and
protective factors for gambling in adolescence were taken into account. The results are in
line with those obtained by Canale etal. (2017), who found that problem gambling was
twice as high among foreign-born compared with non-migrant youth. It has also been
suggested that migrant-origin youth may experience greater adverse outcomes as a result
of gambling, including a higher risk of taking up other addictive and risky behaviors
due to acculturative stress, socio-economic circumstances, as well as access to and avail-
ability of gambling in permissive gambling cultures (Wardle etal., 2019). To continue,
youth from mixed families may be subject to stress associated with an identity conflict.
The integration of two identities and cultural backgrounds may be challenging, whereas
bicultural identity can become a burden in adolescence, in a context where “normality”
and peer identification are the strongest factors (Campisi etal., 2017).
Our study also confirmed previous findings related to gender differences in gam-
bling (e.g., Buja etal., 2022; Claesdotter-Knutsson etal., 2022). Weekly gambling was
significantly more common among boys than girls in all studied youth groups, but the
association was stronger among youth with Finnish-born parents. Weekly gambling was
particularly common among foreign-born boys compared with other groups.
Our results also showed that substance use was associated with weekly gambling and
even more so among foreign-born youth. In addition, having close friends and being
able to talk with parents had a stronger positive association with gambling among
foreign-born youth compared to other peers. Weekly sports activity was positively
associated with weekly gambling among youth with Finnish-origin parents, while the
association with sports activity was negative among foreign-born youth.
A large number of studies confirm that perceived discrimination has negative
effects on ethnic minority adolescents, such as depressive symptoms, suicide ideation,
conduct problems, loneliness, lower levels of school engagement, and poorer academic
achievement (Lemon et al., 2022; Priest et al., 2017; Ingram & Wallace, 2018; Galán
et al., 2021; Assari et al., 2017; Lanier et al., 2016; Okoye & Saewyc, 2021). Perceived
experiences of racism (individual, institutional or racial-ethnic microaggressions) can
also lead to stress and coping challenges (Ingram & Wallace, 2018), which in turn can
lead to addictive behaviors including gambling. Previous gambling studies have shown
that adolescents currently experiencing difficulties with the acculturation process are
more likely to experience gambling problems than those not currently experiencing such
difficulties (Ellenbogen et al., 2007; Jacoby et al., 2013). Experiencing acculturative
stress may lead to personal problems such as relationship difficulties with parents or
in school, which may increase the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors (Campisi
et al., 2017), gambling being one example.
Adolescence is a time when youth begin to seek increased autonomy from parents,
while social influences such as peers become more influential (Conger et al., 1991). During
this developmental period, youth experience considerable social, emotional, physical, and
cognitive changes that have implications for health and well–being over the course of life.
Migrant-origin parents, on the other hand, may feel that their parenting ability is under
serious stress in a new home-country and culture (e.g., Christie & Szorenyi, 2015). This
stress may explain why among foreign-born youth, a good dialogical connection with
the parents did not decrease the probability of weekly gambling, but rather the contrary.
Stereotypical representation and negative qualities associated with migrant origin in
dominant discourse and media may increase the likelihood of migrant-origin boys engaging
in risky behaviors, such as gambling, and decrease their willingness to seek help.
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1915
Journal of Gambling Studies (2024) 40:1905–1919
Finally, contrary to our expectations, we did not find an association between poor
financial situation and gambling in any of the studied groups. In fact, good financial
circumstances increased the risk of gambling among youth with Finnish-born parents.
Although financial problems in the family increase the risk of many kinds of problems in
children’s health and wellbeing (Kääriälä et al., 2020), this does not seem to be the case
regarding gambling, at least in our data on Finnish-origin adolescents. Some other non-
financial motives seem to drive gambling behavior among foreign-born, migrant-origin,
and youth from mixed families.
Strengths andLimitations
This study filled an important gap in research by examining youth gambling behavior
by origin, as well as factors associated with it with the SHP data. The dataset is unique
in that it covers the whole cohort and is representative of 14 to 16-year-old Finnish
schoolchildren. It is worth noting that the data collection in 2021 took place during the
COVID-19 pandemic. It was not possible to consider the effects of the pandemic on youth
gambling in our data. Very little is known about underage online gambling in Finland
during the pandemic (Marionneau et al., 2022). However, there is no indication that
Finnish adolescents would have gambled more online during the closures of electronic
gambling machines placed outside the casinos.
As always with self-reporting data, there is a risk that students consciously or
unconsciously don’t give accurate, honest answers about sensitive topics, such as gambling
or substance use. The direction of these incorrect answers may go both ways, i.e., there
may be over-reporting as well as under-reporting depending on what is socially desired/
accepted in different contexts. However, a validity report on the European School Survey
Project on Alcohol and other Drugs (ESPAD) shows that only a very small minority
(1–2%) do not answer questions honestly that pertain to substance use. (Hibell et al., 2015).
The data collection of the SHP used in this study is very similar to that of ESPAD, so
there is a good reason to assume that these two surveys have captured youth gambling in
a similar and reliable way and that the honesty of answering questions on gambling don’t
differ from that of questions on substance use as these behaviors tend to cluster to same
persons. As the data collection method has been similar in all included study years (2017,
2019 and 2021), the possible bias in responding has remained the same. Still, there is no
reason to assume that the possible response bias to one direction or the other would affect
the associations between the studied phenomena.
While a significant strength of the current study is the possibility to disaggregate the
data by origin, as such information is rarely available in international studies on gambling
among youth, we did not have data available on the specific region of origin or ethnic-
ity of the participants. Thus, it is not possible to take the country of origin-specific habits
and attitudes related to gambling into account, which is a limitation as differences between
countries with regard to gambling certainly exist (ESPAD Group, 2020). It is also possible
that limited knowledge of the Finnish language has caused difficulties in understanding and
answering the questions among migrant-origin respondents. In this study, we also did not
have data on religion, which may be a protective factor for gambling, especially if gam-
bling is considered an immoral activity (Jacoby etal., 2013). To continue, the data didn’t
include detailed information on socioeconomic position or contextual variables such as
experiences of trauma, which might be associated with gambling. These limitations should
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1916
Journal of Gambling Studies (2024) 40:1905–1919
be taken into account in future studies on risk behaviors among youth that focus on survey
respondents’ immigrant status.
Conclusions
Even though gambling has been forbidden for minors in Finland since 2011, a considerable
proportion of youth still gamble. Although non-casino gambling nowadays requires
identification, minors may gamble with someone else’s ID card, their gambling may be
supported by older friends or relatives, or parents let their children play lottery games with
them (Molinaro et al., 2018; Spångberg & Svensson, 2022). Age limits are an important
tool to prevent underage gambling, but their implementation requires additional effort from
the staff of non-casino premises. Youth gambling has not disappeared from Finland, and
thus it is important that youth are continuously informed of the risks related to gambling. It
is also important to continue informing youth of the risk related to substance use as part of
efforts to reduce gambling, as these risky behaviors frequently go hand-in-hand.
Foreign-born boys appear to be especially vulnerable to multiple health and social risks
including gambling, making them a particularly important group for targeted preventive
programs. Gambling should not be seen as a positive pastime, as it is prohibited for minors
due to the harms it may cause. To continue, it should not be seen as a tool to make money or
to vent negative feelings. In addition, preventive efforts are needed to enhance public aware-
ness, boost parental supervision, and limit gambling-related risks, and special attention is
needed to prevent migrant-origin boys from developing problems with gambling.
Funding Open Access funding provided by Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare. The work of JJT at the
Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare was funded by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, Finland,
within the objectives of the § 52 Appropriation of the Lotteries Act.
Data Availability The data of this study are available from the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare
(THL), but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current
study and so are not publicly available. The data are, however, available from the authors upon reasonable
request and with the permission of the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL).
Declarations
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
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1917
Journal of Gambling Studies (2024) 40:1905–1919
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